Final Exam - American Government

Explain Max Weber philosophy on modern bureaucracy........ .should be hierarchy, organize and rational.

A bureaucracy is an organization that is structured hierarchically to carry out specific functions. Generally, bureaucracies are characterized by an organizational chart. Different units of the organization have different functions and expertise. MAX WEBER: The classic model, or Weberian model, of the modern bureaucracy was proposed by the German sociologist Max Weber. He argued that the increasingly complex nature of modern life, coupled with the steadily growing demands placed on governments by their citizens, made the formation of bureaucracies inevitable. According to Weber, most bureaucracies—whether in the public or private sector—are organized HIERARCHICALLY and governed by formal procedures. The power in a bureaucracy flows from the top downward. Decision-making processes in bureaucracies are shaped by detailed technical rules that promote similar decisions in similar situations. OTHER (2): acquisitive model: a model of bureaucracy that views top-level bureaucrats as seeking to expand the size of their budgets and staffs to gain greater power. monopolistic model: a model of bureaucracy that compares bureaucracies to monopolistic business firms. Monopoly can lead to inefficient operations.

Who will be considered a whistleblower? employee that reported mismanagement, corruption, and illegal activity.

A whistleblower is someone who blows the whistle on (brings to public attention) a gross governmental inefficiency or an illegal action. Whistleblowers may be clerical workers, managers, or even specialists, such as scientists.

Presidential Signing Statement. Understand the usage. When and why used by the president?

A written declaration that a president may make when signing a bill into law. Such statements may point out sections of the law that the president deems unconstitutional. Is the president allowed to refuse to enforce certain parts of legislation if he or she believes that they are unconstitutional? This question came to the forefront in recent years because of President George W. Bush's extensive use of signing statements. A signing statement is a written declaration that a president may make when signing a bill into law regarding the law's enforcement. Presidents have been using such statements for decades, but President Bush used 161 statements to invalidate more than one thousand provisions of federal law. No president before Bush used signing statements to make such sweeping claims on behalf of presidential power. Earlier presidents often employed statements to serve notice that parts of bills might be unconstitutional, but they were just as likely to issue statements that were purely rhetorical. For example, statements might praise Congress and the measure it just passed—or denounce the opposition party. During his campaign, Barack Obama criticized Bush's use of signing statements. As president, Obama's statements were more in line with tradition. The same has been true of President Trump.

Read and understand presidential signing statement...its purpose.

A written declaration that a president may make when signing a bill into law. Such statements may point out sections of the law that the president deems unconstitutional; serve notice that parts of bills might be unconstitutional

Prior to Barak Obama most president came from white, protestant males...

Holders of political office still are predominantly white and male and are likely to be from the professional class. All have been male, white, and from the Protestant tradition, except for John F. Kennedy, a Roman Catholic, and Barack Obama, an African American.

Prior to the Civil war the Republican was created from a Party coalition of antislavery Liberty Party members, Free-Soilers, and anti slavery democrats.

In the 1850s, hostility between the North and the South over the issue of slavery divided both parties. The Whigs were the first to split in two. The Whigs had been the party of an active federal government, but white Southerners had come to believe that "a government strong enough to build roads is a government strong enough to free your slaves." The southern Whigs therefore ceased to exist as an organized party. In 1854, the northern Whigs united with antislavery Democrats and members of the radical antislavery Free Soil Party to found the modern Republican Party.

How do you define terrorism...?

Terrorism is a systematic attempt to inspire fear to gain political ends. Typically, terrorism involves the indiscriminate use of violence against noncombatants. We often think of terrorists as nongovernmental agents. A systematic attempt to inspire fear to gain political ends, typically involving the indiscriminate use of violence against noncombatants.

The Cold War was an ideological, political, and economic confrontation between which of the following two powers?

The Cold War was a global conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union, lasting from 1947 to 1991, over which of the two superpowers would hold economic and ideological sway over the world. ... The United States and USSR clashed over their economic and political philosophies.

Read and study the 26th Amendment.....purpose and effective.

The eighteen year old vote. The right of citizens of the United States or 18 years of age or older devote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of age. No one over 18 years old age can be denied the right to vote in federal or state elections by virtue of age.

What chamber is responsible approving Treaty. It takes two third vote from that chamber.

The president has the sole power to negotiate treaties with other nations. These treaties must be presented to the Senate. A two-thirds vote is required in the SENATE for approval, or ratification. After ratification, the president can approve the treaty as adopted by the Senate. Approval poses a problem when the Senate has tacked on substantive amendments or reservations to a treaty, particularly when such changes may require reopening negotiations with the other signatory governments. Sometimes, a president may decide to withdraw a treaty if the senatorial changes are too extensive

Study and know the Fifteenth Amendment....

The right to vote. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. No citizen can be refused the right to vote simply because of race or color or because that person was once a slave.

Read about the vote by mail system...the purpose and intent. How effective it is in increase in voters turn out.

Voting by mail has been accepted for absentee ballots for many decades(individuals who are doing business away from home or for members of the armed forces). Several states have offered mail ballots to all of their voters. The rationale is to make voting easier for voters and increase turnout.

Define the term presidential coat-tail...

When a party has a exceptionally strong presidential or gubernatorial candidate to head the ticket, the use of the party-column ballot increases the coattail effect (the influence of a popular candidate on the success of other candidates on the same party ticket); The tendency for a popular political party leader to attract votes for other candidates of the same party in an election. For example, the party of a victorious presidential candidate will often win many seats in Congress as well; these congressmen are voted into office "on the coattails" of the president.

What is the merit system difference between merit system and the spoil system?

spoils system: the awarding of government jobs to political supporters and friends. merit system: the selection, retention, and promotion of government employees on the basis of competitive examinations.

Who would consider as a split-ticket voter in a presidential election?

those who vote for candidates of two or more parties for different offices, such as voting for a Republican presidential candidate and a Democratic congressional candidate. Split-ticket voting is when a voter in an election votes for candidates from different political parties when multiple offices are being decided by a single election, as opposed to straight-ticket voting, where a voter chooses candidates from the same political party for every office up for election.

What happen if no presidential candidates receive a majority of the electoral votes...?

Thus far, on two occasions the electoral college has failed to give any candidate a majority. At that point, the House of Representatives takes over, and the president is then chosen from among the three candidates having the most electoral college votes; According to the Constitution, if no candidate receives a majority of the electoral votes, the election of the president is decided in the House of Representatives from among the candidates with the three highest numbers of votes, with each state having one vote (decided by a plurality of each state delegation). The selection of the vice president is determined by the Senate in a choice between the two candidates with the most votes, each senator having one vote. The House was required to choose the president in 1801 (Thomas Jefferson) and again in 1825 (John Quincy Adams).

What is a legislator's constituent...describe how they represent their constituents?

constituents: a person represented by a legislator or other elected or appointed official. In democratic societies, legislators are expected to represent citizens' interests. Legislators represent diversity, and are responsible for ensuring that the diverse interests in a country, whether based on political beliefs, religion, geographic locality, ethnicity, or other characteristics, are represented and accounted for in government decision-making. When carried out effectively, constituent relations can help legislators successfully fulfill their representation roles, as well as provide information that can help them better execute their oversight and lawmaking roles. The need to conduct constituent relations is based on the principle of public service. Constituents are citizens whom a legislator has been elected to represent. Part of a legislator's job in a democracy is to serve these constituents by representing their interests in the legislature and by providing a direct link to government. Citizens expect to have contact with their elected representative and recognize them as someone who can solve their problems and help him/her navigate the complex government bureaucracy. The practice of constituent relations involves communicating with constituents, learning about their concerns and, as possible and where appropriate, helping to solve their problems. It encompasses a broad range of activities that can be adapted to fit a legislator's budget, time and level of experience. Everything from conducting public forums and issuing newsletters, to visiting with a constituent during a trip to the local market or café, to intervening on behalf of a constituent before a local government agency, a good word all represent effective constituent relations strategy. The specific methods a legislator uses will depend on a variety of factors described later in this section, but all legislators can engage constituents on some level. Listening directly to constituent issues can lead to positive results, both for legislators and for their constituents. One legislator in Indonesia said the following when asked about her experiences listening to constituents: "I [now know] the importance of listening more than speaking to my constituents. It can help me to communicate better with my supporters and explore their problems more deeply and specifically. Just by listening to someone recently, I have a better understanding of one specific problem facing traditional craft makers in my district. They told me about a specific problem with access to capital for marketing of their traditional products and I was able to categorize this problem and report it to the relevant commission in parliament." Represent is defined as to express in words, symbolize or stand for.

A federal employee who was appointed by the president with the explicit task of carrying out the president's political and partisan agenda would be known as which of the following....

political appointee

Name and identify the four important functions of America's major political parties...

-Recruiting candidates for public office. -Organizing and running elections. -Presenting alternative policies to the electorate. -Accepting responsibility for operating the government. -Acting as the organization opposition to the party in power. - The major functions of American political parties are carried out by a small relatively loose-knit nucleus of party activist. They concentrate on winning elections rather than on signing up large numbers of deeply committed, dues paying members who believe passionately in the party's program.

What is the purpose of the select committee...? the reason they are form. Are they temporary or permanent?

A committee established by the Senate for a limited time period to perform a particular study or investigation. These committees might be given or denied authority to report legislation to the Senate. In principle, a select committee is created for a limited time and for a specific legislative purpose. For example, a select committee may be formed to investigate a public problem, such as child nutrition or aging. In practice, a select committee, such as the Select Committee on Intelligence in each chamber, may continue indefinitely. Select committees rarely create original legislation. Select: temporary, specific legislative purpose. Standing: permanent, specific responsibilities spelled out in the Senate's official rules. The four types of committees in Congress are standing, select, joint, and conference. Standing committees are permanent committees that are generally more powerful than other types of committees. Select committees are those created for a specific purpose, generally to investigate a particular problem, and are therefore temporary. Joint committees are permanent committees composed of members from both the House and Senate; they generally serve as an advisory board to other congressional committees, particularly on tax matters, but posses little real power beyond their recommendations. Conference committees are ad hoc (temporary) committees drawn from both chambers that meet to work out a compromise agreement on a bill, or proposed law, that has emerged from both houses in different forms.

Define the Sunshine Act....Government business should be conducted in open public sessions.

A law that requires all committee-directed federal agencies to conduct their business regularly in public session. In 1976, Congress enacted the Government in the Sunshine Act. It required for the first time that all multiheaded federal agencies—agencies headed by a committee instead of an individual—hold their meetings regularly in public session. The bill defined meetings as almost any gathering, formal or informal, of agency members, including a conference telephone call. The only exceptions to this rule of openness are discussions of matters such as court proceedings or personnel problems, and these exceptions are specifically listed in the bill. Sunshine laws now exist at all levels of government. An Act to provide that meetings of Government agencies shall be open to the public, and for other purposes.

Read and study the three components of foreign policy, what is economic aid?

A nation's external goals and the techniques and strategies used to achieve them. both the goals the government wants to achieve in the world and the techniques and strategies used to achieve them. These techniques and strategies include diplomacy, economic aid, and military intervention. Diplomacy: The process by which nations carry on political relations with one another and resolve conflicts by peaceful means; negotiation, discussion. Economic Aid: Assistance to other nations in the form of grants, loans, or credits to buy the assisting nation's products; military aid is military equipment and technology; economic aid is money. Military Intervention: Military force, threat of military force, troops, forces.

What is the primary goal of US political party...

A political party might be formally defined as a group of political activist who organize to win elections, operate the government, and determine public policy. Political parties are thus different from interest groups, which seek to influence, not run, the government; getting the party's candidates elected to office by winning elections; basic purpose of political parties is to nominate candidates for public office and to get as many of them elected as possible.

A political party policies, positions and principles presented at the convention and going forward is called a Platform.

A political party platform or program is a formal set of principal goals which are supported by a political party or individual candidate, in order to appeal to the general public, for the ultimate purpose of garnering the general public's support and votes about complicated topics or issues. Political party is a group of political activist who organize to win elections, operate the government, and determine public policy.

Study the requirements/requisites to be president...qualifications...

According to Article II of the U.S. Constitution, the president must be a natural-born citizen of the United States, be at least 35 years old, and have been a resident of the United States for 14 years. No person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. The president must be a natural-born citizen, be at least thirty-five years of age when taking office, and have been a resident within the United States for at least fourteen years.

What are the characteristics frequently associated with nonvoters...? low voters, age, income, and millennials.

Age, educational attainment, income level, minority status, ideology; low education, low income, fairly young.

Bills having to do with taxes and revenue must originate in the House of Representation...

Article I, Section 7, Clause 1: All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills.

Fourteenth Amendment

Citizenship, Due Process, and Equal Protection of the laws. All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject or the jurisdiction therefore or citizens of the United States end of the state where in they reside. No State show maker in force any law which show abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States north shall any State deprive any person of life liberty or property without due process of law nor deny to any person without its share of jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Under this provision states cannot make or enforce laws to take away rights given to all citizens by the federal government. States cannot act unfairly or or arbitrarily or discriminate against any person.

What is a continuous resolution.........having to do with budgets?

Continuing resolution/continuing appropriations - Legislation in the form of a joint resolution enacted by Congress, when the new fiscal year is about to begin or has begun, to provide budget authority for Federal agencies and programs to continue in operation until the regular appropriations acts are enacted. The first budget resolution by Congress is due each May. It sets overall revenue goals and spending targets. Spending and tax laws that are drawn up over the summer are supposed to be guided by the first budget resolution. By September, Congress is scheduled to pass its second budget resolution, one that will set binding limits on taxes and spending for the fiscal year beginning October 1. The Continuing Resolution: A temporary funding law that Congress passes when an appropriations bill has not been decided by the beginning of the new fiscal year on October 1. In actuality, Congress has finished the budget on time in only three years since 1977. The budget is usually broken into a series of appropriations bills. If Congress has not passed one of these bills by October 1, it normally passes a continuing resolution that allows the affected agencies to keep on doing whatever they were doing the previous year with the same amount of funding. The United States government operates on a budget calendar that runs from October 1 through September 30. Each year, Congress must appropriate a specific amount of money to each department, agency, and program to provide funding for operations, personnel, equipment, and activities.[1] Traditionally, the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate agree together on a budget resolution in the spring that is then used to determine spending limits for twelve regular appropriations bills. The twelve appropriations bills then appropriate the funding for the federal government to use for the next budgetary year. The appropriations bills must be signed into the law by the President, although the budget resolution itself is not subject to his or her approval.

Look at the number of electoral college electors per state and how they proportion........in terms of the senate and the house.

Electors are selected during each presidential election year. The selection is governed by state laws. After the national party convention, the electors are pledged to the candidates chosen. Each state's number of electors equals that state's number of senators (two) plus its number of representatives. The total number of electors today is 538, equal to 100 senators, 435 members of the House, and 3 electors for the District of Columbia. (The Twenty-third Amendment, ratified in 1961, added electors for the District of Columbia.)

Know the first four presidential succession....from vice president to...

If something happens to the President: Vice President Speaker of the House of Representatives. Senate President Pro Tempore Secretary of State

Study the second Gulf war of 2003...what follows. Outcome and occupation.

Iraq War, also called Second Persian Gulf War Iraq The 2003 invasion of Iraq was the first stage of the Iraq War. The invasion phase began on 19 March 2003 (air) and 20 March 2003 (ground) and lasted just over one month,[24] including 26 days of major combat operations, in which a combined force of troops from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Poland invaded Iraq. This early stage of the war formally ended on 1 May 2003 when U.S. President George W. Bush declared the "end of major combat operations", after which the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) was established as the first of several successive transitional governments leading up to the first Iraqi parliamentary election in January 2005. U.S. military forces later remained in Iraq until the withdrawal in 2011. The Iraq War was a protracted armed conflict that began in 2003 with the invasion of Iraq by a United States-led coalition that overthrew the government of Saddam Hussein. The conflict continued for much of the next decade as an insurgency emerged to oppose the occupying forces and the post-invasion Iraqi government. On March 20, 2003, a coalition of countries, principally the United States and Great Britain, invaded Iraq, contending that the Iraqi government, headed by Saddam Hussein, had developed or was in the process of developing chemical weapons and weapons of mass destruction. response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait arising from oil pricing and production disputes.

From the 1930s to the 1960s one major political party created an environment for major political re-alignment. What political party?

One mechanism by which a party might gain dominance is realignment. In this process, major constituencies shift their allegiance from one party to another, creating a long-term alteration in the political environment. Realignment has often been associated with particular elections, called realigning elections. The election of 1896, which established a Republican ascendancy, was clearly a realigning election. So was the election of 1932, which made the Democrats the leading party.

Study the passage of major civil rights legislation in the 1960s. As it contributed to an increase in the number of African American public officials.

Page 122 The Voting Rights Act of 1965 transformed patterns of political power in the South. By the middle of 1966, over half a million Southern blacks had registered to vote, and by 1968, almost four hundred black people had been elected to office. The civil rights movement was a struggle for social justice that took place mainly during the 1950s and 1960s for Black Americans to gain equal rights under the law in the United States. The Civil War had officially abolished slavery, but it didn't end discrimination against Black people—they continued to endure the devastating effects of racism, especially in the South. By the mid-20th century, Black Americans had had more than enough of prejudice and violence against them. They, along with many white Americans, mobilized and began an unprecedented fight for equality that spanned two decades. The Civil Rights Act of 1964, the most far-reaching bill on civil rights in modern times, banned discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, gender, or national origin. The major provisions of the act were as follows: It outlawed arbitrary discrimination in voter registration. It barred discrimination in public accommodations, such as hotels and restaurants, which have operations that affect interstate commerce. It authorized the federal government to sue to desegregate public schools and facilities. It expanded the power of the Civil Rights Commission, which had been created in 1957, and extended its life. It provided for the withholding of federal funds from programs administered in a discriminatory manner. It established the right to equality of opportunity in employment. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 is the cornerstone of employment-discrimination law. It prohibits discrimination in employment based on race, color, religion, gender, or national origin. Under Title VII, executive orders were issued that banned employment discrimination by firms that received federal funding. The 1964 Civil Rights Act created the the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to administer Title VII. It was not until 1972, however, that Congress gave the EEOC the right to sue employers, unions, and employment agencies. Litigation then became an important agency activity. Before the Civil War, African American slavery was protected by the Constitution. Constitutional amendments after the Civil War ended slavery, and African Americans gained citizenship, the right to vote, and other rights. This protection was largely a dead letter by the 1880s, however. Segregation was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954), in which the Court stated that separation implied inferiority. In 1955, the modern civil rights movement began. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned discrimination on the basis of race, religion, gender, or national origin in employment and public accommodations. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 outlawed discriminatory voter-registration tests and authorized federal voter registration. Learning Outcome 2 Civil rights are protected by the due process and equal protection clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The courts have developed a series of tests to use when considering cases of possible discrimination. Strict scrutiny applies to classifications such as race, religion, and national origin. Intermediate, or exacting, scrutiny is employed in cases involving women's rights. Rational basis review, used when strict or exacting scrutiny does not apply, is the easiest test to meet. Affirmative action programs have been controversial because they may lead to reverse discrimination against majority groups or even other minority groups. Supreme Court decisions have limited affirmative action programs, and several states now ban state-sponsored affirmative action.

Study and know the patronage system. The intent and purpose.

Patronage was the rewarding of the party faithful with government jobs or contracts-held the local organization together. For immigrants and the poor, the political machine often furnished important services and protections. Also it's rewarding faithful party workers and followers with government employment and contracts.

Read and know about the first Gulf war in 1990​ reason and outcome.

Persian Gulf War, First Gulf War The First Persian Gulf War, also known as the Gulf War, Jan. -Feb., 1991, was an armed conflict between Iraq and a coalition of 39 nations including the United States, Britain, Egypt, France, and Saudi Arabia; 28 nations contributed troops. It was a result of Iraq's invasion of Kuwait on Aug. The Gulf War was the result of the aggression of Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein, who tried to take over Kuwait in August 1990. As a response, the UN Security Council and NATO forces marshaled together a military coalition, led primarily by the United States. Iraqi president Saddam Hussein ordered the invasion and occupation of neighboring Kuwait in early August 1990. Alarmed by these actions, fellow Arab powers such as Saudi Arabia and Egypt called on the United States and other Western nations to intervene. Hussein defied United Nations Security Council demands to withdraw from Kuwait by mid-January 1991, and the Persian Gulf War began with a massive U.S.-led air offensive known as Operation Desert Storm. After 42 days of relentless attacks by the allied coalition in the air and on the ground, U.S. President George H.W. Bush declared a cease-fire on February 28; by that time, most Iraqi forces in Kuwait had either surrendered or fled. Though the Persian Gulf War was initially considered an unqualified success for the international coalition, simmering conflict in the troubled region led to a second Gulf War-known as the Iraq War-that began in 2003. The Gulf War (2 August 1990 - 28 February 1991) was a war waged by coalition forces from 35 nations led by the United States against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait arising from oil pricing and production disputes. Though the Gulf War was recognized as a decisive victory for the coalition, Kuwait and Iraq suffered enormous damage, and Saddam Hussein was not forced from power. In all, an estimated 8,000 to 10,000 Iraqi forces were killed, in comparison with only 300 coalition troops. Though the Gulf War was recognized as a decisive victory for the coalition, Kuwait and Iraq suffered enormous damage, and Saddam Hussein was not forced from power.

Define Enumerated Powers as granted to the National government...

Powers specifically granted to the national government by the Constitution. The first seventeen clauses of Article I, Section 8, specify most of the enumerated powers of the national government. These enumerated powers, also called expressed powers, include coining money, setting standards for weights and measures, making uniform naturalization laws, admitting new states, establishing post offices and post roads, and declaring war. Another important enumerated power is the power to regulate commerce among the states. The enumerated, or expressed, powers of Congress include the right to----- Impose a variety of taxes, including tariffs on imports. Borrow funds. Regulate interstate commerce and international trade. Establish procedures for naturalizing citizens. Make laws regulating bankruptcies. Coin (and print) currency, and regulate its value. Establish standards of weights and measures. Punish counterfeiters. Establish post offices and post roads. Regulate copyrights and patents. Establish the federal court system. Punish illegal acts on the high seas. Declare war. Raise and regulate an army and a navy. Call up and regulate the state militias to enforce laws, to suppress insurrections, and to repel invasions. Govern the District of Columbia... The most important of the domestic powers of Congress, listed in Article I, Section 8, are the rights to impose taxes, to spend, and to regulate commerce. The most important foreign policy power is the power to declare war. Other sections of the Constitution allow Congress to establish rules for its own members, to regulate congressional elections, and to override a presidential veto. Congress may also regulate the extent of the Supreme Court's authority to review cases decided by the lower courts, regulate relations among states, and propose amendments to the Constitution.

Thirteenth Amendment

Prohibition of Slavery. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Some slaves have been freed during the Civil War. This amendment freed the others and abolished slavery.

When voters adjust their long-term allegiance from one party to another due to ideological changes.

Realignment: A process in which a substantial group of voters switches party allegiance, producing a long-term change in the political landscape. Party might main dominance. Shift their allegiance from one party to another, creating a long term altercation in the political government; political realignment.

Evangelical voters living in rural areas mostly support which of the two major political parties.

Republican.

Know the difference between presidential pardon and reprieve...

Section 2 of Article II of the Constitution gives the president the power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States except in cases of impeachment. All pardons are administered by the Office of the Pardon Attorney in the Department of Justice. reprieves: A formal postponement of the execution of a sentence imposed by a court of law; President gets rid of punishment, but still a criminal. pardons: A release from the punishment for, or legal consequences of, a crime. A pardon can be granted by the president before or after a conviction. Wipe out all, including the crime and punishment. Pardon - A pardon is a complete forgiveness and restores full rights of citizenship. Normally, those who have been convicted of a crime forfeit certain rights, such as to serve in certain roles, and to hold public office or vote in an election. But a pardon restores those rights. Those pardoned can apply to be expunged, and be able to say that you were not convicted of a crime. Reprieve - A reprieve is a delay or temporary suspension of punishment. Typically, reprieves are granted for very specific and unusual circumstances, such as illness or family emergency.

Read and study all you can on the works and process of the Electoral College...

Some people who vote for the president and vice president think that they are voting directly for a candidate. In actuality, they are voting for electors who will cast their ballots in the electoral college. Article II, Section 1, of the Constitution outlines in detail the method of choosing electors for president and vice president. The framers of the Constitution did not want the president and vice president to be selected by the "excitable masses." Rather, they wished the choice to be made by a few supposedly dispassionate, reasonable men (but not women). In early November, Americans go to the polls to elect a President and a Vice President who will serve for the next four years. But the voters won't be casting their lots for Barack Obama or Mitt Romney. They will be voting for "electors," individuals pledged to vote for Obama or Romney in what has become known as the Electoral College. Electors were created by our Founding Fathers as part of Article II of the Constitution (and amended by the 12th Amendment). The founders didn't want direct election of the President and Vice President because they felt the voters in the early days of the nation would not know enough about all the candidates to make wise decisions. The Electoral College is administered by the Office of the Federal Register, which is part of the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). Here's how the Electoral College works. In the fall, in each state, each party on the ballot chooses persons to be electors pledged to vote for particular candidates when the electors meet in mid-December. So when you vote for Romney or Obama, you're actually voting for electors pledged for vote for one of them during December meeting of the electors. On the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November, voters go to the polls around the country and cast their ballots for President and Vice President. Although they might check Obama or Romney, they are actually voting for a slate of electors. After the election, each state sends "Certificates of Ascertainment" to the Office of the Federal Register. The certificates bear the names of the electors pledged to vote for the winner of the popular vote. NARA staff review these to make sure they meet legal requirements. These individuals will cast their state's electoral votes in mid-December. In mid-December, the electors in each state gather in the state capitol and cast their votes. After casting their votes, they prepare "Certificates of Vote." These certificates, along with the Certificates of Ascertainment, are sent to the Secretary of the Senate, the Office of the Federal Register at the National Archives, and other federal and state officials. The Senate's copies remained sealed, but at the Federal Register, staff inspect them to make sure they have been completed correctly. The Office of the Federal Registermust also track down electoral votes that come in late to ensure that they are in by the time Congress meets to count the votes. On occasion, Federal Register staff have had to ask the state police to track down a governor or crawl through piles of undelivered mail to find some votes gone astray. On January 6, the votes are officially opened and counted in a joint session of Congress in the House of Representatives with the Vice President presiding. A candidate must receive 270 of the 538 electoral votes to become President or Vice President. If a candidate for President fails to receive 270 votes, the House itself will choose the President from among the three individuals who received the most electoral votes. In this process, each state receives one vote, and it's up to the House members from that state to decide how to cast it. The election has gone to the House twice, in 1801 and 1825. If no one receives 270 votes for Vice President, the Senate will choose from among the top two vote-getters for Vice President. If a presidential candidate didn't receive 270 votes, the person selected by the Senate as Vice President will serve as President until the House chooses a President. The Senate has elected the Vice President once, in 1837. If no one receives 270 votes and neither the House nor the Senate elect a President and Vice President, the Speaker of the House, who is next in the line of succession, becomes Acting President on January 20 until the House elects a President. Choosing Electors from Each State. Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress; but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. The "Electors" are known more commonly as the "electoral college." The president is elected by electors—that is, representatives chosen by the people—rather than by the people directly. The Former System of Elections. [The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greater Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President.] The original method of selecting the president and vice president was replaced by the Twelfth Amendment. Apparently, the framers did not anticipate the rise of political parties and the development of primaries and conventions.

Explain the Cold War...countries involved and the reasons.

The Cold War was the tense relationship between the United States (and its allies), and the Soviet Union (the USSR and its allies) between the end of World War II and the fall of the Soviet Union. It is called the "Cold" War because the US and the USSR never actually fought each other directly. Historians have identified several causes that led to the outbreak of the Cold War, including: tensions between the two nations at the end of World War II, the ideological conflict between both the United States and the Soviet Union, the emergence of nuclear weapons, and the fear of communism in the United States. The major differences were that the Soviet Union was a communist country, which was ruled by a dictator who put the needs of the state ahead of personal human rights, whereas the U.S.A. was a capitalist democracy, which valued personal freedom and feared communism. This signalled the start of the Cold War. Ideology: The United States and the Soviet Union represented two opposing systems of government. Economic: The United States wanted to encourage free trade throughout the world. The Soviets, however, wanted to close themselves off from the world and international trade and solely benefit from its resources. These differences led to resentment between the United States and the Soviet Union. Power Rivalry: After the decline of Europe following the Second World War, power was largely shared between the Soviet Union and the United States as they were considered the newly formed superpowers. They wanted to dominate each other and spread their ideologies.

Describe the duties of the Vice President.....as it relates to the senate.

The Constitution does not give much power to the vice president. The only formal duty is to preside over the Senate—which is rarely necessary. This obligation is fulfilled when the Senate organizes and adopts its rules and also when the vice president is needed to decide a tie vote. The Constitution does not give much power to the vice president. The only formal duty is to preside over the Senate—which is rarely necessary. This obligation is fulfilled when the Senate organizes and adopts its rules and also when the vice president is needed to decide a tie vote. The Constitution does not give much power to the vice president. The only formal duty is to preside over the Senate—which is rarely necessary. This obligation is fulfilled when the Senate organizes and adopts its rules and also when the vice president is needed to decide a tie vote. The vice president is the constitutional officer assigned to preside over the Senate and to assume the presidency in the event of the death, resignation, removal, or disability of the president. The Twenty-fifth Amendment, passed in 1967, established procedures to be followed in case of presidential incapacity, death, or resignation and when filling a vacant vice presidency. Strengthening the ticket, supporting the president, presidential succession, when the president becomes incapacitated. Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of Congress.

Study and define a Bicameral System of government....the Virginia Plan and the Jersey Plan: The compromise from both plans.

The Virginia Plan Randolph's fifteen resolutions proposed an entirely new national government under a constitution. Basically, it called for the following: A bicameral (two-chamber) legislature, with the lower chamber chosen by the people and the smaller upper chamber chosen by the lower chamber from nominees selected by state legislatures. The number of representatives would be proportional to a state's population, thus favoring the large states. The legislature could void any state laws. The creation of an unspecified national executive, elected by the legislature. The creation of a national judiciary, appointed by the legislature. It did not take long for the smaller states to realize they would fare poorly under the Virginia Plan, which would enable Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia to form a majority in the national legislature. The debate on the plan dragged on for a number of weeks. It was time for the small states to come up with their own plan. The New Jersey Plan On June 15, William Paterson of New Jersey offered an alternative plan. He proposed the following: The fundamental principle of the Articles of Confederation—one state, one vote—would be retained. Congress would be able to regulate trade and impose taxes. All acts of Congress would be the supreme law of the land. Several people would be elected by Congress to form an executive office. The executive office would appoint a Supreme Court. Basically, the New Jersey Plan was simply an amendment of the Articles of Confederation. Its only notable feature was its reference to the supremacy doctrine, which was later included in the Constitution. Page 41-42

What is the role of the commander and Chief...the president is the ultimate decision maker of the military?

The role of the president as supreme commander of the military forces of the United States and of the state National Guard units when they are called into federal service. The president is the ultimate decision maker in military matters. Everywhere the president goes, so too goes the "football"—a briefcase filled with all of the codes necessary to order a nuclear attack. Only the president has the power to order the use of nuclear force. As commander in chief, the president exercises more authority than in any other role. Constitutionally, Congress has the sole power to declare war, but the president can send the armed forces into situations that are certainly the equivalent of war. Harry Truman dispatched troops to Korea in 1950. Johnson and Nixon waged an undeclared war in Southeast Asia, where more than 58,000 Americans were killed and 300,000 were wounded. In neither of these situations had Congress declared war. Wartime powers, power over the national guard, the war powers of resolution. Commander in Chief. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. The armed forces are placed under civilian control because the president is a civilian but still commander in chief of the military. The president may ask for the help of the head of each of the executive departments (thereby creating the cabinet). The cabinet members are chosen by the president with the consent of the Senate, but they can be removed without Senate approval.

Define and understand filibuster.......used by what branch of government, and how.

The use of the Senate's tradition of unlimited debate as a delaying tactic to block a bill. A filibuster is a political strategy in which a senator speaks—or threatens to speak—for hours on end to delay efforts to vote for a bill. The unusual tactic takes advantage of a U.S. Senate rule that says a senator, once recognized on the floor, may speak on an issue without being impeded by anyone. While various rule changes have tempered the filibuster's power over the past century, it still offers unique leverage to the minority political party in the Senate. The term filibuster originated from the 18th-century word "flibustier," which referred to pirates who pillaged the Spanish colonies in the West Indies, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. By the mid-1800s the term had evolved to filibuster and taken on political meaning, describing the process by which long-winded senators hold the legislative body hostage by their verbiage. Filibuster is a tactic used in the United States Senate to prevent a measure from being brought to a vote by means of obstruction. The most common form occurs when one or more senators attempt to delay or block a vote on a bill by extending debate on the measure.

Study and know a winner take all or a plurality system in America's election.

The winner-take-all electoral system: at almost every level of government in the United States, the outcome of elections is based on the plurality, winner-take-all principle. In a plurality system, the winner is the person who obtains the most votes, even if that person does not receive a majority (more than 50 percent) of the votes. Whoever gets the most votes gets everything. Also if a presidential candidate wins a plurality in the state, then all of the states electoral votes go to that candidate (unit rule/all but Maine and Nebraska).

Look at the 19th Amendment....and the relevance to women suffrage of 1920

Womens right to vote. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on the account of sex. Women were given the right to vote by this amendment, and Congress was given the power to enforce this right.

What is moral idealism and political realism...

moral idealism: a philosophy that sees nations as normally willing to cooperate and agree on moral standards for conduct; This philosophy views the world as fundamentally benign and assumes that most nations can be persuaded to take moral considerations into account when setting their policies. In this perspective, nations should come together and agree to keep the peace. (opposite)political realism: a philosophy that sees each nation acting principally in its own interests;Realists see the world as a dangerous place in which each nation strives for its own survival and interests, regardless of moral considerations. The United States must therefore base its foreign policy decisions on cold calculations without regard to morality. Realists believe that other nations are, by definition, dangerous. A strong defense will show the world that the United States is willing to protect its interests.

Explain privatization and contracts... why some administration privatized part of the federal government.

private/privatization (also known as denationalization or disinvestment) is the process of transferring property from public ownership to private ownership and/or transferring the management of a service or activity from the government to the private sector. Privatization can be partial or complete; Privatization describes the process by which a piece of property or business goes from being owned by the government to being privately owned. It generally helps governments save money and increase efficiency, where private companies can move goods quicker and more efficiently. Contract means any prime contract, subcontract, letter contract, purchase order or delivery order executed or submitted to or on behalf of any Governmental Body or any prime contractor or higher-tier subcontractor, or under which any Governmental Body or any such prime contractor or subcontractor otherwise has or may acquire any right or interest. Privatization means allowing profit-making corporations to take over the duties that have traditionally been performed by public agencies. Usually, this means that government will contract out work to private companies that previously was performed by public employees. Privatization means allowing profit-making corporations to take over the duties that have traditionally been performed by public agencies. Usually, this means that government will contract out work to private companies that previously was performed by public employees. The trend stems from the common belief that private companies can help governments save or make money by doing jobs quicker and cheaper, or managing a public asset more efficiently. This is called privatization. In theory, the idea of contracting public services to private companies to cut costs makes sense. If someone is willing to fix streets or maintain sewers for less money, that should be a plus for a government's bottom line. Presidents have frequently invoked executive privilege to avoid having to disclose information to Congress about actions of the executive branch; watergate, nixon.