GEO exam 1 Questions

24. In mountainous areas, wildfires increase the likelihood of occurrence for what other natural hazard?

Mudslides

23.Wind flowing into a hurricane transfers sensible heat from the ocean water to the air, causing what to rise?

This in-flowing air picks up sensible heat from the warm ocean water increasing its temperature. Air ascends in the eyewall

27.What is the difference in tropical-cyclone circulation between the northern and southern hemisphere?

This inward flow leads to a counterclockwise circulation in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern hemisphere.

41. What role does Latent Heat play in the growth of Thunderstorms?

This release of latent (stored) heat during the condensation of water vapor is an important energy, source driving further growth of Thunderstorms & Hurricanes.

37. How does the density of dry air change with temperature?

With increase in temperature, number of molecules per unit volume of gas decreases; gas density decreases Density of a gas depends on the number of molecules per unit volume.

13. What is the consistent difference in fuel moisture of wildfires started by humans versus lightening?

human -started wildfires disproportionally occurred where fuel moisture was higher than lightning - started fires. Higher moisture content in fuel = longer ignition times → difficult for fire to take off Risk of wildfire disasters is increasing because our exposure is increasing.

5. What is the 'point of combustion'?

in the fire reaction, plant material is heated above its point of combution and oxygen begins combining rapidly with the organic material Local temperature woody material needs to be at for fires to develop The hotter it is the closer it is to the PoC

19.What is the 'eye' and 'eyewall' of a hurricane?

Eyewall- eye-encircling ring of tall thunderstorms typically have highest wind speds and heaviest rainfall. Air spirals upward and outward Eye- To replace outflow, cool air sinks into the center of the core up high, it warms adiabatically and absorbs moisture, leaving core clear and cloud free. None of wind reaches center of the storm, resulting in the calmer clear area, the eye

1.What is the primary reason why the storm surge associated with Hurricanes Ike (2008) was greater than that of Hurricane Harvey (2017)?

Ike: Hurricane Ike crossed the entire Gulf of Mexico as a Category 2 → 3 → 4 Hurricane, Extremely Long Fetch (entire Gulf of Mexico) → Maximized Coastal Inundation Harvey: Notice gap in storm. The reformulated Harvey had a relatively short fetch for a hurricane → Minimized Coastal Inundation

4.What 3 important improvements can be made during construction of buildings to improve their resistance to destruction by high winds?

Improved building standards Building a well-armored home to standards exceeding requirements of local building code. Fortified to Gold-level designation includes: (1) House's roof, floors & foundation are fastened together with steel straps; (2) windows are made of impact resistant glass; & (3) roof is specially sealed and nailed down. Homeowners in some areas of Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi & North Carolina, who build to Fortified standards qualify for insurance discounts and/or other incentives.

What is FEMA

In 1979, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was created and became the new administrator of NFIP. In 2003 FEMA was absorbed into the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). In 1972, flood insurance became part of every federally backed mortgage issued in the flood zone. In 1973, the program was expanded to cover coastal-hazard zones with the Flood Disaster Act. NFIP debt is capped at $30.4 B. By early 2017, FEMA was spending about $400 M/yr paying interest on its $25 billion debt, most of which was run up by claims from Hurricane Katrina in 2005 & Superstorm Sandy in 2012.

24.Evaporation of seawater by hurricane winds adds what to the air moving?

In addition, evaporation of sea water by the high winds adds latent heat to the moving air.

2.What is a powder avalanche?

snow avalanches & dust storms: solids are suspended by in a turbulent fluid [air]

17. What two states have the greatest concentration of tornadoes per year?

texas and oklahoma

1. What two entities drive Earth's atmospheric circulation?

1. Heat Energy from the Sun (solar radiation) 2. Rotation of Earth

42. What is Gravity?

3) The flow of Air or Water associated with each hazard is a consequence of Gravity. Gravity = force pulling two objects toward each other. The more massive an object is, the stronger its gravitational pull is. Earth's gravity 'pulls' objects towards its center.

3.How many of the 40 most-expensive disasters worldwide between 1970 and 2017 were natural disasters?

39 (other is 9/11)

5.'Fortified' construction is designed to withstand hurricane winds up to what category of storm?

A common Midwest home and a gold-level Fortified home are subjected to 100 mph winds at an Insurance Institute for Business and Home Safety testing facility.

26.What is the worldwide trend in number and cost of natural disasters from 1980 - present?

A great increase

4.What is 'disaster risk' and what is it a function of?

A measure of likelihood (probability) and severity of undesirable consequences that includes loss of life and assets. Risk is estimated as a function of the hazard type, the exposure, and vulnerability

1.What is the definition of a 'Natural Hazard"?

A naturally-occurring phenomenon that has the potential to cause loss of life, injury, property damage, societal & economic disruption. Natural hazards may be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects. Is different than an Anthropogenic or Human-induced hazard

1.What is the 'Ike Dike' and what style of natural disaster is it intended to mitigate?

A traditional approach to reducing Vulnerability A traditional approach to reducing Vulnerability Ike Dike Proposed coastal barrier protecting the Houston/Galveston region from hurricane storm surge. The 2020 cost estimate for this infrastructure that would harden the coastline is $23.5 billion.

21.Is the center of a hurricane warmer or colder than surrounding air?

A tropical cyclone grows into a large storm when its center becomes significantly warmer than the surrounding air.

1. What are the 3 required components of a wildfire?

A wildfire requires fuel, oxygen, & heat.

25.Condensation of water vapor releases what from the air that helps to drive additional convection in a hurricane?

Accumulated latent heat is released during condensation of water vapor, helping to further drive convection.

6. What is Orographic Lifting?

Air flows up a steep land surface, expanding and cooling.

21. What is nuisance flooding?

Analysis suggests nuisance flooding in response to sea-level rise could generate property value exposure comparable to, or larger than, extreme events. = low levels of inundation that do not pose significant threats to public safety or cause major property damage, but can disrupt routine day‐to‐day activities & put added strain on infrastructure systems.

17.What is the highest annual probability for a named storm occurring in any section of the North Atlantic & Gulf of Mexico?

Annual probability (in %) of a named storm being within each area during the June - November season for tropical storms & cyclones Highest probabilities are over the open ocean, not coastlines. 55%

30.Interactions between a hurricane and both low-and high-altitude winds can to what to the storm?

As a result, these storms interact with both low- and high-altitude winds in the atmosphere. These winds can both help to feed and/or dissipate the storm. Once a hurricane moves over land, it loses its supply of "fuel" - warm ocean air - and the circulation of the storm starts to weaken.

4.What is the definitions for a Base Flood and how is it used by the National Flood Insurance Program?

Base Flood = 1% annual chance flood (informally referred to as the 100-year flood). Base Flood is the national standard used by the NFIP for the purposes of requiring the purchase of flood insurance and regulating new development.

23. What is the largest wildfire in Texas history? What two environmental conditions acted to produce the fire?

Bastrop fire sept 4-oct 10,2011 Drought and strong winds Setup for the largest wildfire in TX history: During 2011, Texas endured its most severe single-year drought since the 1950s; received the lowest single-year rainfall since 1895; and experienced the hottest June-August period of any U.S. state ever. Strong winds caused by nearby Tropical Storm Lee knocked trees into electrical lines, creating sparks and igniting dry organic fuel. Destroyed 1,673 homes ~$325M in damages 34,356 acres (139 km2 ) burned

21.What simple actions can help people survive landslides?]

Before an Event Be informed about potential hazards, and talk to people who have experienced them. Move areas of high occupancy, such as bedrooms, upstairs or to the downhill side of a home. During an Event Escape vertically—this includes moving upstairs and even on top of counters to avoid being swept away. Identify and relocate to the interior, unfurnished areas. Open downhill doors and windows to let debris escape. After an Event If caught in landslide debris, continue to make noise and motion to alert rescuers.

30. What is the California FAIR Plan?

CA homeowners, unable to get replacement insurance from traditional carriers, have been forced to purchase it from the California Fair Access to Insurance Requirement (FAIR) Plan. The FAIR Plan is a state-mandated program providing access to insurance for individuals who are having trouble insuring their property due to high risk.

9. What was the world's costliest natural disaster in 2018?

Camp Fire (CA) was the world's costliest natural disaster in 2018 ($16.5B, Munich Re, a reinsurance firm), 85 dead. In second and third place in 2018 were Hurricanes Michael ($16 billion) and Florence ($14 billion).

30.What are at least two ways of mitigating debris-flow hazard?

Catching flows: The most common method Draining Water out of flows: Increases internal friction, halts flow

19.How costs effective are nature-based adaptations to managing coastal risks?

Coastal risks are increasing from both development and climate change. Interest is growing in the protective role that nature-based measures (or green infrastructure) can play in adapting to these risks. Comparing the cost effectiveness of nature-based versus 'traditional' or structural coastal adaptations: a Gulf Coast case study Blue bars = nature-based adaptation measures. Notice how cost effective they are.

3.What federal government agency is mandated to oversee construction of an 'Ike Dike'?

Combo ER = Ecosystem Restoration CSRM = Coastal Storm Risk Management Army Corps of Engineers?

13.What happens to pore-water pressures during consolidation of a soil?

Consolidation of a soil with water-filled pores leads to increasing pore-water pressures that reduce the magnitude of internal friction (holding soil together), in effect lubricating the material.

25.What happens when a soil of grain framework consolidates?

Consolidation of grain framework means that there is less space for pore water and leads to elevated pore -water pressures.

15.In what cases can Dams mitigate flooding and in what cases may Dams lead to increased exposure and vulnerability to natural disasters?

Dams can mitigate flooding by providing retaining volume for flood waters. BUT, improperly managed & maintained dams can lead to both increased exposure and vulnerability to a natural disaster

40.In mountainous areas, wildfires increase the likelihood of occurrence for what other natural hazard?

Debris flow

6.What is a washover deposit and/or washover fan?

Deposition of Washover Fan grew the elevation of the proximal coastline- Sequential airborne LIDAR surveys confirm that sediment locally eroded from the beach built the Ike washover fan deposits. Washover deposits: Landward where it goes into rebuilding barrier beach a small deltalike feature or fan that is built in a lagoon or on a salt marsh when the sea breaches a dune ridge and invades the landward side of a barrier during periods of severe storm wave activity and abnormally high tides. flow of water and sediment over a coastal dune or beach crest during storm events A fanshaped body of sediment that is transported landward by marine waters flowing through or across a coastal barrier such as a barrier bar or island.

2.How does a 'Natural Disaster' differ from a 'Natural Hazard'?

Disaster: A serious disruption of society due to a hazardous event. Strictly speaking, disasters, not hazards, cause deaths and damage.

26.What cycle drives the large-scale circulation in a hurricane?

Energy cycle (another slide)!!!! Air moving in the lower, ~ 1 km of atmosphere that is situated directly above the ocean surface, spirals inward toward the low-pressure eye of the cyclone. This inward flow leads to a counterclockwise circulation in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. The spiral becomes tighter and tighter near the eyewall and wind speed increases. Winds converge at the eyewall & turn abruptly upwards, ascending in a broadening spiral to the top of the storm

10.Which storm (Ike or Harvey) was defined by generating a beach scarp at the 'study area'?

Erosion by Harvey generated prominent scarp at landward edge of beach. Excavation of beach scarp by Harvey surge + waves exposed coarse washover deposits from previous hurricanes

17.What decision was made in August, 2017, to ensure waters in Lake Conroe did not rise above the inundation easement and what was the consequence of this decision of communities downstream along the San Jacinto River?

Even though Hurricane Harvey was expected to drop at least 10-15 inches of rain in the Lake Conroe drainage basin (watershed), the San Jacinto River Authority decided against any pre-release of lake water prior to the storm. The water level (water-surface elevation) of Lake Conroe prior to the storm was 200.5 ft. The lake is considered full when its water level is at 201 ft. The reservoir had minimal water-storage capacity. Water release from Lake Conroe was made to ensure that the 6-ft inundation easement was not exceeded. •Authorized inundation up to 207 ft above mean sea level •During Harvey, peak water-surface elevation was 206.24 ft above mean sea level. Because the decision was made to keep lake full prior to the storm, little capacity to store water and minimize downstream flooding. Water release from Lake Conroe Led to an additional water-level rise of as much at 8 ft in San Jacinto River immediately downstream of dam. And increased flooding.

30. What is a property flagged for Severe Repetitive Loss?

FEMA maintains a national database of properties flagged as "Severe Repetitive Loss" (SRL) from flooding (at least four previous flood claims). Harris County (+ Houston) = largest U.S. total in amount of NFIP payments for SRL properties. but times are changing....

25. How many states received Major Disaster Declarations (federal funding) for 2019 flooding associated with the Mississippi River Basin?

Flooding resulted in Major Disaster Declarations (federal funding) for: 1. Arkansas 2. Illinois 3. Iowa 4. Louisiana 5. Minnesota 6. Mississippi 7. Missouri 8. Nebraska 9. North Dakota 10. Oklahoma 11. South Dakota 12. Wisconsin

40. What is the 'free surface' of a fluid?

Liquid Water: loose configuration of molecules that move easily past one another, but attractive forces between them maintain free surfaces. Free surfaces include the water level in a cup or pool, and the surface of the ocean.

3.What is the definition of the Floodway?

Floodway is the stream channel and that portion of the adjacent floodplain that must remain open to effectively convey floodwaters. Development in the Floodway is strongly discouraged or even prohibited. The land area covered by the floodwaters of the Base Flood is the Base Floodplain

36. What material property defines a fluid?

Fluids are a dominant component of each hazard, particularly AIR (a Gas) and/or WATER (a Liquid). Fluids have no strength & continually deform under an applied external force. Fluids are 'weak' and flow when even a small external force is applied.

7.How are wind + hail and flooding insurance increasing hurricane 'disaster risk'?

Growing Hurricane Risk: People living in coastal areas in Texas increased from 8.3 million in 2000 to 9.1 million in 2015 [U.S. Census Bureau]. In 2015 about one third of the total population of Texas lived in coastal areas.

30. What three conditions are required in of a thunderstorm to produce large hailstones?

Hail is the most impactful of thunderstorm-related hazards, producing annual damage exceeding US$13 billion over the USA and Europe. In summer 2020, more than US$20 billion of the US$27 billion in global insurance losses was caused by severe convective storms in the United States, with hail the largest contributor. Supercell Thunderstorm needs: (1) strong updraft; (2) freezing level relatively close to the ground; and (3) change in wind speed & direction with height is needed, which allows storms to rotate. Mid-level updraft rotation appears to be extremely important to suspending hailstones allowing small ice pellets to grow into large hailstones.

18.What is the connection between Harvey-induced flooding and neighborhoods of Black, Hispanic, and Socioeconomically disadvantaged residents?

Harvey-induced flood extent significantly increased in neighborhoods predominantly comprising Black, Hispanic, and socioeconomically deprived residents. Statistical evidence represents an important starting point for understanding and quantifying the unequal social and health consequences associated with Hurricane Harvey. Harvey-induced flooding significantly increased in neighborhoods predominantly Black, Hispanic, and socioeconomically disadvantaged residents.

31.What is the 'Head Scarp' of a landslide?

Head scarp of slide is now 1,500 feet wide and 600 feet tall . Slide dammed river resulting in significant upstream flooding and risk of catastrophic dam failure. Zone landslide releases from, fault surface

12.What areas are systematically missed by this present flood mapping?

Headwater areas and smaller floodplains commonly missing.

42.Height and length of water waves are primarily a function of what property of the hurricane system?

Height & Wavelength of Water Waves is correlated with Hurricane Surface-Wind Speeds

23. Is a zone of high-atmospheric pressure associated with rising or sinking air?

High pressure zone is associated with sinking dry air

16.What are two important properties used to identify ancient hurricane washover deposits?

Historical accounts are too short to provide a definitive answer. Geologists use preserved sedimentary deposits to estimate hurricane activity over thousands of years. Sedimentary deposits can preserve a record of many hurricane washover features. Core taken from the deposits can reveal hurricane units buried in the subsurface. Recognizing ancient, hurricane washover depositsSomething out of place. First clue is usually grain size. Relatively coarse sandy layer(s) deposits in a muddy environment. Second clue is marine fossils in an environment where they do not belong.

10. Between 1992 and 2012, what percentage of all wildfires in the 48 states were started by people?

Human-ignited wildfires accounted for 84% of all wildfires and 44% of total area burned from 1992 to 2012 . • Humans expanded the spatial extent of wildfires in the lower 48 -states. • Data from over 1.5 million government records of wildfires that had to be extinguished or managed by state or federal agencies.

18.What is a 'Flood Pool'?

Hurricane Harvey dropped enough rain to fill the two reservoirs beyond the limit of the 100-year floodplain. The 100-yr floodplain is usually < a reservoir's footprint or ' flood pool.'

5.What 3 primary directions can sediment eroded from a beach during a storm be transported? How is each of these transport directions connected to local rebuilding of the barrier beach?

Hurricane Ike disaster was primarily the product of wind leading to high storm surge & large water waves leading to inundation. 1. Landward where it goes into rebuilding barrier beach (Washover Deposits) 2. Offshore where it might be moved back onto barrier beach at some later time 3. Alongshore where it is lost from local rebuilding of barrier beach (may build beach somewhere else) Significant overwash during Hurricane Ike eroded seaward side of coastline & deposited a lot of sand on the landward side of coastline

6.What is hazard 'vulnerability'?

Increased susceptibility to the impacts of a hazard caused by physical, social, and/or economic factors

19. How does a fire cloud promote the spread of wildfire?

Intense wildfires can produce fire clouds (they make their own thunderstorms) These fire clouds can spread fires by: 1. Producing tornado-force winds that transport embers. 2. Producing lightning that can spark additional blazes far away from the original fire.

28.What happens when pore-water drains out of a debris flow?

It loses its momentum and stops moving Increases internal friction, halts flow

39. What is Environmental Justice?

It's the principle that all people are entitled to equal environmental protection regardless of race, color, national origin, or economic standing. [Environmental Justice has deep Texas roots. The father of Environment Justice is Dr. Robert Bullard of Texas Southern University.]

32.Can the basal surface of a landslide be curved?

Landslides can be slow or fast moving Basal surface can be planar or curved

43. What is the difference between a liquid and a gas?

Liquid Water: loose configuration of molecules that move easily past one another, but attractive forces between them maintain free surfaces. Free surfaces include the water level in a cup or pool, and the surface of the ocean. Water Vapor: very loose configuration of molecules with sufficient distance between them that attractive forces cannot hold the molecules together

28. What state would be negatively impacted by opening the Morganza Spillway and who decides?

Louisiana???

24. Is a zone of low-atmospheric pressure associated with rising or sinking air?

Low pressure zone is associated with rising moist air. On surface of Earth, air flow is from a point of high pressure towards a point of low pressure. In coastal settings, spatial difference in atmospheric pressure is a consequence of water temperature rising and falling more slowly than land temperatures.

6. Is the Magnitude = 1 flood the largest or smallest event on record?

M=1 is the highest flow on record

1.What is a Mass Movement = Mass Flow = Sediment-driven Flow?

Mass Movements = Mass Flows = Sediment-driven Flows → Mixtures of solids and fluid (water or air) in which the solids are distributed throughout the flow and play a critical role in its motion Types of sediment-driven flows: 1. Powder avalanches (snow avalanches & dust storms: solids are suspended by in a turbulent fluid [air]); 2. Debris flows (also called mud flows & mudslides); 3. Slumps; and 4. Slides

15. Emphasizing wildfire suppression has done what to fuel loads in forests

Massive tree mortality can occur rapidly and is a product of acute drought compounded by the long-established removal of a key ecosystem process: frequent, low- to moderate-intensity fire. More than 100 million trees have died in southern & central Sierra Nevada of CA in the last 10 years. California forests are more vulnerable. In their natural state, forests were regularly thinned by fire, but aggressively fighting wildfires & harvesting of large old trees by loggers have left slash & numerous small trees with a higher fuel density. Net Result: forests have accumulated an overload of potential wildfire fuel

44.What is the measured relative loss of sediment from behind burned vegetation dams versus unburned vegetation dams?

Measured sediment volumes behind burned vegetation dams indicate a loss of at least 75% relative to unburned dams.

11.Is production of a beach scarp connected with significant or minimal overwash/ inundation?

Minimal Inundation: Storm attacks coast, eroding the beach on seaward side of the beach crest

7.Remobilization of slope materials occurs when?

Mobilization of slope material occurs any time the resisting strength of the slope-forming materials is exceeded by the down-slope directed shear stress Water weakens Earth materials (rock, soil) in several different ways; particularly important to mass movements are: 1. Mass of Water. At sea level, water is ~ 784 times denser than air. Rocks & soils near Earth surface commonly have porosities of 10-30 %. If this void space (porosity) is filled with water, the mass of the material is dramatically increased. 2. Pore-Water Pressure. Many mass flows move downslope aided by high pore pressures that support the weight of solid particles and makes for a very weak, combined flow of solilds+water. Debris flows, slumps and slides are all derived from remobilized deposits &/or bedrock.

41.The volume of debris flows produced following wildfire has been found to depend on what 3 things?

Model estimating the volume of material released in response to a given storm was developed using a subset of this database from 56 basins burned by 8 fires. Model describes debris-flow volume as a function of: 1) basin gradient (surface slope or steepness); 2) area burned; and 3) storm rainfall.

34. What property of slash can be measured to predict the likelihood of wildfire ignition?

Monitoring water storage dynamics sensors- fuel moisture content

15. What produces the rotation that leads to tornado formation?

Multiple air masses moving in different directions produce the rotation that leads to a tornado. Warm moist gulf air collides with canadian polar air causing updrafts ino the polar front jet stream

18. Can a single severe thunderstorm produce multiple tornadoes?

Multiple tornadoes are spawned on tornado producing days.

35. Why is moist air less dense than dry air at any given temperature?

N2 (diatomic Nitrogen) and O2 (diatomic Oxygen) are the dominant components of air (99% by volume). Water vapor is light compared to N2 and O2 . When water vapor increases in air, the amount of N2 & O2 decreases per unit volume and the density of the mixture decreases compared to dry air When water-vapor content increases, the density of the moist air decreases relative to dry air at the same temperature.

12.What is the insurer of last resort for flooding by inundation associated with hurricane surge & waves?

National Flood Insurance Program covers flooding (including inundation by storm surge & waves).

24.What federal agency is in charge of collecting and reporting natural disaster to the public?

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Every year, they put out a report.

32.Why do tropical cyclones tend to weaken following landfall?

Once a hurricane moves over land, it loses its supply of "fuel" - warm ocean air - and the circulation of the storm starts to weaken.

10.How many states plus the Washington D.C. now have 'Hurricane & Named Storm Deductibles'?

Nineteen states currently have some form of hurricane or named storm deductible in place

34. Can ERCOT require power companies to prepare for severe hot and cold weather? Why or why not?

No, * It is state executives who ultimately make the decisions about the Texas energy grid Texas took control of its grid in the 1930s after the Federal Power Act was passed to regulate interstate electricity sales. ERCOT was created in 1970. The current structure of Texas' energy system has its roots in the 1990s, when the state government deregulated the electricity sector here. As a result, decisions about the generation and distribution of power were stripped from regulators and, in effect, handed over to private energy companies

2. Is oxygen a limiting component for wildfire development?

No, Oxygen makes up 21 % of the atmosphere so heat & fuel are typically the limiting factors.

12. Wildfires produced by lightening strikes in the 48 states are most common in May - September of each year. Is there a specific season for human-caused wildfires?

No, it is basically year round Human-caused fire season is three times longer than the lightning - caused fire season and added an average of 40,000 wildfires per year across the United States .- spikes during fourth of july

17. Do all trees in a forest experience the same drop water storage (moisture content) during a drought?

No, oak the best, maple not good This water movement is dynamically regulated by vegetation in response to local weather conditions. Different types and species of vegetation in the same ecosystem regulate water use in opposing manners.

8.Can infrastructure be built in the Floodway?

No, that is the area of the 20 yr flood

45. What continent and country have the highest probability of large hailstone events?

North America, USA

13.What is the key difference between tracks of tropical cyclones in the northern and southern hemispheres?

Northern: north and clockwise Southern: south and counterclockwise

35. On February 16, 2021, how many customers in Texas were without power?

On February 16, 2021, at least 4.5 million customers in Texas were without power

40. What are two recent examples environmental inequity and injustice when it comes to wildfires? Example 1

One of the most important ways the federal government can reduce wildfire risk is through so-called "fuel treatment" projects: reducing the amount of flammable vegetation in fire-prone areas. These projects are expensive, and Congress provides funds to treat just a small fraction of the land at risk from fire each year. RESOURCES for the FUTURE looked at census blocks that had been within 2 kilometers of a wildfire between 2000 and 2011 and found that most neighborhoods were no more likely to get a fuel project than before. Except: Places where all or almost all the residents were white saw their chances of getting a fuel treatment go up by 30 percent. And those odds went up by 40 percent in places where few or no households were below the poverty line.Policymakers have to recognize that the current system isn't always fair, affecting the wildfire risk faced by different communities. The problem will almost certainly worsen as climate change accelerates.

33. What is the Photosynthesis Reaction and how does it store some of the heat from the Sun?

Photosynthesis reaction in plants: 6CO2+ 6H2O+ HEAT FROM SUN-> C6H12O6+ 6H20 Some of the Sun's heat is stored in chemical bonds of glucose & cellulose (main component of plant cell walls)

3.What are the names of the 3 latitudinally-constrained circulation cells in Earth's atmosphere?

Polar cell: area low pressure Ferrel cell: between low and high pressure zones with high pressure going poleward Hadley cell: between low and high pressure zone, stop at equator- low pressure going toward equator

42.Why is the primary cause of increased sediment yields following wildfire?

Post-fire sediment yields are primarily due to the loss of surface cover (vegetation)

19.Does a Flood Pool and the 100-year or Base Floodplain have to cover the same area and what are the implications of flood pools being larger than connected floodplains?

Problem: Risk zones are treated as binary. But, people who live just outside the mapped 100- year flood boundary do not face considerably less risk than people who live just within it. No; the flood pool is often larger than the base floodplain. As a result, people may develop/populate land that is contained in the flood pool but is on the fringes of the 100-yr floodplain; this land is still at risk from the 100-year flood even though it is not contained within the mapped floodplain. The state and the federal government did not have to inform people that had a certain degree of flood risk in a Flood Pool. Changed with Senate bill 339.

5. How is the cross-sectional area for a channel connected to the channel discharge?

Q = V × A Q = channel discharge (m3 /s) V = average velocity (m/s) A = cross-sectional area of flow (m2 'Water velocity is proportional to the square root of Flow Depth (h) times Surface Slope (S).' Flow velocity increases with flow depth. Everything else being equal, steeper Surface Slopes drive faster velocities.

7. How is Flood Recurrence Interval calculated?

R= Recurrence interval in years calculated by R= (N+1)/M M=magnitude (1 is the highest flow on record) N=Number of years of discharge data

27. How is exposure to wildfires changing in USA? How did the land area of the wildland-urban interface change between 1990 and 2010? How many new houses were built in the WUI during this same time period?

Rapid population growth of 20th century USA expanded housing as close as possible to open spaces. ~1940 is when the modern era of large damaging wildfires began. Risk of wildfire disasters is increasing because our exposure is increasing. Wildland-urban interface (WUI) is the area where houses and wildland vegetation meet or intermingle. WUI in the US grew rapidly from 1990 to 2010 in terms of new houses (from 30.8 to 43.4 million; 41% growth) and land area (from 581,000 to 770,000 km2 ; 33% growth).

44. What is Relative Humidity?

Relative humidity = water vapor in the air, compared to how much it could hold at that temperature

8.Pore water tends to do what to the resisting strength of slope-forming materials?

Resisting strength of slope-forming materials is often reduced by pore water. Temporary increases in pore fluid that lead to reductions in strength are associated with precipitation (heavy rains)

15.What is the range of return periods & probabilities for hurricanes hitting individual counties along the Gulf-of-Mexico coast?

Return periods range. In gulf of mexico, highest= 19 yr lowest= 7 yrs Return period is less for florida area ( tip is 6-7 yrs) and carolina area (5-7 yrs)

33.When a tropical cyclone hits the TX coast, why is rain heaviest on the right-hand side of the storm?

Right & left side of storm is defined with respect to the storm's motion. Highest water levels occur to the right of the hurricane eye in northern hemisphere. Location of onshore-directed winds + highest wind speeds. Location storm surge Right: winds come off the ocean, pushing much more seawater onto the land Moving onto land, no more water vapor is fed into the hurricane and energy decreases while goes to the left

2. What are the 3 primary controls on channel discharge?

River Discharge (m3 /s) is controlled by (1) drainage basin area, (2) topographic slope S, & (3) precipitation

5.What is the Saffir-Simpson Scale? How are barometric pressure, wind speed, storm surge and damages correlated?

Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Intensity Scale sed The greater the pressure, the greater the windspeed, the higher the storm surges and the greater the damages- higher saffir simpson rating

9. What three conditions are used to define a Severe Thunderstorm?

Severe thunderstorms defined by any of these three conditions: 1) winds exceed 93 km/hr (58 mph); 2) hail is 25 mm in diameter or larger; or 3) a tornado is reported.

31.What is TX Senate Bill 339?

State of Texas Senate Bill 339 became law on September 1, 2019. Requires homeowners to disclose if their properties are located in: (1) the 500-year floodplain; (2) a flood pool; (3) in or near a reservoir; and (4) whether the home has flooded before

25.What is the Inundation Zone associated with a dam

TX Safety Requirements intended to guard against dam breaching, or failure, in catastrophic floods. Area downstream of dam that would 2017 Investigation by Austin American-Statesman found be covered by water released during dam failure is called the inundation zone Construction in potential inundation zones is essentially unregulated by local, state and federal authorities. (because most inundations zones are outside of the mapped 100-yr floodplain) Lack of public awareness about the hazard posed by dams is no accident. After 9/11/2001, federal and state officials have restricted the ability of the public to obtain information about dams Areas downstream of dams that would be covered by water released during dam failure

21.What state has the most dams?

Texas

13.What is the purpose of the TWIA?

Texas Windstorm Insurance Association (TWIA). Insurer of last resort for wind & hail coverage for Texas Gulf Coast residential & commercial property owners. TX state law requires all companies licensed to write property insurance in Texas to be a member of Texas Windstorm Insurance Association (TWIA).

9.What are reinsurance companies and how did they force the development of 'Hurricane & Named Storm Deductibles'?

The Evolving Landscape of Hurricane Insurance (and its role in controlling EXPOSURE) After Hurricane Andrew in 1992 and Hurricane Katrina in 2005 the reinsurance companies (the insurers of insurance companies) decided they could not assume so much risk. Potential losses had to be reduced. SOLUTION: Hurricane & Named Storm Deductibles were introduced as a risk-sharing mechanism. Policyholders now bear more of the risks, without raising overall premiums to unaffordable levels.

29.How tall can large hurricanes be?

Tops of large hurricanes can be over 15 km or 9.5 miles high.

17.Who decides if the Disaster Relief Fund will cover costs associated with a natural disaster?

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) administers the Disaster Relief Fund (DRF). The DRF is the primary funding source used by the federal government for emergency and major disaster declarations. The DRF is funded annually and is a "no-year" account, meaning that unused funds from the previous fiscal year (if available) are carried over to the next fiscal year. When the balance of the DRF becomes low, U.S. Congress provides additional funding through appropriations to replenish the account. THE PRESIDENT

36. What natural disaster does the Insurance Council of Texas think will be the costliest in TX history when it comes to insurance damage claims? Why?

The Insurance Council of Texas estimates that the weeklong crisis could end up being the most costly weather event in the state's history, once home and auto claims come in. The current record holder was Hurricane Harvey, which led to $19 billion in damage claims. One big difference between then (Harvey) and now is that the current weather emergency has hit all 254 Texas counties.

19.How much money does the NFIP currently owe the U.S. Treasury?

The NFIP currently owes $20.5 B to the U.S. Treasury

17. What is infiltration?

downward entry of water into the soil. The velocity at which water enters the soil is infiltration rate. Infiltration rate is typically expressed in centimeters or inches per hour

2.What are the aims of the National Flood Insurance Program?

The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) is the main program intended to provide federal assistance to homeowners and renters recovering from flood losses. The maximum coverage for one- to four-family homes is $100,000 for contents and $250,000 for buildings coverage. The National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 created the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) NFIP started out in HUD (Dept. of Housing and Urban Development). In 1972, flood insurance became part of every federally backed mortgage issued in the flood zone. In 1973, the program was expanded to cover coastal-hazard zones with the Flood Disaster Act. In 1979, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was created and became the new administrator of NFIP. In 2003 FEMA was absorbed into the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Congress must periodically renew the NFIP's statutory authority to operate. The President has signed legislation passed by Congress that extends the National Flood Insurance Program's (NFIP's) authorization to September 30, 2021.

2. How much of the energy from the Sun is lost back into space versus absorbed into Earth's climate sytem?

The average Solar Radiation reaching Earth is 30% reflected and scattered (lost back to space) 70% absorbed into Earth's climate system. 5 IMPORTANT: The Sun does not evenly warm Earth's surface. These temperature differences in time and space drive the flow of air or wind.

6.What is the definition for the Base Floodplain?

The land area covered by the floodwaters of the Base Flood is the Base Floodplain. Base Floodplain = Floodway + Flood Fring

4. Are big precipitation events and flooding correlated?

The more large precipitation events, the greater likelihood it will flood

27.What fraction of all structures standing in 2015 were built in regions at high risk of earthquakes, wildfires, floods, hurricanes, and/or tornadoes? What fraction of the US surface area is considered a hot spot for natural hazards?

The number & size of natural disasters is increasing with growth of human population & growth of infrastructure (buildings, roads, pipelines, etc.).57% of structures standing in 2015 were built in regions at high risk of earthquakes, wildfires, floods, hurricanes, and/or tornadoes.That's significantly more than expected by random chance, because these hot spots constitute only about 31% of the surface area of the continental USA.

9.What happens to number and size of natural disasters as human populations and infrastructure grow?

The number increases a lot and increase in size West: remarkable # wildfires, central: drought other: severe weather

22.What is the wind pattern near the sea surface in a hurricane?

The resulting zone of low atmospheric pressure and convection near the center of the storm creates a wind pattern at the sea surface that spirals inward toward the eye of the storm.

7.What is a Tropical Storm and a Tropical Depression?

They are hurricane like storms that have less wind speeds. Tropical Storm 63-118kn/hr 39-73 mph Tropical Depression less than 62 less than 38mph

25. Do large wildfires last for days, weeks, or months?

They can last for weeks to a few months, months

38.What happens to buildings sitting on top of liquefied soil or sediment?

They sink

4.Tracks of tropical cyclones correlate with what oceanic circulation pattern?

Tracks of Tropical Cyclones are correlated with circulation of ocean surface waters. (warm waters= red arrows= places more likely to be)

6. How are river discharge and water-surface elevation correlated?

Water -surface elevation is correlated with river discharge. Water -surface elevation goes up as discharge goes up . Water -surface elevation is correlated with river discharge. Water -surface elevation & discharge goes down relatively slowly as draining of overbank surface water can feed the river for considerable time .

26.What happens to most soils as they begin to deform?

Whether the mobilized slope-forming material travels as a slump, slide or debris flow depends on the degree to which the material deforms internally during its movement down slope. Debris Flows If the internal deformation is small and most of the strain occurs within a thin, clearlydefined, basal shear zone, the material moves as a slide. If internal deformation is significant and more evenly distributed throughout the entire thickness of the moving mass, it is a debris flow. Deformation of a soil leads to it consolidation of grain framework.

3.What is the difference between a debris flow, a slump, and a slide.

Whether the mobilized slope-forming material travels as a slump, slide or debris flow depends on the degree to which the material deforms internally during its movement down slope. Debris Flows. If the internal deformation is small and most of the strain occurs within a thin, clearly defined, basal shear zone, the material moves as a slide. If internal deformation is significant and more evenly distributed throughout the entire thickness of the moving mass, it is a debris flow. A slump is somewhere between these two end members Slides: slide on top of surface that may be planar or curves, move as semisolud mass, some preslide coherence maintaining w/i moving mass Debris Flow: flow over landscape, move very viscous fluids, turbulence w/i moving mass

18. What is a fire cloud?

Wind = flow of Air. Wind associated with a Fire Cloud is driven by differences is air density.

34.What velocity is greater, the travel motion of a hurricane or the wind speeds within the hurricane?

Wind speeds within the hurricane

23. Does nuisance flooding affect every coastal state?

YES

24.Can mass movements produced downstream flooding? If so, how?

Yes... Heavily-logged hillsides on steep slopes in the Stillman Creek drainage west of Chehalis, WA, experienced numerous debris flows during the December 2007 storm, sending mud and debris into a tributary of the Chehalis River, contributing to the massive flooding downstream Dams up a stream and creates flooding Yes, they flow down the hillside into river valleys. At the low slope of the valleys, the sediment built up creates a dam with the river backed up behind it. It creates a lake that keeps filling until the water overtops the sediment. All the collected water is released as a flash flood.

2.Zone circulation of the atmosphere is a function of what two properties of the Earth?

Zone circulation (latitudinally constrained Hadley, Ferrel and Polar cells) is the product of Earth's size and angular/rotational velocity.

10.What is hazard 'mitigation'?

actions to eliminate or reduce the threats of a natural hazard. 2 kinds: ppl's beh and govt in regards to cost and building stuff to keep disasters from happening

36. What two practices are increasingly the tree density and therefore fuel density in forests?

aggressively fighting wildfires & harvesting of large old trees by loggers have left slash & numerous small trees with a higher fuel density. Net Result: forests have accumulated an overload of potential wildfire fuel

25.What is a reinsurance company and what is its role in natural disasters?

an insurer of insurance companies. Reinsurance companies study the costs of natural disasters to help determine insurance premiums.

29. Why does the tilting of a supercell thunderstorm allow it to keep growing?

form from huge updraft of air rotation within known as mesocyclone large rotation of updraft creates spirling column of air, vortex, rotating around vertical axis complecities w/i huge thunderstorm, updrafts, downdrafts, wind shear can create tilt in supercell- allow different processes to dev side by side- rain, hail fall from leading parts while tornados spin out of trailing portion Rotation keeps air in the cloud, pulls more moist warm air into the cell and it can grow to 100s of kilometers

22. What is the natural way of removing fuel from forests?

frequent, low- to moderate-intensity fire.- thinned by fire

12. What is a Hydrograh?

graph showing the rate of flow (discharge) at a specific point on a river versus time. The rate of flow is typically expressed in cubic meters or cubic feet per second (cms or cfs).

8. What are 'embers'?

small pieces of burning or glowing coal or wood

6.What industry is actively promoting the building of 'Fortified' structures and how are homeowners in some states being enticed to build dwellings exceeding local building code?

insurance companies incentives like discounts

30.What needs to happen when the reservoir behind a dam fills up with sediment?

it needs to be removed

40.What is Fetch?

length over which wind blows

11.Between 2002 and 2017 about 90% of all costs associated with natural disasters in the U.S. occurred in areas having what percentage of the national population?

less than 20 % of the national population. Federal disaster relief programs & flood insurance, subsidize cost of rebuilding in areas hit repeatedly by storms, floods & fires.

11. What is the most common natural trigger of wildfires?

lightening

2.Would the proposed 'Ike Dike' have helped to minimized the disaster in Houston, TX, associated with Hurricane Harvey?

no, actually would have made it worse

Significant Hazard: Rapid Intensification:

of a tropical cyclone is defined as an increase in top winds by at least 35 mph in 24 hours. Rapid intensification is dangerous because people cannot be warned adequately. - Much less time for adequate preparedness and organized evacuations. RECENT DISCOVERY: Climate Change has likely played a significant role in increasing rapid hurricane intensification in the Atlantic & Pacific basins Increasing intensity of Tropical Cyclones correlates with increasing ocean warming Over the 39-year span of the data set, the proportion of major storms increased roughly 6% per decade.

4. What is 'Slash'?

organic detritus lying on the ground

44.Why does rapid intensification of a tropical cyclone turn the hazard into a bigger natural disaster?

rapid intensification is dangerous because people cannot be warned adequately.-Much less time for adequate preparedness and organized evacuations.

21.What did the Homeowners Insurance Affordability Act of 2014 do?

reinstated subsidized rates, delayed higher full-risk premiums, and placed caps on other increases. 'We' caved-in to groups with vested interests that conflict with the goals of responsible environmental management.

15.What is porosity and what controls the magnitude of porosity for loose sediment?

relative volume of void or empty space between solid particles Grain size distribution controls the magnitude of porosity

16.What is the federal sharing of reconstruction costs mandated by the Stafford Act?

the federal share for assistance paid out of the DRF is 75% of all costs. State and local governments currently provide 25% of disaster costs on projects and grants. However, the 75% federal share can be increased if damages reach certain thresholds! The Robert T. Stafford Emergency Relief and Disaster Assistance Act of 1988 authorizes the U.S. President to issue declarations triggering financial and physical assistance through FEMA with 75% federal sharing of reconstruction costs.

37.What is 'liquefaction'?

transformation of water-saturated sediments from the solid to liquid state as a consequence of increased pore pressure

27.What government agency is required to notify homeowners that they are living within a dam's inundation zone?

trick question- none

9.Why at the 'study area' is the volume of washover deposits associated with Hurricane Harvey so much less than the volume of washover deposits associated with Hurricane Ike?

two storms that had greater (Ike) and lesser (Harvey) Inundation or Overwash. Ike: Extensive Washover Deposits building the coastline. Harvey: Minimal Washover Deposits built during storm inundation. Minimal inundation produced almost no washover deposits at this site.

28.What is the role of a dam spillway?

used to regulate flood waters

How is rising relative sea level influencing coastal flooding?

~ 0.1 in/yr ~ 0.25 in/yr As the sea rises, the frequency of flooding in coastal cities & towns during high tides and minor rainstorms is also increasing (between 300% & 925% around the United States since the 1960s).

23.What are the key differences between dams classified as having low-hazard, significant-hazard, and high-hazard potential by the Texas Administrative Code?

(1) Low. A dam in the low-hazard potential category has: (A) no loss of human life expected (no permanent habitable structures in the breach inundation area downstream of the dam); and (B) minimal economic loss. (2) Significant. A dam in the significant-hazard potential category has: (A) loss of human life possible (one to six lives or one or two habitable structures in the breach inundation area downstream of the dam); or (B) appreciable economic loss, located primarily in rural areas. (3) High. A dam in the high-hazard potential category has: (A) loss of life expected (seven or more lives or three or more habitable structures in the breach inundation area downstream of the dam); or (B) excessive economic loss, located primarily in or near urban areas.

1.Atmospheric circulation is fueled by what?

Atmospheric circulation is fueled by energy from the sun and its unequal heating of Earth's surface.

14.During what three months of the year do most North Atlantic hurricanes that strike the U.S. mainland occur?

August, September, october (when ocean is warmest, gaining heat all summer)

38. What three Texas metropolitan areas are ranks in the top 15 for wildfire risk?

Austin, San Antonio, Houston

29.Where is the highest concentration of large clasts (i.e., grains) found in a debris flow?

At the front (very course material). They protrude high up into the flow and move quicker than the average flow. Subject to high velocities

16.Should the federal government use taxpayers' money to help private property owners rebuild?

(1) Main beneficiaries of the subsidies are affluent homeowners living in waterfront properties. (2) Subsidies distort the incentive to develop real estate in devastation-prone areas. If property owners do not have to pay the full cost of living with extreme weather, they flock to such regions, passing on much of the disaster risk to taxpayers. Examples: (A) NFIP paid to rebuild one Houston home 16 times in 18 years, spending almost a million dollars to perpetually restore a house worth less than $120,000. (B) Harris County, Texas, has almost 10,000 properties that have filed repetitive flood insurance damage claims.

27. How can opening of the Bonnet Carré Spillway negatively impact the economy of the State of Mississippi?

- Caused a 100% drop in shrimp, crab, & oyster harvest (losses ~ $216M). - Closed beaches out of concern of toxic algae. In response, the State of Mississippi has filed a lawsuit against the US Army Corps of Engineers & the Mississippi River Commission over flood control on the river. State of Mississippi is pressing the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to change how it handles spillway openings that caused 'unprecedented devastation' in 2019.

12. How is the deflection of a flow path by the Coriolis Effect different in the northern hemisphere versus the southern hemisphere?

. The Coriolis Effect deflects moving fluid in the atmosphere and ocean to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. Low pressure to high pressure: counterclockwise... HIgh pressure to low pressure: clockwise

10.What is the resisting strength of water and air?

0- very weak

10.How long lived are North Atlantic hurricanes?

1 to 30 days

Similarities between hazards

1) Fluids are a dominant component of each hazard, particularly AIR (a Gas) and/or WATER (a Liquid). Fluids have no strength & continually deform under an applied external force. Fluids are 'weak' and flow when even a small external force is applied. 2) Energy driving each hazard is added to the system in the form of Heat from the Sun. 3) The flow of Air or Water associated with each hazard is a consequence of Gravity. Gravity = force pulling two objects toward each other. The more massive an object is, the stronger its gravitational pull is. Earth's gravity 'pulls' objects towards its center

4. What is Convectional Lifting?

1. Convectional Lifting (updraft): Air heated near the ground rises vertically due to buoyancy (air near ground is less dense than cold air directly above). 14 Downdrafts occur at positions in a thunderstorm where air has been significantly cooled compared to the surrounding air mass

7. Heat from a wildfire flows outward by what 4 processes? Which of these 4 is most effective at growing the footprint of a wildfire?

1. Diffusion of embers from zone of higher concentration to zones of lower concentration; 2. Radiation from flames and other hot surfaces; 3. Convection of hot gases that rise upwards; and 4. Wind. Wind is the most effective

11.How are soil density, soil depth, gravity, and the slope of a hillside combined to estimate the downslope driving stress?

1. Mass of Water. At sea level, water is ~ 784 times denser than air. Rocks & soils near Earth surface commonly have porosities of 10-30 %. If this void space (porosity) is filled with water, the mass of the material is dramatically increased. 2. Pore-Water Pressure. Many mass flows move downslope aided by high pore pressures that support the weight of solid particles and makes for a very weak, combined flow of solilds+water. T=Fs= Psorr x h x gsintheta Psorr= soil or rock density h= soil or rock thickness g=acceleration by gravity

36.Why is earthquake shaking so effective at producing very high pore-water pressures in soils and sediments?

1. Progressive consolidation or densification of sand framework by repeated shear strain (shaking) 2. Build up of Pore-Fluid Pressure as part of the vertical normal stress is transferred to the pore water. 3. Initial Liquefaction: Pore Pressure = Applied Vertical Stress & Mixture Susceptible to Large Deformations

22.What fraction of dams in TX have been exempted from safety requirements by the Texas Legislature?

1. Texas law did not require that home buyers be notified when a property is located within a flood pool. 2. Neither the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers nor the federal flood insurance program requires such notification. Notification only required for the footprint of the 100-yr flood. CASE 3. Politics of dam safety & maintenance. Texas has ~ 7,229 dams, more than any other state. Setup: Texas Legislature has exempted ~ 3,232 dams from safety requirements. Dam Exemption from Safety Requirements Effective September 1, 2013, exempt dams are: (1) located on private property; (2) classified as low or significant hazard; (3) hold < 500 ac-ft of water; (4) located in counties with populations < 350,000 (as per 2010 census); and (5) not located within the corporate limits of municipalities 44%

7. What are the 4 stages of a thunderstorm?

1. Warms air rises high enough to pass through the lifting condensation level. 2. Condensation of water vapor begins. 3. Condensation of water droplets releases heat (called Latent Heat of Condensation) helping the cloud to rise even higher. 4. Evaporation of falling rain droplets acts to cool air near the ground, shutting down the storm

14.What was the federal coverage of major natural disasters in the 1920s, 1950s, 1970s, and 1990s?

1920s: 3.3% 1950s: 6.2% 1970s: 48.3% 1990: 52.3% 2000s: over 70%

33.What percentage of costs from all worldwide natural disasters between 1980-2019 where caused by Floods?

1980-2019: Flooding accounted for ~ 40% of all naturaldisaster costs, with losses worldwide totaling more than$1 trillion USD.Only 12% oftheselosseswere insured.Many losses involve public infrastructure -such as roads, railways, dykes, riverbeds and bridges -that is usually uninsured.But many people do not have or purchase insurance.

14.What happens to a soil's internal friction as pore-water pressures increase?

2. Consolidation of a soil with water-filled pores leads to increasing pore-water pressures that reduce the magnitude of internal friction (holding soil together), in effect lubricating the material.

22. What happens when rain falls on a soil that is fully saturated with all pores already full of water?

2015 Blanco River flood Soil accommodated most of the precipitation through infiltration until storm #5. River Stage = Water - Surface Elevation SMAP reveals a threshold moisture content Ɵ (water - filled pores): when >0.2, river discharge quickly responded. Infiltration of rainwater from storms 1 - 4 resulted in minor river flooding. (no surface runoff) Saturated soil resulted in all rainwater from storm 5 going into river flooding. All of it was surface runoff, saturated excess overland flow

29. How undervalued were homeowner insurance premiums in 2017 when it came to covering wildfire costs in California?

2017 - 2018 California wildfires cost insurers more than $24 billion. In 2017, state insurers paid $2 for every $1 they collected in premiums. CA Dept. of Insurance In 2018, state insurers paid $1.70 for every $1 they collected in premiums. Consequence: Insurance companies in California have declined to renew 350,000+ policies since 2015 in areas at high risk for wildfires

18.How much of NFIP's debt did Congress cancel/forgive in 2017?

2017 ended up being the costliest year ever for natural disasters in the USA - National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration [NOAA]. Combined cost of hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria, plus other natural disasters was $224 - 420 B. So, in October 2017: Congress cancelled $16 B of NFIP debt, making it possible to pay claims for hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria.

23.What year holds the record for the largest number of $1B natural disasters in the USA?

2020- there were 22 weather & climate disaster events with losses exceeding $1 billion each across the United States — shattering the previous annual record of 16 events occurring in 2011 & 2017

41. What fraction of Superfund sites are vulnerable to wildfires?

234/1857 or 12%

36.Are offshore winds associated with the left-or right-hand side of the TX hurricane and why?

3. Offshore directed (to left of eye) Right hand side: speed of storm body + wind speeds Left hand side: wind speed minus storm motion Left: winds come off the land right: winds come off the ocean

39. What 3 states annually experience the largest hailstones? How large to the hailstones get?

4 inches Midwestern states- OK, KS,NE, TX?, SD

16.What is the inundation easement associated with a reservoir?

6ft Water release from Lake Conroe was made to ensure that the 6-ft inundation easement was not exceeded. •Authorized inundation up to 207 ft above mean sea level •During Harvey, peak water-surface elevation was 206.24 ft above mean sea level. Because the decision was made to keep lake full prior to the storm, little capacity to store water and minimize downstream flooding

9. What does a flood recurrence interval and/or flood probability tell you about a river?

: If Recurrence Interval = 100 years, there is one chance in 100 that a flood of that magnitude will occur each year. There is a 1/100 (= 0.01 or 1.0 %) probability of flooding of that magnitude in any one year.

16.What is infiltration?

= downward entry of water into the soil. The velocity at which water enters the soil is infiltration rate. Infiltration rate is typically expressed in centimeters or inches per hour.

14. What is Base Flow?

= dry weather flow in a stream or river.

20.What did the Biggert-Waters Flood Insurance Reform Act of 2012 set out to do?

After Hurricane Sandy, it was agreed that restoring the NFIP to solvency required having homeowners and small businesses pay rates that reflected their actual risk to flooding. Biggert-Waters Flood Insurance Reform Act of 2012 passed with a 373 to 52 vote in the U.S House of Representatives, and a 74 to 19 vote in the U.S. Senate. Met with immediate resistance... "If flood insurance increases are not slowed, it will have a devastating effect on the housing market across the country." "It will 'stigmatize' flood zone properties and will accelerate the demise in property values in flood zone communities."

5. What is Frontal Lifting?

Air masses collide at a frontal boundary and the warmer less dense air mass rises.

18.Everything else being equal, what happens to infiltration rate as grain size increases?

As grain size increases infiltration rate increases( sand largest, clay smallest)

19.Everything else being equal, what happens to infiltration rate as grain sorting decreases (i.e., the range of particle sizes increases)?

As grain sorting decreases infiltration rate decreases (well sorted sands largest infiltration rate)

15.Are the number of active policies underwritten by TWIA and/or NFIP in Texas measured in the tens-of-thousands, hundreds-of-thousands, or millions?

As of April 2019, TWIA had 189,847 residential policies in force and 7,544 commercial policies. Its direct liability (exposure to loss) is $57 billion, according to the 2019 TWIA Annual Report.

20. What are rates of relative sea-level rise in the Gulf of Mexico?

As the sea rises, the frequency of flooding in coastal cities & towns during high tides and minor rainstorms is also increasing (between 300% & 925% around the United States since the 1960s).

35.What three principal directions can hurricane winds be directed relative to the TX coastline?

At the TX coast, winds can be: 1. onshore directed (to right of eye); 2. shore-parallel (in front of eye); or 3. Offshore directed (to left of eye). (assuming northern-hemisphere cyclone)

Energy cycle of a mature hurricane:

A→B: Air spirals inward close to sea surface, increasing temperature through transfer of sensible heat & acquiring latent heat from ocean by wind evaporation of seawater. B→C: Air ascends in the eyewall. Accumulated latent heat is released during condensation of water vapor, helping to further drive convection. C→D: Air losses heat. D→A: Air returns to its starting point

31. What is the relationship between the California FAIR Plan and the State of California?

BUT, the FAIR Plan is not a state agency and is not funded by taxpayers. It is funded by an association of private insurance companies, who are required to participate in the plan if they want to do business in California. FAIR Plan's rates cannot be excessive or discriminatory, must be actuarially sound and must be sufficient to reflect the risk exposure and historical loss experience. FAIR Plan coverage can cost two or three times as much as traditional insurance. Are constantly suing eachother because FAIR plan charging too high rights in order to get profit, state no like how high rates are.

15.What floated from the bay onto the top of San Jose Island during return flow?

Barge washed up onto San Jose Island, TX, during return flow.

8.What commonly marks the base of a washover deposits?

Buried land surface (vegetation & soil) defines the base of younger washover deposit

32. Wildfires on the west coast of the US burned an area the size of what state in 2020?

By end of September 2020, nearly six million acres had burned up and down the coast. This burnt area = size of the state of New Jersey

34.What human activity destabilized Rattlesnake Ridge in Washington State?

Can we predict when and how fast the 1,800-foot-tall Rattlesnake Ridge will release? The 8 million-ton slide looms over Interstate 82, a rail corridor and the Yakima River. At times more than 100 instruments are sitting on, or aimed at, the hillside. The slide is slowing down 1.7 weeks/foot in February, 2019, to 4 weeks/foot in August, 2019. Still moving in 2020, 6 weeks/foot. Construction zone- made it steeper for some reason- mining

6.By definition, what is the minimum sustained wind velocity associated with a hurricane?

Category 1 hurricane has a min wind speed of 119 km/hr or 74 mph. (larges, cat 5 is lover 250 km/her or 155 mph) Remember that kinetic energy of the wind scales with the square of its speed. As a result, small increases in wind speed produce larger increases in kinetic energy. This is important because, storm-surge magnitude and destructive wind stresses vary as a function of the wind's kinetic energy

35. What seasonal index favors large wildfires? How many of CA's 20 largest wildfires have occurred in the past 20 years?

Clear evidence that warm & dry conditions promote large CA wildfires. With addition of 2019 & 2020 data, 19 of the 20 largest CA wildfires have occurred in 2001 - 2020.

45.Is the occurrence of rapid intensification increasing in the North Atlantic and Pacific and why?

Climate Change has likely played a significant role in increasing rapid hurricane intensification in the Atlantic & Pacific basins. Increasing because of climate change- ocean waters are warming up and creating more fuel for the hurricane

14. In the northern hemisphere what is the rotation direction associated with air flow away from a high-pressure zone and its descending air?

Clockwise

31.What are cyclonic rain bands?

Clouds and rainfall are not evenly distributed w/i a hurricane. Most intense in rain bands, spiraling bands of clouds around the eye. Tornados often occur here, between the weather is calmer and less rainfall. 32.Why do tropical cyclones tend to weaken following landfall? Once a hurricane moves over land, it loses its supply of "fuel" - warm ocean air - and the circulation of the storm starts to weaken.

26.Are most Inundation Zones of dams inside or outside the mapped 100-year or base floodplain?

Construction in potential inundation zones is essentially unregulated by local, state and federal authorities. (because most inundations zones are outside of the mapped 100-yr floodplain)

26. What is convection?

Convection transfers heat by atmospheric flow. As warm air rinses, it transports heat upward in the atmosphere. Late-afternoon air heated by the Sun and by warm ground can rise convectively to form clouds. Air heated by wildfires does the same thing.

39.What is the connection between steepness of topography and landslide occurrence and why?

Correlated- the steeper areas have more landslide occurrence Looser soil can break away easily with lots of rains, gravity bring it down easier See the downslope formula. Increase any one of those factors = increase the risk. The steepness changes the most. You know the risk, but don't know when it could happen.

13. In the northern hemisphere what is the rotation direction associated with air flow toward a low-pressure zone and its convection?

Counter clockwise

35.What did the 2014 Oso landslide do to the Stillaguamish River? Can one natural hazard produce another?

Dammed up the river Took 43 lives after a hillside above the Stillaguamish River, WA collapsed and moved through the Steelhead Haven neighborhood at 60 mph. Deposit covered an area 1,500 ft (460 m) long, 4,400 ft (1,300 m) wide and was 30 to 70 ft (9.1 to 21.3 m) thick. 49 homes and other structures destroyed. Previous slides had occurred in 1951, 1967, 1988, 1996, and 2006. Some areas are subject to reoccurring large landslides. YES- could have led to flash flood

6.Debris flows, slumps, and slides are all derived from what kind of deposits and/or bedrock?

Debris flows, slumps and slides are all derived from remobilized deposits &/or bedrock.

Fallout

December 4, 2017: Houston Court of Appeals for the First Appellate District ruled in a unanimous opinion that certain plaintiffs may sue San Jacinto River Authority under the Private Real Property Rights Preservation Act, Chapter 2007 of the Texas Government Code, for the flooding after the August 28, 2017, release "that imposes a physical invasion . . . of private real property." The Houston Court of Appeals' unanimous opinion makes clear that the homeowners may pursue their claims against SJRA as a "taking" of their private property rights. Legal battles are still ongoing..... Effective September 1, 2019, intermediate or large-size, state-regulated dam with spillway gates used to regulate flood waters must notify emergency management officials of downstream communities, who must then notify the public downstream when flood releases are made.

23.Why are logged hillsides more susceptible to debris generation than forested hillsides?

Deforestation, whether by wildfires or by logging, increases vulnerability to landslides and debris flow, looser sediment no vegetation dams vegitation adds to resisting force

27.Why are debris flows with high pore-water pressures so mobile?

Deformation of a soil leads to it consolidation of grain framework. Consolidation of grain framework means that there is less space for pore water and leads to elevated pore -water pressures. Higher pore pressure = lower strength, up to the point that the pore - water pressures are so high the mixture flows like a fluid Why concentrated mixtures of sand and water (debris flows) can flow down surfaces of low (and high) slope: • Nearly weight-supporting pore-fluid pressure develops during failure and flow initiation. • Maintenance of high pore pressures during flow is the key to their mobility.

8. What controls the degree of atmospheric instability that leads to thunderstorms?

Degree of atmospheric instability increases as the temperature differences increase between the warm bottom air and overlying cool air

28. What primarily controls the density of air and by how much does it vary in the atmosphere?

Density difference is a function of air temperature & composition (particularly the amount of water vapor). 20%- density diff drive all not much heavier

4.What two properties of a mass movement determines its destructive impact pressure or kinetic energy?

Density of Flow in kg/m3 (sediment + fluid mixture), Downhill Velocity of Flow in m/s

3. How does surface or topographic slope and river-valley shape change from the headwaters of a drainage basin moving down slope to its outlet?

Drainage Basin = area of land where precipitation collects and drains off into a common outlet. Most flooding is a consequence of large total volumes of rain and/or rainfall rate. Flooding properties depend on basin size and position along the longitudinal profile of river. As elevation decreases distance increases (curve) It flattens out (slope decreases) as it gets closer to the base/outlet (see cross sections on slide 2) Upland areas as go from channel starts, slopes systematically go down

23. Why was the 2015 Memorial Day flood on Shoal Creek shorter in duration than the flood on the Blanco River, which in turn was shorter in duration than the flood on the Trinity River?

Drainage basins- Blanco- intermediate drainage basin, Schoal Creek- small drainage basin Trinity- large drainage basin Memorial day: Smallest drainage area of the 3 examples. Relatively rapid rise and fall of water-surface elevation. Flooding in Austin, TX, lasted about 6 hours (1/4 day) Trinity: Collection of rainwater from the largest drainage basin fully contained inside of TX state boundaries led to an extended flood (55 days)

7.What is a hazard's 'return period' or 'recurrence interval'?

Each hazard is characterized by its location, magnitude, and return period =recurrence interval is the elapsed time between same-sized events. Certain communities more vulnerable than others, big deal state of texas

11.Who are the insurers of last resort for damaging hurricane winds & hail?

Even with changes to insurance deductibles, risk is often considered too great to be taken on by insurance companies. In these cases the responsibility falls onto the FEDERAL and STATE governments. - Individual states coordinate insurance against damage from high winds, hail (& wildfire). TWIA

11. "Flash Flood Alley" of central TX is connected to extreme rainfall produced by what 2 lifting mechanisms?

Extreme rainfall produced by a combination of (A) frontal lifting & (B) orographic lifting. Frontal Lifting: warm, moist Gulf-coast air rises over denser central TX air mass. Orographic Lifting: steeper land-surface slopes and elevation gain of Balcones Fault Zone (~800 ft =245 m). extreme difference in shape of flood - frequency curves for two Texas rivers: Nacasota and perdnales (look at notes for differences)- perdnales much more susceptible to larger discharge

11.What percentage of the conterminous 48 states is presently covered by FEMA flood maps?

FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency) within the Department of Homeland Security administers the NFIP (National Flood Insurance Program) *National Flood Insurance Program aims to reduce the impact of flooding on private and public structures. *Provides affordable insurance to property owners, renters and businesses, encouraging communities to adopt and enforce floodplain management regulations. Two recurrence intervals are used for regulations in the U.S. National Flood Insurance Program. Areas inundated by 100- and 20-year floods. FEMA mapping currently covers only about 60% of the conterminous United States (CONUS).

29. Who is paying for the Harris County Disaster Recovery Post Disaster Relocation and Buyout Program?

FEMA maintains a national database of properties flagged as "Severe Repetitive Loss" (SRL) from flooding (at least four previous flood claims). Harris County (+ Houston) = largest U.S. total in amount of NFIP payments for SRL properties. but times are changing.... Harris County Disaster Recovery Post Disaster Relocation and Buyout Program funded by $2.5 billion bond authorized by Harris County voters in 2018

5.What agency is responsible for mapping the area flooded by the Base Flood?

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) produces the maps defining flood zones [area covered by Base Flood].

1.What is FEMA and in what department of the federal government is it located? Insurance:

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was created and became the new administrator of NFIP. In 2003 FEMA was absorbed into the Department of Homeland Security (DHS).Congress must periodically renew the NFIP's statutory authority to operate. The President has signed legislation passed by Congress that extends the National Flood Insurance Program's (NFIP's) authorization to September 30, 2021.

40. What are two recent examples environmental inequity and injustice when it comes to wildfires? example 2

Federal government warns that 234 Superfund sites are vulnerable to wildfires. Of those, 68 have recently seen fires approach. Blazes at the imperiled hazardous waste sites could release toxins ranging from acid mine drainage to radioactive smoke. Risk is disproportionally shouldered by minorities, the poor, and less educated.

6. How do carbon dioxide, water, and released heat fit into the 'fire reaction'?

Fire Reaction: photosynthesis equation run in the opposite direction. Solar energy stored in plants is returned to the atmosphere during fire. C6H12O6+ 6H20-> 6CO2+ 6H2O+ released heat. glucose which approximates the composition of cellulose, the main component of wood Plant material is heated up above its point of combustion and oxygen (O) begins to combine with organic material. Carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) bonds are broken and stored energy is given off as heat. Moisture must be driven off before combustion can begin, so wood with a high moisture content is hard to ignite

24. What two properties of a river channel most control its flow velocity? How are these two properties functionally related to velocity?

Flow velocity in channel as a function of position. Hot colors = high velocity Cool colors = low velocity Water velocity is proportional to the square root of Flow Depth (h) times Surface Slope (S).' Flow velocity increases with flow depth. Everything else being equal, steeper Surface Slopes drive faster velocities.

3. What are typical fuels for wildfire?

Fuel includes: 1. Grasses 2. Shrubs 3. Trees 4. Slash (organic detritus lying on the ground) 5. Buildings

19. What is the name of the wind damage scale? Is the highest rank on the scale associated with winds exceeding 100, 200, or 300 mph?

Fujita Wind Damage Scales- Fujita and Enhanced Fujita Scale Fujita: 261-318 mph Enhanced Fujita Scale: Over 200 mph

17.What is the projected cost of the Galveston Bay Storm Surge Barrier System?

Galveston Bay Storm Surge Barrier System Construction Cost: $23,480,351,000 (assuming Year 2043 dollars) THE VALUABLE TEXAS COAST 24% STATE'S POPULATION 15.8% U.S. PORT CARGO HANDLED 30% OF US REFINING CAPACITY 3,300 MILES OF ESTUARINE SHORELINE Coastal risks are increasing from both development and climate change. Interest is growing in the protective role that nature-based measures (or green infrastructure) can play in adapting to these risks.

10. The topography of TX is connected to what other property of our state?

Geology

17.What two properties of a soil or sediment deposit control its infiltration rate?

Grain size and grain sorting

19. What two properties of soils control infiltration rate? How does change in these properties affect infiltration rate?

Grain size and grain sorting Coarse, well-sorted soils have the highest infiltration rates. Fine-grained, poorly-sorted soils have the lowest infiltration rates.

9.What is the role of gravity in mass movements?

Gravity acts on the mass of any object, applying a measureable & predictable force that pulls downslope. An object will only move downhill when..... the sum of resisting forces are exceeded by the gravitational driving force (hillslope parallel force). No flow: 𝜏<_ 𝜏R Flow: 𝜏>[𝜏R where 𝜏 = Shear Stress = downslope driving stress (body force/bed area) 𝜏R = Resisting Stress or Strength [𝜏R = 0 for water and air]

20. What is a 'fire swirl'?

High winds produced by cooler, higher-density air flowing toward site of hotter, lower density air Wildfire burns hot enough to generate strong upward flow of low-density air = Updraft.

13.Is reverse or seaward flow across a barrier beach found on the right-or left-hand side a hurricane? Why?

Higher water in bay provides the setup for significant reverse flow (seaward flow) on southern San Jose Island, TX (This location was on the lefthand side of the storm. It is leftward because the hurricane moves counter clockwise Some coastal erosion can also be associated with water flowing back into Gulf. Erosive return-flow channels On the left hand side winds come off the land, pushing seawater off the land whereas on the right winds come off the ocean, pushing more seawater onto the land. Highest levels occur along coastline on the right side of the eye landfall. Some coastal erosion can also be associated with water flowing back into Gulf. Erosive return-flow channels

22.What is the Ike Dike, how much would it cost and who would build it?

Hurricane Ike disaster was primarily the product of wind, high water-surface elevations leading to inundation, & water waves. Almost all homes wiped out but didnt keep from rebuilding Response to mitigation: Proposed coastal barrier protecting the Houston/Galveston region from hurricane storm surge. The 2020 cost estimate for this infrastructure that would harden the coastline is $23.5 billion. Builders: Army Corps of Engineers, the Texas General Land Office, and engineering forms

11. How is a wind path modified by the Coriolis Effect? How is the straight-line flow path from high to low atmospheric pressure modified? What is the role of different angular velocities at different latitudes in producing the flow path when viewed in the rotating reference frame?

Instead the wind path is modified and takes on a curved trajectory. This modification is known as the 'Coriolis Effect.' Earth's rotation leads to the Coriolis Effect: Velocity of rotation on Earth's surface varies by latitude. Because there are different velocities at different latitudes, fluids moving across Earth's surface follow curved paths when viewed in the rotating reference frame Example of an object moving from point A to point B in a rotating system. Ball does not reach its target because during the ball's flight the target rotates away. CASE 1. When viewed from the rest reference frame (when the camera is mounted to the ground & not moving), the ball follows a straight line. CASE 2. When viewed from the rotating reference frame (when the camera is mounted to the rotating platform), the ball appears to experience a force that pulls it away from the target. 'Coriolis Effect' leads to additional shear & rotation being associated with atmospheric convection and downwelling .

2.What is inundation depth by seawater equal to?

Inundation Depth (Storm-Surge Water Level - Land Elevation) Inundation of coastal lands by seawater driven onshore by Tropical Cyclones Inundation depth = [elevated seawater surface from (1) Storm Surge + (2) Water Waves] - land elevation

39.How is Inundation Depth related to storm surge and land elevation?

Inundation Depth (Storm-Surge Water Level - Land Elevation) Inundation of coastal lands by seawater driven onshore by Tropical Cyclones Inundation depth = [elevated seawater surface from (1) Storm Surge + (2) Water Waves] - land elevation Height & Wavelength of Water Waves is correlated with Hurricane Surface-Wind Speeds

5.Why do relatively small changes in flow speed translate into relatively larger changes in impact pressure and destructiveness?

Large destructive forces applied to buildings, bridges, etc. are the product of flows being very dense and/or travelling quickly. Notice that small differences in flow speed translate into larger changes in impact pressure and therefore destructiveness. Since the velocities are squared in the equation so small changes create large impacts.

8.What is the typical correlation between the return period of a natural hazard and its magnitude or size?

Larger magnitude is associated with a longer return period & smaller magnitude is associated with shorter return periods The number & size of natural disasters is increasing with growth of human population & growth of infrastructure (buildings, roads, pipelines, etc.). 57% of structures standing in 2015 were built in regions at high risk of earthquakes, wildfires, floods, hurricanes, and/or tornadoes. That's significantly more than expected by random chance, because these hot spots constitute only about 31% of the surface area of the continental USA.

20.What is the 'fuel' for all types of tropical cyclones?

Latent heat: Water changing state from solid to liquid to gas absorbs heat in the process. Water changing state from gas to liquid to solid releases heat in the process. This release of latent (stored) heat during the condensation of water vapor is an important energy, source driving further growth of Thunderstorms & Hurricanes. Warm ocean air also Warm ocean surface water: Tropical cyclones are powered by warm, ocean surface water. A tropical cyclone grows into a large storm when its center becomes significantly warmer than the surrounding air. The resulting zone of low atmospheric pressure and convection near the center of the storm creates a wind pattern at the sea surface that spirals inward toward the eye of the storm. This in-flowing air picks up sensible heat from the warm ocean water increasing its temperature. In addition, evaporation of sea water by the high winds adds latent heat to the moving air

31. What does the concentric layering often seen in hailstones represent?

Layering records different rates of accumulation and then freezing of supercooled water onto stone. Large hailstones spend as much as 10-15 min or more in growth regions of storms

18.Meteorological radar is used to generate maps of what 5 properties of hurricanes?

Monitoring Tropical Cyclones: Meteorological radar emits a pulse and measures the radiation that is scattered & reflected back to the radar instrument by raindrops, snowflakes and hailstones. This data provides an estimate of wind speed, & wind direction, as well as amount of rain, snow, & hail in the air. Map of Radar Reflectivity measuring roughly how much rain, snow, and/or hail are in the air. Hot colors = high precipitation Cool colors = low precipitation

33.What is the best way to predict if a slow-moving landslide is going to transition into a fast-moving landslide?

Monitoring slowly evolving landslides. Timing of major release(s) can be predicted by looking for acceleration in measured slip rates. Engineers accurately predicted the timing of a 2013 landslide at Kennecott's Bingham Canyon mine near Salt Lake City. BUT the collapse was far bigger than expected.

7.What is the Flood Fringe?

Most communities permit development in the Flood Fringe if the development is elevated or otherwise protected to the Base Flood Elevation, the elevation to which floodwater rises during the base flood Most communities permit development in the Flood Fringe if the development is elevated or otherwise protected to the Base Flood Elevation, the elevation to which floodwater rises during the base flood The Base Floodplain is the area where the NFIP's floodplain management regulations must be enforced by the community as a condition of participation in the NFIP and is the area where the mandatory flood insurance purchase requirement applies

24.Did a 2017 investigation of Texas high-hazard and significant-hazard dams find more or less these structures in adequate or inadequate condition?

Most inadequate

8. How is Flooding Probability related to flood recurrence interval?

P = flooding probability P = 1/R 1/R =½ P= .5/yr = 50% chance/yr

33. What is ERCOT and what fraction of Texas' total power grid is it associated with?

Most of Texas is on its own power grid—making it the only state to manage its power independent from the rest of the United States. Only El Paso's power lines are attached to the Western grid, which connects 14 states and parts of Canada and Mexico. The Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) manages ~ 90% state's power grid. ERCOT is a nonprofit with a board of directors. It is overseen by the TX State Legislature and the state's Public Utility Commission. Members of TX Public Utility Commission are appointed by the governor. * It is state executives who ultimately make the decisions about the Texas energy grid.

37. How is Latent Heat different than Specific Heat?

Moving between these states requires the addition or release of energy, called LATENT HEAT. This heat is in addition to and different from the better known SPECIFIC HEAT, the heat required to raise the temperate of a sample

NFIP Risk Rating 2.0:

NFIP rating methodology, based solely on the 1% chance/year, has not changed since it was developed in the 1970s. Risk Rating 2.0 will fundamentally change the way FEMA rates a property's flood risk and prices its insurance. Risk Rating 2.0 will incorporate a broader range of flood frequencies. Its new rating engine to will allow policyholders to better understand their property's flood risk and how it is reflected in their cost of insurance. FEMA announced Risk Rating 2.0 would go into effect nationwide on October 1, 2020, but FEMA has now decided to defer the implementation of Risk Rating 2.0 until October 1, 2021.

25. Why do zones of high and low pressure develop in Earth's atmosphere

NO wind case: no horizontal change in atmospheric pressure Thermal Circulation: Cold air near ground flows from area of high pressure toward area of low pressure. Surface air warms up and rises. Aloft air moves from high pressure to low pressure zone. Aloft air cools down and sinks. Warm air rises, creating a low pressure zone; cool air sinks, creating a high pressure zone

9.What are the requirements for building on the Flood Fringe?

Only flood-proofed construction (area of the 100 yr flood)

26. What is the Bonnet Carré Spillway used for?

Opening Bonnet Carré Spillway diverts water eastward into Mississippi Sound. In 2019 the spillway was opened 123 days. - Caused a 100% drop in shrimp, crab, & oyster harvest (losses ~ $216M). - Closed beaches out of concern of toxic algae.

46.Over the past 40 years has the proportion of major tropical cyclones been increasing or decreasing? And why?

Over the 39-year span of the data set, the proportion of major storms increased roughly 6% per decade. Increasing intensity of Tropical Cyclones correlates with increasing ocean warming.

4.How does overwash of a barrier beach by wave run up differ from overwash of a barrier beach by storm surge?

Overwash of barrier beach by wave runup. : R = inundation by wave run-up Overwash of barrier beach by storm surge. :S = inundation by storm surge + waves S = storm surge In wave runup the coastal barrier is more defined, water must travel up and over the barrier In storm surge: surge level much higher and multiple waves, barrier is more flat and water crashes over it In general storm surge is more destructive because it is storm surge + waves

32. What are property owners offered by the Harris County Disaster Recovery Post Disaster Relocation and Buyout Program?

Owners of property in targeted areas are offered: Pre-flood fair market appraised value for their property (residential, commercial or vacant).

28. Why did Pacific Gas & Electric file for bankruptcy in 2019?

Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E), a major CA utility, filed for bankruptcy protection in January, 2019 after being hit with over $30 billion in liabilities tied to its role in the wildfires of 2017 and 2018. In June 2020, U.S. Bankruptcy Judge officially approved PG&E's reorganization plan. The company has restructured its debts and agreed to pay $25.5 billion in fire-related claims. Still faces huge wildfire risks

13. What is the difference between timing of peak rainfall and the Flood Peak?

Peak rainfall happens first then there is time lag followed by flood peak (could be days or weeks)

22. Nuisance flooding from high tides caused by sea-level rise has eroded property values between 2005 and 2017 by how much?

Peer-reviewed housing-market research by the First Street Foundation & Columbia University has found increased tidal flooding caused by sea-level rise has eroded property values between 2005 and 2017, bringing the total loss among states Maine - Mississippi to $15.8 billion.

5.What is hazard 'exposure'?

People and their infrastructure located in the hazard-prone area

1. What are the units for Channel Discharge and how is it measured?

Q = V × A Q = channel discharge (m3 /s) V = average velocity (m/s) A = cross-sectional area of flow (m2 'Water velocity is proportional to the square root of Flow Depth (h) times Surface Slope (S).' Flow velocity increases with flow depth. Everything else being equal, steeper Surface Slopes drive faster velocities.

24. How did the 2019 Mississippi River flood compare to the history of floods on the river?

Rising Seas Erode $15.8 Billion in Home Value from Maine to Mississippi Peer-reviewed housing-market research by the First Street Foundation & Columbia University has found increased tidal flooding caused by sea-level rise has eroded property values between 2005 and 2017, bringing the total loss among states Maine - Mississippi to $15.8 billion. 2019 Mississippi River flooding from spring through July was the longest flood on record

41.Exactly how is Storm Surge related to surface wind speed, fetch, and offshore water depth?

S=u2L/gd S=Surge u=surface wind speed L=fetch d= average offshore water depth g=acceleration from gravity

21. What does NASA's SMAP satellite measure?

SMAP is the Soil Moisture Active Passive mission. Provides high-resolution and frequentrevisit global mapping of soil moisture and landscape freeze/thaw state. Launched in 2015 SMAP uses two microwave sensors, a radar and a radiometer.

43.What is a 'vegetation dam'?

Sediment flux from hillslopes to channels often increases by more than an order of magnitude following fires. Sediment storage on steep slopes is enabled by vegetation that traps sediment upslope. Measured sediment volumes behind burned vegetation dams indicate a loss of at least 75% relative to unburned dams. Vegetation dams are important because, when incinerated during wildfire, they can rapidly release large volumes of sediment to river channels.

43.What is Rapid Intensification of a tropical cyclone?

Significant Hazard: Rapid Intensification of a tropical cyclone is defined as an increase in top winds by at least 35 mph in 24 hours.

3. How is 'Lifting of Air' connected to significant precipitation events?

Significant precipitation events are driven by the lifting of air that leads to it cooling and the condensation of water vapor into rain drops and/or ice crystals

13.Why is Texas 'extraordinary' when it comes to billion-dollar natural disasters from 1980-2018?

Since 1980, Texas has experienced the highest number of events (104) and is one of the few states that have been impacted by all seven types of the billion-dollar disasters analyzed. Texas leads the U.S. in total cumulative costs (~$250 billion) from billion-dollar disasters between 1980-2018.

16. How does global warming changing our vulnerability to wildfires?

Single most important weather factor affecting fire behavior = Temperature Warm fuels ignite and burn faster because less heat energy is used to raise the fuels to their ignition/combustion temperature. At the same time, rising temperatures result in decreasing relative humidity and fuel moisture. Increasing temperature is increasing our vulnerability to wildfires. Note the correlation between the increase in Global Average Temperature and acres of US land burned by wildfires. (large increase) Clear evidence that warm & dry conditions promote large CA wildfires. With addition of 2019 & 2020 data, 19 of the 20 largest CA wildfires have occurred in 2001 - 2020

Stages of water

Solid: Water Ice: molecules are arranged regularly and held firmly in place, but can vibrate extremely small distances Liquid: Liquid Water: loose configuration of molecules that move easily past one another, but attractive forces between them maintain free surfaces. Free surfaces include the water level in a cup or pool, and the surface of the ocean. Gas: Water Vapor: very loose configuration of molecules with sufficient distance between them that attractive forces cannot hold the molecules together

14.Were the bottoms of return-flow channels found on San Jose Island, TX, after Hurricane Harvey cut down to sea level, or a few meters below sea level?

Some coastal erosion can also be associated with water flowing back into Gulf. Erosive return-flow channels a few meters below sea level

29.What happened to the Canyon Lake spillway in 2002?

Spillway was built to protect Canyon Lake dam. Case 4: Flood structures do fail 2002 flooding of the Guadalupe River, TX, overfilled CANYON LAKE reservoir. Huge amount of water going over the SPILLWAY for the CANYON LAKE reservoir led to cutting of the CANYON LAKE GORGE. Flood waters flowed for several weeks, but the highest discharge -- during which the bulk of the canyon erosion took place -- was over a period of just three days . Nine people were killed by the resulting flood over a 32 km stretch of the river. 48,000 homes were damaged or destroyed. Excavated ~ 7m of limestone in just ~ 3 days. Damage immediately downstream of Canyon Lake Gorge (eroded spillway) was worsened by deposition of the eroded rock & soil, causing burial of infrastructure and increased flooding.

12.What is the trend in number of and total cost of billion-dollar natural disasters in the U.S. from 1980-2019?

Steadily increases: Geophysical: earthquake, tsunami- constant over time Meteorological- weather related- consistent increase Hydrological: flood- consistent increase Climatological: increasing through time (extreme temp, drought, forest fire) Worldwide insured loses: 1970-2020: weather related largest insurance liability- manmade: avg increased over time US centric weather disasters: extreme weather trends soar- number of them increase, so does costs

8.What is a representative range of diameters for North Atlantic hurricanes?

Storm diameter: 200-1300 km (125 to 800 mi) Eye diameter: 16-70 km (10 to 44 mi)

15. Why is the Rising Limb of a flood hydrograph almost always steeper than its Falling Limb?

Stream flow rapidly increases from surface runoff, steep rising limb reaching peak flow, from the peak discharge decreases slowly Water -surface elevation & discharge goes down relatively slowly as draining of overbank surface water can feed the river for considerable time .

7.What was the amount of shoreline retreat associated with both hurricanes Ike and Harvey at the 'study area'; much less than 50 m, about 50 m, or much more than 50 m?

Study Area shortly after Hurricane Ike. Extensive Washover Deposits building the coastline. Measurements of change by Harvey are being added to those from Hurricane Ike. Defining competition between (A) storm (surge + waves) & (B) pre-existing beach + dune properties. Minimal inundation produced almost no washover deposits at this site. Ike: Study Area shortly after Hurricane Ike. Extensive Washover Deposits building the coastline.more than 50 m? (over 100 ft) Harvey: Modification to central TX coast by Hurricane Harvey primarily consisted of sediment removal from beach. > 20-m landward-shift of coastline at the Study Area. (much less than 50m)

10. Supercell Thunderstorms are associated with what style of air lifting?

Supercell thunderstorms tend to be associated with zones of frontal lifting.

14.What do all of the TX counties covered by TWIA have in common?

TWIA policies cover wind & hail in 14 coastal counties and parts of Harris County for owners who cannot obtain insurance from a licensed company.

31. What are the three objectives of the Harris County Disaster Recovery Post Disaster Relocation and Buyout Program?

The objectives of this mandatory SRL buyout program are: 1. Acquire properties that have been subject to multiple floods and use for public space, green space, and/or flood control measures (including restoring floodplains to their natural and beneficial function, aiding in the storage of floodwaters). 2. Assist homeowners & businesses to move to an area with a reduced risk of flooding. 3. Eliminate future flood damages and health and safety risks for owners and rescuers.

28.What is the pattern of wind speed and direction in a hurricane?

The spiral becomes tighter and tighter near the eyewall and wind speed increases. Winds converge at the eyewall & turn abruptly upwards, ascending in a broadening spiral to the top of the storm. Northern Hemisphere (K. Emanuel, Divine Wind, 2005) 16 Example of Wind Pattern within a Tropical Cyclone Strongest winds occur just above the ocean in a ring just outside of the eyewall of the storm

38.What is storm surge and is it higher on the right-or left-hand side of a hurricane hitting the TX coast? Why?

The spiraling winds push on the sea surface, causing the water to pile up into a storm surge. The highest storm surge forms to the east of the eye (right-hand side for TX coast). S= u2L/ gd Right: winds come off the ocean, pushing much more seawater onto the land

20.What government agency is required to notify homeowners that they are living within a reservoir's flood pool?

The state

11.What is the difference between a tropical cyclone, a hurricane, a typhoon and a cyclone?

There is no difference. Diff names for same thing Name depends on where on Earth a Tropical Cyclone occurs: Hurricanes, Typhoons, & Cyclones

2020 hurricanes

Thirty named storms formed in 2020, breaking the previous record of 28 set in 2005. •Twelve landfalls occurred during 2020, breaking the previous annual record of nine landfalls set in 1916 Seven of the 12 landfalling tropical systems produced at least $1 billion in damage, breaking the old record of four separate billion -dollar tropical cyclones in both 2004 and 2005.

13.How many people are mapped as being exposed to the 100-year flood using the 'bottom-up' approach?

This data gap equates to an extra 28 million Americans living in the 100 -year flood zone. Using "bottom-up" approaches, ~ 13 million people are exposed to 100-year flood.

32.How many sites that handle toxic chemicals are located in flood-prone areas across the country?

This flooding of San Jacinto River led to significant spills of toxic chemicals at downriver sites Chemical sites in areas vulnerable to flooding value the advantages of proximity to rivers and oceans — for transportation and trade, or for a ready supply of cooling water — over the risks of flood-induced spills. More Than 2,500 Sites That Handle Toxic Chemicals Are Located in Flood-Prone Areas Across the Country Floods Are Getting Worse, and 2,500 Chemical Sites Lie in the Water's Path

20. What are the three properties used to estimate the lift force of a tornado or any natural hazard?

Tornadoes commonly lift the roofs off buildings. Air density, wind velocity at rooftop, wind velocity at ground surface, rooftop area Once roof is removed, impact pressure of tornado wind can knock over walls that are no longer supported by roof.

10.What are the differences between the 'bottom-up' versus 'top-down' approaches to floodplain mapping?

Traditional "bottom-up" approach: FEMA develops separate hydraulic models for individual river reaches and then stitches model outputs together to generate a nationwide view of area mapped as base floodplain. This is the gold standard in flood inundation modeling, but it requires significant resources and time to accomplish. As a result, FEMA mapping currently covers only about 60% of the conterminous United States (CONUS). "Top -down" models fill in the areas that the "bottom -up" FEMA maps miss, such as areas around small streams and much of the midwestern and northwestern United States

16.What institution names tropical storms and hurricanes in the North Atlantic?

Tropical Storms and Hurricanes in the North Atlantic are given names by the U.S. Hurricane Center.

presidential declarations

Two principal forms of presidential action authorizing federal assistance to states & localities: emergency declarations and major disaster declarations. • Emergency declarations are issued when a threat is recognized in order to protect property and public health and safety, so as to lessen or avert the threat of a major disaster or catastrophe. • Major disaster declarations are made as a result of a significant incident and help states and local communities, as well as families and individuals, recover from the damage caused by the event. Process: local, state, fed each det and let go through to final request to pres

14.How many people are mapped as being exposed to the 100-year flood using the 'top-down' approach and why the difference?

Using new "top-down" approaches, ~ 41 million people are exposed to the possibility of a 100-year flood.

16. What 4 months of the year are associated with the largest number of tornadoes and supercell thunderstorms?

Warm land-surface air in Spring, Summer, & early Fall increases the occurrence of tornado producing storms. April, may, june, july

34. What is the connection between air temperature and the amount of water vapor that air can hold?

Warmer air can hold a greater amount of water vapor. Temperature directly relates to the amount of moisture the atmosphere can hold.

38. When is Latent Heat stored, when is it released?

Water changing state from solid to liquid to gas absorbs heat in the process. Water changing state from gas to liquid to solid releases heat in the process. This release of latent (stored) heat during the condensation of water vapor is an important energy, source driving further growth of Thunderstorms & Hurricanes

37.Are wind speeds on the right-hand side of this hurricane larger or smaller than those measured on the left-hand side and by how much?

Wind speeds on right hand side are much higher than left hand side Location of onshore-directed winds + highest wind speeds. Wind speeds on right hand side are much higher than left hand side Location of onshore-directed winds + highest wind speeds. Left: subtracting storm winds and storm motion

33. What produces lightning in a thunderstorm and how does this differ from what produces lightning in a fire cloud?

Water droplets in the bottom part of the cloud are caught in the updrafts. Downdrafts in the cloud push ice and hail down from the top of the cloud. Where the ice going down meets the water coming up, electrons are stripped off. Electrical fields increase until the strength of the charge overpowers the insulating properties of the atmosphere and lightning happens. Differs from lightning in a fire cloud because fire clouds make lightning without rain (dry lightning).storm forms from high temperatures or along a weather front (as usual) but, unlike normal thunderstorms, the rain evaporates before it reaches the ground, so lightning strikes dry vegetation and sparks bushfires.

12.What happens to the mass of a rock or soil when water replaces air-filled pore space?

Water-Related Mass Movement Triggers: 1. Filling pores with water (rain). Density diff between air and water- inc total density (water 800x denser)

.22.How do significant rain events trigger debris flows?

Water-Related Mass Movement Triggers: 1. Filling pores with water (rain). 2. Consolidation of a soil with water-filled pores leads to increasing pore-water pressures that reduce the magnitude of internal friction (holding soil together), in effect lubricating the material. 3. Earthquake shaking of a soil with water-filled pores can lead to liquefaction More susc to it

21. What is a downburst?

Weather plays a major role in the birth, growth, and death of wildfires & Intense fires can create their own local weather Downburst = area of strong, downward moving air. As downdraft impacts the ground, the air is forced outwards in all directions producing strong winds.

12.In an average year, what part of the world's oceans has the largest number of tropical cyclones?

West Pacific (asia)- typhoons- 30% of all large tropical cyclones

9.What is a typical pathway (direction of motion) for a North Atlantic hurricane?

Westward then north then east path is clockwise

8.What is the evidence that our 'exposure' and 'vulnerability' to hurricane risk is high and increasing on the TX coast?

What do we want to do about Mitigation - reducing threat of a natural hazard. Requires reducing..... Exposure: People & infrastructure located in hazard-prone area & Vulnerability: Possibility of being negatively impacted by a natural hazard. bolivar peninsula: before and after Ike- only slight reduction in number of houses- compl rebuild rebuilding put ourselves in harm way

15.What is the NFIP?

What fed gov actually does: pays most of it (not state/ individuals)- a lot of things happened in 1980s- last 50 yrs fed gov pay natural disasters- fed spending skyrocket 1990s- The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) is the main program intended to provide federal assistance to homeowners and renters recovering from flood losses. The maximum coverage for a family home is $100,000 for contents and $250,000 for building structure The National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 created the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) NFIP started out in HUD (Dept. of Housing and Urban Development).

Fringe

When US engineers only acquired property located 100 yr flood plain. That left a "fringe" of unpurchased land that consisted largely of open prairie and agricultural land. At the time, the Corps determined that any flooding that did occur on the unpurchased fringe area would result in minimal damage. In the ensuing decades, the reservoirs' fringe became populated with thousands of homes and businesses. More than 9,000 of those structures flooded during Hurricane Harvey. A large group of homeowners is now suing the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which operates the dams. Many had no idea that their homes were within a reservoir's footprint or "flood pool."

20. What is the connection between rain, soil moisture, and flooding?

When the Rainfall Rate is less than the Infiltration Capacity of the soil, most of the rain infiltrates and there is little-to-no surface runoff. Surface runoff of rain water is a primary contributor to big floods. Minor surface runoff, minor flooding

18. What is the role of infiltrated rain water on a flood hydrograph?

When the Rainfall Rate is less than the Infiltration Capacity of the soil, most of the rain infiltrates and there is little-to-no surface runoff. Surface runoff of rain water is a primary contributor to big floods. Minor surface runoff, minor flooding. Dry soil Infiltration rate= really high- water goes into soil greater= runoff, already wet

32. When does a hailstone fall to the ground?

When the updraft can no longer support a hailstone, it falls from the sky.

22. What is wind and how is it driven?

Wind = near Earth-surface flow of air driven by a pressure gradient Isobaric Surfaces = surfaces connecting points of equal Pressure. mb (millibars)= unit of atmospheric pressure Wind is driven by tilted Isobaric Surfaces. 1000 mb 980 mb 990 mb No Wind case: No horizontal change in atmospheric pressure. Thermal Circulation: Cold air near ground flows from area of high pressure toward area of low pressure. Surface air warms up and rises. Aloft air moves from high pressure to low pressure zone. Aloft air cools down and sinks. Atmospheric Convection Currents occur when heated air expands, becoming less dense, and rises. When air cools and contracts, becoming more dense, and sinks.

27. What properties are used to estimate the wind velocity?

Wind Velocity is proportional to magnitude of atmospheric pressure gradient u = wind velocity = proportional to L = horizontal distance between points A & B The greater the pressure gradient, the larger the velocity. Differences in air pressure are primarily connected to differences in air density.

20.Can soil infiltration rates exceed 1 inch (2.54 cm) per hour?

YES- if it is well sorted, sandy Also if silty gravels, silty sandy gravels and well sorted sands

17.Are coastal lakes and lagoons good locations to look for ancient washover deposits?

Yes, Cores from Western Lake, Grayton Beach State Park, Florida Panhandle. Hurricane Opal (1995) was a Category 3 Hurricane. Core plus radiometric age-dating suggest ~12 equally catastrophic hurricanes have hit this site during the past 3,800 years.

26. Can wildfires create their own local weather?

Yes, Intense fires can create their own local weather

3.Is overwash a type of storm inundation?

Yes, Styles of Coastline Inundation, also called Overwash

21. Is the magnitude of the lift force very sensitive to the vertical difference in wind velocity?

Yes, goes w/ velocity diff squared- small diff in velocity= big diff lift force, Yes since you have to subtract the wind velocity at rooftop and ground surface

12.What prominent deposit type is exposed in the beach scarp at the 'study area'?

sediment locally eroded from the beach built the Ike washover fan deposits. Sedimentary deposits can preserve a record of many hurricane washover features. Core taken from the deposits can reveal hurricane units buried in the subsurface. Excavation of beach scarp by Harvey surge + waves exposed coarse washover (shells and things) deposits from previous hurricanes