Geography A Level - Superpowers
Similarities and differences between models?
All - American made Attempting to explain global inequalities between nations Core = consuming a lot Modernisation + Systems = Implies status can change and grow Dependency + Systems = Marxist Economists and Core-Periphery Modernisation + Dependency = Imply core stays same and consumes a lot Dependency = static
Brazil?
Produces 50% of South America's GDP and has 50% of SA's population, therefore regionally important NATURAL RESOURCES - food and energy - agricultural superpower and 2nd in world for bio-energy production 2016 Olympics and 2014 World Cup Therefore large labour pool, reduced dependency on other countries, important to UN Framework of Climate Change as 13%of global species, soft power means lack of negative associations Politically unstable and corrupt - annual protests since 2013 and lack of political reach Least significant military power in the BRICS Ageing population Reliant on primary products, rather than manufacturing - low value exports Therefore, Heavily criticised for poor environmental protection, which some suggest should be internationally managed Weak hard power Primary products are prone to fluctuations meaning unreliable income and hard to plan for development Future dependency issues
How do superpowers influence the global economy?
Promote free trade and capitalism through a variety of IGOs, including World Bank, IMF, World Economic Forum, WTO
WTO?
Promotes free trade Focuses on trade and rules - aims to free up global trade and reduce trade barriers, by negotiating free-trade agreements and ensuring its members maintain its rules One country = one vote, however no votes have ever been taken to WTO - mutual agreement Poverty reduction = removing farm subsidies in developing countries to stimulate efficient production -> cheaper imports undercut local farmers forcing them out of business = less competitive = explosion of global trade BUT USA and EU give subsidies to farmers Maintains/extends power held by already economically powerful countries as able to dominate trade by importing cheap, because low production costs cutting smaller countries out of market, meaning local businesses e.g. farmers are forced out of business
Two types of TNCs?
Publicly traded TNCs - owned by various shareholders generally pension funds and banks - dividends to shareholders State-owned TNCs - owned by governments through 100% share or majority e.g. China - all profits returned to state Emerging are often state-owned
USA military spending?
$597 billion compared to China's $147.8 billion - corresponds with USA having largest GDP in the world
Multi-faceted?
many-sided
Positives and Negatives of Colonialism?
+ Railway lines built throughout country and transportation of goods occurs quickly, English language spread throughout empire so Commonwealth countries became outsourcing services, education improved as schools set up and curriculum established - international migration to fill skill shortages in other countries after WW2 - Majority of crops grown in colonial states bought by British at very low price and then sold off for more expensive (Neo-colonial theory) - less profit to reinvest into own futures, colonial states did not have own governments causing severe independence protests and unstable countries when made independent, discriminating policies established to segregate British migrants from natives - policies remained in some countries until recently
IMF interest rate?
0.7%
British Empire timeline?
1500 - Age of Discovery 1600's and 1700's - Many wars with France and Netherlands establishes Britain as dominant colonial power 1721 - English and French East India Companies became serious rivals - spice treats etc - monopolistic trading power 1750 - Tea popular in Britain and its colonies as East India Company trades extensively across Asia FORMAL EMPIRE BEGINS IN 1760 - All of Canada comes under British rule and in 1763, India comes under British rule 1821 - Much of Western Africa is colonised - precious resources, such as diamonds - last one that came under rule 1858 - East India Company dissolved + Mughal Empire collapsed (empire in South Asia) WW1 - Britain acquired many of Germany's African colonies 1931 - British Empire renames as British Commonwealth to distance itself from past as colonial ruler 1947 - India gains independence 1948-1981 - Many former Empire states become independent
Era of formal empire?
1760-1821 (last thing to come under rule = Western Africa countries in 1821) Canada = 1760 India = 1763
Post 1945: USA and USSR info?
1948-51 - Marshall Aid - USA sent $12 billion to aid Western Europe to help rebuild infrastructure and increase trade and avoid countries such as West Germany becoming communist Arms Race - 1945 = USA atomic bomb/1949 = USSR nuclear power, balancing USA's nuclear deterrent 1965-1975 - Vietnam War - USA fought to help South Vietnamese army resist the USSR-funded communist North in a failed proxy war 1979-1989 - Soviet-Afghanistan War - Soviet Army unsuccessfully fought US-funded Afghan mujahideen rebels to maintain a communist coup - overpowered communism 1989-90 - Communism collapsed and USSR influence also collapsed, splitting the USSR into its member states and no longer a superpower
Tensions can arise over...? (Arctic)
Acquisition of physical resources - ownership is disputed and disagreement exists over expolitation Estimated 30% of world's undiscovered gas reserves and 13% of untapped oil are in the Arctic -> sovereignty over the Arctic is disputed as different countries claim territory within the circle, potentially allowing them to claim the Arctic in the future Denmark, Russia, Norway, USA and Canada EU, Russia and USA have nuclear weapons - Russia placed flag on North Pole in 2007, raising tensions Shipping route (North Sea Route) created because of melting ice Canada used $3.5 billion for Arctic defence and Russia also created Arctic forces to protect interest and run military exercises Backbone of Russian infrastructure already established there President Trump revealed in August 2019 his interest of buying Greenland from the Danish government, but rejected so he cancelled his trip to Denmark in September Highlights importance of having land bordering the Arctic as can extend into the area
India?
1997-2015 = annual growth rates of 7% (higher than HICs) World's largest democracy and G20 member Young population = 65% are under 35 - 200 million speak fluent English and good education levels meaning service industries exported, such as BT call centre in Bangalore Bollywood film industry Located near Africa/Eur/Asian sea trade routes Therefore, Large labour pool Large political influence Potential to increase nuclear power sector, especially with CO2 problems - 4th largest producer of nuclear power Huge potential for sea trade and spreading cultural influence Unequal society - more than 20% live in poverty and high population growth 3rd largest CO2 emitter Some of the worst slums Poor infrastructure with water and energy supply e.g. 2012 power cut affected 620 million Poor geopolitical relations with neighbours China, Pakistan and Bangladesh (water resource conflicts) Hyperurbanisation A lot of debt Therefore, Outmigration Threats to biodiversity - 6% of global plant and animal species in India Limited to regional player? Look East = shift trading focus from West and neighbours to booming South East Asain countries - 1990's Act East - 2015 - promote economic cooperation, cultural ties and develop strategic relationship with countries in Asia-Pacific region
Defence expenditure?
2017 - USA = $616 billion NATO Europe and Canada = $299 billion
Defence expenditure as % of GDP?
2017 - USA = 3.58% - unhappy about disproportional contributions - resentful of EU allies NATO Europe and Canada = 1.46% NATO countries target = 2%
EU?
6 states in trading alliance in 1956, but 28 member states in 2016 - free movement of people and common currency for 19 members Economic strengths ensures against poverty and reduce inequalities between richest and poorest members UK voted to leave and tensions between those wanting separation and those wanting greater convergence
Space Race?
A competition of space exploration between the United States and Soviet Union - USSR sent first man and first satellite into space, but USA won as sent Apollo 11 to the moon before
Westernisation?
A social process where the values, customs and practices of Western industrial capitalism are adopted to form the basis of cultural change Americanisation - adopt lifestyle e.g. watch Disney, go to Disney resorts and theme parks, play with Disney toys, eat 'American food' Arts, food and media, play American football HOWEVER some parts e.g. sushi and curry from Asia and spread to Europe and America Top popstars come from Western countries e.g. Michael Jackson, Justin Bieber
Superpower definition?
A state or organisation that is able to extend a dominant influence globally
Emerging powers?
A state or organisation that is growing significantly in power and beginning to extend a more global influence e.g. BRICs
Regional power?
A state or organisation with a sphere of influence that tends to be continental rather than global
Proxy wars?
A war instigated by a major power that does not itself become involved Korean War - South supported by US and North supported by China and USSR Vietnam War - USA fought directly against groups supported by China and USSR
NATO deployed more troops where?
Across Eastern European in case Russia attacked a NATO member state
Middle East - examples of conflict?
Alliance between West with Israel and Arab monarchies whilst opposing alliance formed between Iran, China, Syria and Russia Israelis backed with billion worth of equipment and aid from USA Iranian and Syrian regimes backed by Russia US-led invasion and occupation of Iraq (2003-2011) and Afghanistan (2001-2010) and aimed to officially remove the Taliban and Hussain, create stable governments and remove weapons of mass destruction True aims = protect oil sources as rising ISIS has focused Western attentions on defending oil reserves Refugee crisis created from conflict between different factions in Syria and Iraq-> forced 2 million people to flee to Jordan, Turkey and Lebanon Ongoing conflict between Palestine and Israel - Israel has taken land from Palestinians and built settlements, causing continued tensions with Muslims around the world
Crimea?
Annexation of Crimea by Russia - peninsula located on south of Ukrainian Russia had 52 year lease from Ukraine to use one of their warm-water ports, but if Ukraine becomes closer to/joins NATO, then Russia couldn't lease anymore, due to tensions with NATO, EU members and Russia 2014 - took control after lost power in 1991 Ukraine formed membership with EU and NATO and all condemned Russia's annexation of Crimea as violation of international law and imposed sanctions against Russia, urging them to withdraw from Crimea - Russia suspended from G8 group Known as Russo-Ukranian War - War in Donbass conflict in March 2014 and Military Invasion in August 2014 Harmed Russia's relations with EU and USA Loss of state property located on the peninsula + port infrastructure useful for Ukrainian exporters Approx 70% of tourists coming to Crimea were from Ukraine Hard to seek psychological support due to chaos of war - worried that punished by psychiatrists, like in Soviet days
South China Sea?
Area of the Aral Sea - Taiwan, Phillipines, Brunei, Malaysia, Vietnam etc - claim, but weak in terms of international law China has claimed control over Spratly and Paracel Islands (in South China Sea) - possess rich natural resources and fishing areas Overlapping EEZs (Exclusive Economic Zones) leads to disputes over fishing and oil exploration in the waters China suspected to be building ports, military bases and runways on Spratly Island in order to spread influence China and US have both militarised the area with US having bases in countries surrounding the Sea Global trade route - estimated $3.37 trillion worth of global trade pass through every year - China->South Asia US stationed nearby since end of WWII to monitor India has joint patrols with ASEAN, reminding China they are there
UN Security Council?
Arguably most powerful IGO in world 5 permanent members = UK, USA, China, Russia and France 10 rotating members on 2 year basis Apply sanctions to countries that can be deemed as security risks e.g. North Korea - harbours tourism, threatening or invading other countries Military force against another country can be authorised UN Peacekeeping Force can be authorised to reduce conflict + tensions or improve development and quality of life for locals HOWEVER... Any of the member states can veto a decision (reject) USA, UK and France generally vote together and China + Russia usually vote together -> leads to no progress within the council
ASEAN?
Association of Southeast Asian Nations, an alliance that promotes economic growth and peace in the region - 10 Southeast Asian Nations in 1967 e.g. Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, Vietnam Encourages greater co-operation and economic growth Aims to include cultural co-operation and common legal framework
Consumption inequalities?
China - increased consumption of cereal by 364%, meat consumption by 99%, fruit and nuts by 98%, pharmaceuticals by 87%, perfume consumption by 133% China = main consumer of 4 out of 8 main commodities USA = main consumer of 4 out of 8 main commodities Fossil fuel consumption = developed are the worst Growth of superpowers impacts coal consumption
Colonialism example?
British Empire - ruled 1/4 of world's land and 1/3 of world's population in its peak - pre-WW2 Royal Navy dominated the world's oceans and was double the size of Germany's Expansion based on hard power as invaded and colonised them to maintain its control Unipolar world
Intelligence services?
Budgets increasingly focused on anti-terrorism since 9/11, London and Paris attacks Many successes as uncover terrorist plots across Europe before happen BUT bad publicity e.g. Russia in Salisbury - negative soft power as a result of hard power Labour intensive = very costly
Multipolar world (1919-1939)?
Cold War - between USA and USSR USA: 1898 - rejecting an empire in Europe, but gained first overseas territories e.g. Guam Reluctantly entered WW1 after 2 and half years aiding the Allies by sending them manufactured goods 1920s - Mass production vastly increased US industrial output 1941 - reluctantly entered WW2 after bombing of Pearl Harbour by Japan 1945 - developed atomic bomb and used twice against Japan, ending WW2 USSR: 1917 - Russia became communist following successful revolution against Russian Empire's monarchy during WW1 1920s-1940s - Communist party began rapid modernisation and industrialisation - heavy industry to increase military capability 1941 - Germany invaded, prompting Russia to switch sides to fight with the Allied powers 1945 - fought the Eastern half of Germany and Eastern Europe, meaning they came under 'communist blocs' bracket Post 1945 - both superpowers competing for global control - ideological battle between capitalist, democratic USA and communist USSR
In the 20th Century, many empires...
Collapsed After the war, many colonial powers = bankrupt - had to spend a lot during war so couldn't afford to control and maintain colonies Colonial powers focused on rebuilding their home countries so focused less on colonies Colonial movements gained popularity and increased demand for independence forced colonial armies out
Neo-colonialism?
Control by a powerful country of its former colonies (or other less developed countries) by economic pressures Frank's dependency theory - neo-colony becomes dependent on the neo-colonial power controlling it During colonial era, empires exploited their colonies or a variety of commodities e.g. cotton, tea, tea Lancashire company established from cheap import of cotton from plantations in America - largely mechanised process so Lancashire companies made large profits Now - IMF and World Bank accused of being neo-colonial as provide loans, but high rates of repayments mean developing nations can't repay, meaning trapped in cycle of debt, meaning have to open economies to private companies (privatisation) - governments lose assets and income making them even less likely to repay debts
Air power?
Current warfare focused on rapid response of air power rather than naval fleets Overcomes geographical barriers Increased share of combat aircraft within defence budgets as world becomes less peaceful BUT second highest costs after nuclear power Constant R + D for upgrading - UK spent £1.7 billion on R + D in 2015/16
Methods of exerting imperial power - case study?
Dissolution of East India Company and move to direct control and governance by British government officials - beginning of British Raj First Methodist missionaries to India Grain exports to Great Britain, despite Great Famine of 1876-1878 East India Company had army of 260,000 - twice as large as British Army - and revenues of £13.5 million at time (equivalent to £1.35 billion now)
TNCs are...?
Dominant economic forces in the global economy and economic + cultural globalistion in terms of technology (patents) and trade patterns First mover advantage East India Company used to run India, controlling trade routes and ruling 20% of the world's population
USA - problems?
Economic - 2016: National Debt of $19 trillion Spent over $900 billion on military between 2012 and 2014 Mortgage Crisis - 'House for Every American' - no-one could pay back mortgage so people kicked out of houses = banks lose money as house price goes down because no longer high demand = Government had to bail out the bank Demographic - Population expected to grow from 324 million in 2016 to 415 million in 2060 Political - often political deadlock between Democrats and Republicans at state level Previous Trump election threatened to undermine previous work by Obama e.g. Climate Change Agreements + Social Acceptance Resources - Water insecurity is major problem, especially in South West - many droughts and illegally used aquifers will further drain water supplies unsustainably Social - Health spending constitutes for around 17% of annual GDP - v big cost for people and government 70% of Americans are overweight - obesity, diabetes and cancer care cause serious health problems or death for population
EU - problems?
Economic - Debt in Eurozone in 2016 = €9.7 trillion and £1.6 trillion in UK 2016 = unemployment was 10% so burden for taxpayers Youth unemployment was over 22% in 2015, with over 45% in Greece and Spain Demographic - ageing EU population - by 2025, estimated that 20% of EU citizens will be over 65 After 2035, likely to be overall decline in population due to low birth rates - only region in world with population projected to shrink by 2030 Political - not all 28 nations agree on everything Tensions with countries who want stronger union e.g. Germany and France contrasts with countries who want looser union e.g. UK have increased Immigration has become a very big political and divisive issue EU's energy predominantly comes from Russia, and relations between EU and Russia not good, therefore possible energy insecurity for EU nations in the future
Superpowers, emerging and regional powers can be defined using what contrasting characteristics?
Economic e.g. GDP per capita Political e.g. level of corruption Military e.g. military expenditure/size Cultural e.g. Americanisation Demographic e.g. population, ageing/youthful Access to natural resources e.g. OPEC represents 40% of global oil
World Bank and IMF?
Economic liberalisation - both by Breton Woods IMF = aim is to stabilise currency after 1930s depression and WWII devastation therefore encourages privatisation of industries, benefiting wealthy - Greece after 2008 economic crash encouraged to privatise industries - impose conditions on countries e.g. African countries forced to cut spending on healthcare and education in return for stabilising or extending debt repayments Unequal voting rights as USA has 16.5% - proportional to amount of money invested in fund World Bank = loans and aid during hazards etc - now aims to eliminate poverty and implement sustainable goals - HELPS CAPITALISM FUNCTION - same voting rights Both criticised due to funding of projects that have been unethical and environmentally damaging (World Bank = bad reputation in 1970s and 1980s) Also criticised for giving loans to countries who are unable to repay Maintains and extends power as economically powerful countries have control over less economically powerful countries - encourage developments, but damages economy as cannot repay
TNCs superpowers in their own right?
Economic power + influence - presence in WEF, increased global trade, global shift and operate in multiple countries = widened market as push smaller competitors out of market Cultural influence = impacts how people live, what they watch and how they function - Walt Disney = 14 theme parks + resorts and over 250 linked TV and cable networks French Government gave US$2 billion towards construction of Euro Disney Lack of political power - still have to abide by laws and don't have power to overthrow rules Multilateral Agreement of Investment (1995) - would allow TNCs to sue governments if they tried to eradicate laws that may impact the corporation's operations and functions - unsuccessful Starbucks only paid £8.6 million of corporation tax over 14 years Google, Facebook and Apple paid less than 4% corporation tax a year - Government rate = 17% Lack of military strength - East India Company took over India, exploiting Southeast Asian and Indian countries' trade with an army of 260,000 Instead, 21st century TNCs focus on accruing wealth and gaining economic power rather than invading countries - selective utilisation of power Absence of military power is compensated by economic power
UN Climate Change Conferences?
Encourage protection of environment and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions Montreal Protocol - Finalised in 1987 - aimed to stop use of CFCs and Halons as both highly damaging to ozone layer Kyoto Protocol - Held in 1997 - aimed to generally reduce greenhouse gas emissions Paris Agreement - Held in 2015 - highest number of signatures/states participating to date, however some withdrawn e.g. USA
Middle class threats? (5 factors)
Environmental = + Increased environmental awareness as education up Increased spending on environmental solutions as increased disposable income - Boserup - Increased consumption = Malthus Unsustainable resource use Industrial pollution CO2 emissions Habitat destruction Economic = + Increased quality of life and reduction of poverty as increased government revenue and spending Multiplier effect from increased spending = Modernisation Theory - Increased inequality within own countries and other countries = Dependency Theory Social = + Population growth down as birth rate decreases to spend more per child = Malthus - Exploitation of workers in periphery - race to the bottom and potential static periphery Political = + Larger educated group with eco/pol leverage to hold the government accountable Generally stabilising influence as conservative with current system Wider spread of power to BRICs/NEEs - Marginalisation of remaining poor minority (globally and within countries) Resulting unrest/populist election victories Military = + Larger scale military action less likely as middle class bring a high level of international economic integration Middle class have more power to resist unpopular wars - Increased regional instability as middle class contribute to disproportionality of BRICs/NEEs economies = expanding spheres More revenue to spend on defence
TNCs superpowers in their own right - for and against?
FOR - Direct mediation with governments in WEF - persuade low taxation Impacts on global trade - increased by 85% from 2010 onwards compared to 45% increase per decade between 1960-2010 Technology - TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights - agreement between all member nations of WTO) - favour TNCs as spend money on research and innovation - made illegal to import AIDs medication as cheaper from India compared to more expensive from USA - now Doha Declaration has patent rights for better access to essential medicines - patents, trademarks and copyright - have to pay royalty fee to use Cultural influences - soft power, tax evasion/avoidance Nike in 2001 worth more than South Africa Economies of scale, borrow money for investment into new technologies and move towards capitalism has opened up more opportunities for them AGAINST - Chinese TNCs are state-led and operate commercially, but all profits returned to state e.g. Sinopec Culture represents countries, not TNCs e.g. Disney Location means share of profits goes back to HIC - HQ has improved economy First mover advantage - limited time for other businesses to catch up Patents require governments to respect/enforce copyright infringements Government still has power over tax rates e.g. SEZs in London Docklands Acrude more wealth than hard power as economy is the base Hard power = Government spending
End of History?
Fukyama - end of Cold War - try to be better selves as humans - Western capitalisation among all countries Middle East = essential supplier of oil from states e.g. UAE, Saudi Arabia, which America support China = communist, but leader of FDI and SEZs - acts more capitalists outside countries
Rising importance of China on a global stage increases...?
Geopolitical influence of the region while also creating economic and political tensions within the region Belt and Road connects China, Eurasia and Africa Political = Tibet - some seek political separation of Tibet and China - Beijing's communist government is atheist and accused by separation-seekers of suppressing Tibetan religion, culture and freedom of expression - refuses to acknowledge Dalai Lam, Tibet's traditional spiritual and political leader Japan = historic tensions but improved - extensive trade now India = tense relations based on historical border disputes - both maintain military presence along their side of Himalayan border Centre of Economic Gravity moved from West to East slowly - Asian countries becoming influential players in global economy FDI now originates from Asian countries e.g. China and India - however worry of neo-colonial relationships being created - gifts for natural resources Tensions over resources e.g. finite resources such as oil and water + territorial claims e.g. South China Sea and the Arctic Spheres of Influence - China and India are physically very close meaning contested border e.g. Sikkim region Expand in US's sphere of influence - expansion overlaps with current hegemon - South China Sea Debt crisis, political corruption, war and trading e.g. sanctions, tariffs
Superpowers and emerging nations play a key role in...
Global action - crisis response, conflict, climate change Crisis response e.g. Haiti - UK, USA, Canada, Brazil, Italy etc all sent large contingents of disaster relief, medical staff, technicians for reconstruction etc - China = poor relations with others - total cost =$13.9 billion, international aid = $13 billion Conflicts - 9/11 - Al Qaeda = series of 4 coordinated terrorist attacks, killing nearly 3000 people - USA attacked Afghanistan in retailiation Paris Agreement - 195 countries initially signed on - China, India, UK - aim to keep global temperature rise well below 2oC - US formally withdrew - rich countries help poorer nations by providing climate finance - target is at least $100 billion in contributions per year US wants to stop all payments Kirabati = rising sea levels = environmental refugees
2 factors causing an increase in emissions?
Global division of labour Increased consumption Many not want to cut down as may... Reduce growth and stops TNCs from relocating to different areas if more difficulties Need economic growth to decrease poverty, AIDs epidemic etc Population growth
American ownership of TNCs changing?
Had 6 in top 10 in 2006 3 in top 10 in 2015 e.g. Walmart Stores
Hard Power vs. Soft Power
Hard power: the usage of force, fear, or money to gain power - force and coercion e.g. nuclear bomb is extreme Soft power: the usage of influence to gain power (making people want what you want) - favour and persuasion e.g. Olympic Games Mechanisms for maintaining power sit on spectrum - vary in effectiveness
Resource use inequalities?
Have to take resources from other places, increasing tension and conflict -> impacts of the economy as higher prices charged for limited resources e.g. non-renewables Caused by global shift, core and periphery model + differing economies
International resource use? (....... Curve?)
Higher GDP = worse environmental impact CO2 emissions highest in USA and then China (high mass consumption and industrialisation in BRICs) Kuznets Curve - describes level of environmental degradation against GDP per capita Pre-industrial = growing Industrial = peaks and turning point in middle to decline Post-industrial = service sector based economy so decline European Carbon Trading Scheme Developed countries can use money to pay for environmental protection as reduction in CO2 emissions Urban air quality in emerging powers = very dangerous as poor vehicle engines - 4000 people die a day in China because of air pollution + 70% of China's lakes and rivers are polluted Imports + exports have increased = increase in CO2 as more transport = goods have larger carbon footprint Accelerated deforestation as people cut down trees in order to grow crops for food or biofuel to meet increasing demands Disproportional contributions to global warming
Growing middle class? (4 types of security)
Increased consumption in emerging superpowers as higher disposable incomes meaning consumerism therefore environmental issues as live in bigger houses which require more heating, more appliances needing electricity, more cars emitting fuel Food security - increased demand - meat and dairy goods, but expensive to produce and increased greenhouse gases - food prices rise impacting the poorest the worst Water security - many emerging countries already suffer from water shortages - estimated that by 2030, 60% of India will face water scarcity - worsen food security as droughts induce crop failures and famines Energy security - oil demand is expected to rise by 30% by 2030 - increased prices and shortages causing electricity blackouts - countries with large reserves e.g. Russia are in good position, but countries that are not self-sufficient left vulnerable to exploitation Resource security - demand for rare earth materials increases -> higher prices e.g. demand for lithium batteries is high and hard to meet - severe shortages for basic metals e.g. copper, tin and platinum Increased pressure -> makes resources more scarce -> increase tensions between nations because some have excess resources and some need them -> increased prices
Russia?
Increased military spending Maintain political influence in ex-USSR neighbours Tourist sector increases e.g. Winter Olympics 2014/Fifa 2018 Low and slow growing population, avoiding hyperurbanisation Pollution legacy, but environmental improvements since Cold War - aiming to restore Aral Sea as a result of huge desiccation during Cold War e.g. cotton farming Natural resources of oil and gas brings economic benefit Increased tertiary sector = improves economy Hard Power effectiveness - Seized Crimea to access warm water port Increased soft power and trading Dependent on oil and gas exports - unsustainable,vulnerable to fluctuations and used to leverage politically Most unequal of HICs and NICs (richest 1% controls 71wealth = oligarchs) - social tensions and corruption Reduced global influence since Cold War - hard to regain influence lost to hegemon Military - ageing equipment - less effective against NATO (group formed during Cold War by USA and its allies) Declining population in some areas - less army recruits and smaller labour pool - increased Chinese influence in the East
Developing economic ties between emerging powers and developing world...?
Increases interdependence, generates environmental impacts and brings opportunities and challenges Interdependence between China and Africa - African trade relations increase with China as higher demand for resources - focus is on trade and investment in infrastructure e.g. transport links for exportation of raw materials and oil By 2015, China's African Trade was worth total of US $300 billion By 2015, China had become Africa's biggest trading partner - US $60 billion in Chinese FDI to boost mining and agricultural developments Belt and Road (infrastructure to increase trade and enhance cultural exchange), Tanzam Railway, school, hospitals, anti-malaria centres etc China moved steel, cement and leather tanning industries to Africa Chinese steelworkers company built steelworks in South Africa - 2014 Opportunities and threats = neo-colonialism, unfair terms of trade and brain drain
IPCC?
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change - panel of scientists and researchers has been one of the main bodies in environmental control and standards in the international community Established by UN in 1988 - produces reports which support UNFCCC Monitors peer-reviewed scientific technical and socio-economic publications and assemble evidence UN members understand risks created by climate change - 120 countries
Much of increase in trade is because of...
Intra-company trading - where companies trade goods and services between different branches of own company TNCs now account for 80% of global trade as core competences mean outsource different production processes to different companies
Nuclear weapons?
Invest to deter potential attackers Renewing Trident (now 4 submarines that each can carry up to 16 missiles) - costs £100-£250 billion over 45-50 years BUT changing attitudes towards nuclear deterrents means may be unfavourable in the future
China?
Investment into modern infrastructure e.g.high speed rail throughout country - 27,000km+ China's People Liberation Army is world's largest army by people and has nuclear weapons Large population of 1.38 billion - vast labour pool so sustainable growth 2016 - committed to reduce CO2 Bejing Olympics - 2008 - soft power - good at olympics Major player in global investment - invest heavily in developing countries, especially in Africa - likely to improve own trading situation Collaboration with Chinese production company Low GDP per capita is just 10% USA's so wealth hasn't spread among population 2% of China's population graduated university in 2009 compared 25-30% developed countries World's largest CO2 emitter - 33% of global emissions Isolated in terms of international migration USA dominates global and China only has few global brands Large amounts of land ruined because China wants goods as demand is rising Doesn't get involved in global crises towards other countries, limiting international relations Authoritarian party
ISDS?
Investor-State Dispute Settlement Investor may sue host state if violates rights granted to the investor under public international law - neutral settling of dispute
Emerging power?
Large projected growth BRICS - emergence of China as potential rival to USA's hegemony China - MINTS have more favourable attitudes to China than to US 1.38 billion people live in China - equal to North America and Europe 2013 GDP Growth forecast - 6% or more growth - 2019 = over 6% growth in a year, economically SEZs on coast - over 200% increase in population distribution from 1990-2015 Most CO2 emissions globally - 33% of world's emissions - 4000 people die a day from it America's dependence on China for manufactured goods has challenged America's power and influence Chinese government is facing more and more extreme opposition as people become more educated, therefore censoring Internet and limiting personal freedoms are being found as immoral
Direct control?
Maintaining control through hard power e.g. colonialism
Malthus VS Boserup?
Malthus = pessimist - natural check points, such as war or famine cause population to decrease Malthusian crisis = resource conflict? - widespread droughts and famine from climate change - millions may die - Sahel was drier 50 years ago than now, so harder to respond Iraq War - secure oil supply in an unstable region? Boserup = human innovation with increased production to sustain larger population e.g. Green Revolution in 1970 Renewable technologies e.g. electric cars - TESLA BRICs - solar arrays (multiple solar panels put together) in USA and China - the more built, the cheaper it will be Rostow's model = post high mass consumption = lifestyle change = plastic reduction + promotion of Extinction Rebellion
Frank's Dependency Theory?
Marxist theory Explains cycle of neo-colonialism, where neo-colony becomes dependent on the neo-colonial power controlling it 1) Production of agricultural or other primary produce e.g. coffee, cocoa 2) Goods exported in raw state from neo-colony to neo-colonial power 3) Low value 4) Low profits -> little income made 5) Unable to invest in improvements e.g. machinery, education, infrastructure etc Developing countries remain dependent on wealthier nations and their reliance/dependency is the cause of poverty Wealthy local elites who own exporting/importing businesses and have political connections benefit from dependency relationship because control limited trade in goods and services Advantages - HICs benefitted from LICs Represents African countries that have been exploited by colonial powers in the past and have had many resources taken away from them -> trapped in vicious cycle Disadvantages - Static, suggesting countries are stuck in permanently underdeveloped state NICs have actually broken through e.g. Singapore (3rd highest GDP in world), South Korea Many Asian NICs received significant economic aid and political support from USA to help them
Examples of varying powerful actions?
Military action (bombing or invasion) - Hard hard - potential to change the Government of invaded country in invader's favour and demonstrates willingness to act on threats HOWEVER expensive especially if no clear/quick victory and generally unpopular domestically and internationally - USA and UK invasion of Iraq 2005 Economic sanctions - Hard - threat of sanctions or economic problems caused by sanctions encourage countries to change policy as directed by superpower HOWEVER may receive sanctions from other country in return, exposes weak superpower as trading with other countries allows sanctions to be avoided, unpopular - USA and China currently have tariffs on each others products and current USA sanctions on Iran in reaction to suspected nuclear weapon programme Economic aid - Soft - Improves public perceptions, help with countries facing wars and natural disasters, countries become more amendable to superpower politically and culturally if it funds development e.g. education HOWEVER dead aid is damaging, unsuccessful development means aid loans create huge national debt, damaging attitudes to superpower and does not directly influence policy (except tied aid) - China's $900 billion 'Belt and Road' initiative to develop African and Asian infrastructure Sporting events - Soft soft - Hosts incorporate ceremonies to exhibit their cultural achievements and success demonstrates economic + social dominance HOWEVER costly to host, humiliating defeats possible (Jesse Owens proved Hitler's theories about racial differences wrong) and limited direct influence - Russia 2018 FIFA World Cup
Alliances do what?
Military, economic and environmental alliances increase interdependence and are important in geostrategy and global influence
Indirect control is becoming...
More important (political, economic, military and cultural influences)
China's impact on commodity prices?
Most commodity prices peaked when China's growth peaked during 2008-2010 e.g. copper prices doubled in 12 month period 2007-2008 China's economy = slowed, therefore commodity prices decreased as demand is low USA = Highest carbon emissions - 16.1 CO2 emissions per capita in 2015 - coal use decreased as no longer subsidise their industry - get coal from others instead China = 2nd highest carbon emissions - 7.7 CO2 emissions per capita In line with high GDP, power and growth
NATO?
North America Treaty Organisation - formed at start of Cold War - attack on one member is an attack on all members - carry out military exercises in each other's territory Influence has diminished since end of Cold War and collapse of USSR - role and cost is questioned Trump in Election Campaign - Russian military action has meant NATO discuss whether to base extra troops in Poland and 3 Baltic states to send signal of NATO strength to Putin USA wants to reduce contribution as target is 2% of GDP, but USA spend 3.6%
NAFTA?
North American Free Trade Agreement - allows open trade with US, Mexico, and Canada Concerns are economic as no free movement of people Benefits USA as lower labour costs in Mexico meaning drift of manufacturing Trump's Election Campaign - wanted to tear up as reason for loss of employment - protectionism
Middle East - reasons for conflict?
Oil and gas - 65% of world's crude oil comes from Middle East History - Colonial powers drew up borders in this area causing a lot of conflict as populations with communities and cultures are not normally separated Religion - Sunni and Shai are fighting against each other in proxy wars e.g. Yemen
Space exploration?
Only some countries committed to it e.g. 2014 budgets = USA $17 billion, Russia $5.6 billion BUT space budgets now under threat in many Western countries while Asian countries e.g. China and India adopted major space programmes - launch space flights much more cheaply India = sent non-crewed probe to moon in 2008 and mission in Mars in 2013
Investment overseas to the rise of the BRICs?
Outgoing investment e.g. Africa and Asia - Belt and Road estimated to cost China $900 billion to improve infrastructure -> China gets cheaper raw materials and increased profit -> growth of economy as loan repayments Opening new markets to sell products in - multiplier effect - Zambia with copper TanZam Railway = 1860km (Tanzania and Zambia) Improves economic trade as likely to offer tax breaks/favourable terms of trade - willing to make concessions to how economy functions e.g. tax functions Tata Steel - subsidised = good for employment
ANZUS?
Pact Treaty between Australia, New Zealand and the US Security Treaty Signed in 1951, providing for their mutual defence against armed attack in the Pacific region - co-operate on military matters in Pacific and beyond Helps USA maintain military presence in Pacific and Australia + New Zealand provide military forces for Afghanistan
Geopolitical power?
Political power attached to/exerted by certain places (could come from economic/money factors)
Willingness to act on CO2 and environmental issues which would...
Reduce carbon emissions and reach global agreements on the environmental issues China = Emissions up by 13% and 7.7 CO2 emissions per capita Xi Jinping 2017 - Ambition for China to be an environmental example Huge investment into renewables e.g. Three Gorges Dam - world's largest investor into renewables BUT rapid population and GDP growth USA = Emissions up by 7% and 16.1 CO2 emissions per capita Celebrities investing and promoting environmental sustainability e.g. Leonardo Di Caprio at WEF/'Before the Flood' BUT Trump 2017 = USA to withdraw from Paris Agreement ASAP (2020) Government support for fracking (tertiary resource production) EU = Emissions down by 7% and 6.9 CO2 emissions per capita France 2017 - no petrol/diesel cars in Paris by 2040, no coal fire power stations by 2022 Created world's 1st carbon trading scheme, allowing emission reductions BUT established middle class and powers block change e.g. NIMBYs - wind farm blocked in Somerset Russia = Emissions down by 7% and 12.3 CO2 emissions per capita A stable/falling population in recent years and a slow rate of GDP increase (natural?) BUT extending claims into the Arctic which is predicted to contain over 40% of the world's petroleum reserves Signatory meaning don't fully support reduction in CO2 etc - because of USSR collapse in 1991, emissions fell below target without any effort
Germany is a ... in Europe?
Regional power
Spheres of Contest?
Regions or property that governments compete over
Rostow's Modernisation Theory?
Shows development of a country from traditional society and high mass consumption Aims to push back communism - capitalism for everyone - Investment in countries bordering USSR and China supposedly prevents communism from spreading to Japan, India etc Modernisation theorists believed that capitalism was the fundamental solution to poverty - without reform, poverty would remain in trap + traditional family values in poorer countries would hold economies back by preventing geographical mobility Investment and aid became a priority for ex-communist countries when USSR collapsed Marshall Aid - 1948-1951 - $12 billion - anti-communism dominated US foreign policy until USSR collapsed in 1991 USSR - not applicable British Empire = applicable Advantages - all current developed countries have gone through process so far Disadvantages - doesn't explain how countries gained political and cultural aspects of power needed to be a superpower, suggests every country is isolated from the rest of the world, not all countries fit into model e.g. Bolivia's recent sustainable development excluded
Unipolar, bipolar and multi-polar?
Uni-polar = single, dominant superpower = British Empire - end of 19th century onwards and America now Bi-polar = A world with two dominant superpowers e.g. Cold War Multi-polar = A world with a multitude of superpowers e.g. Pre-British Empire and future
Mackinder's Heartland Theory?
Shows importance of characteristics and mechanisms for maintaining power have changed over time Eurasia = Heartland (Russia to China) Geostrategic location as whoever controlled Heartland had control of large amount of physical and human resources After WW1, attempts were made to prevent Germany from expanding into this area Whoever ruled Heartland ruled World Island and they ruled the world - substantial efforts needed by other powers to use sea routes to overcome geostrategic disadvantages Shrinking world has reduced location importance of Heartland Allowed nations, such as America, on exterior of Heartland to take over centre stage as a global superpower Influential as contributed to policies of containment - After WW1, attempts were made to limit Germany's expansion into this strategic area After WW2, NATO allies tried to contain the Soviets from expanding into south and west Europe
Russia Poisoning?
Skripal - spray poisonous substance on door handle of house - former spy and daughter Zizzi in Salisbury
BRICs and G20?
Two groups of states BRICs G20 - EU, Turkey, South Korea, Saudi, Mexico etc G20 economies account for 85% of world's GDP and 85% of world's trade, so more influential, however, changing industries and adoption of new political approaches + ideology, BRICS may overtake G20 and become more influential Categorise with economic, political, military, environmental, demographic and cultural
Military power spending?
UK has 5th biggest defence budget in the world USA spend $597 billion on military expenditure - highest in world
Intellectual Property Rights?
Stop people copying or stealing products and inventions, covering areas of trade secrets, trademarks, copyrights and patents Part of WTO rules involves signing up to protecting intellectual property rights TRIPS - WTO countries must reach an agreement on intellectual rights in order to protect manufacturers (usually a TNC) and their products from being duplicated Incorporates IPR law into international trade, meaning WTO members guarantee copyright protection covering everything, including performance rights Patenting is important for TNCs - USP = generates high profits May 2018 - Samsung (Korea) ordered to pay $539 million to Apple (America) after US court agreed that they had copied patented features from the iPhone 5-10% of global trade is in counterfeit goods - Thailand is known as the leader and China being the leading superpower accused of violating IPR -> heightened tensions between countries Trade-off between private profit and public good as companies with a patent don't have to share their inventions = ethical dilemma - don't have to release antidote during disease outbreak - other businesses sell for lower prices Contributing factor in trade war between US and China - less desire from US to trade with China if they intend to flood the market with counterfeit goods which are a threat to American TNCs -> US government could face lobbying and pressure from American TNCs to put higher tariffs on Chinese trade to pressure China into monitoring IPR violations more closely Strains trade relations and TNC investment, as IPR undermined by counterfeiting Developed countries threatened by counterfeit goods
Political spheres of influence can be contested leading to...?
Tensions over territory and physical resources (South China Sea) and, in some cases, resulting in open conflict (Crimea) with implications for people and physical environments
Earth Overshoot Day?
The calculated calendar date on which humanity's resource consumption for the year exceeds Earth's capacity to regenerate those resources that year. Used up resources for that year 2017 = 2nd August 2018 = 1st August 2019 = 29th July
Naval power?
UK spent 4% of GDP on defence during Falklands War - 2016 spending only 2.2% UK had 6 Type 45 destroyers in 2016 with latest technology BUT current warfare not really focused on size of naval fleets - more soft power now in modern society
Global geopolitical stability maintained/improved by...? (ICJ AND UN)
UN - formed after WWII - 193 members - promote human rights, maintain peace and social + economic development Humanitarian aid during famine, war, armed conflict, natural disaster and relief and aid work Security Council - prevents conflict Climate Change Agreement - IPCC ICJ - International Court of Justice - judicial branch of UN settling disputes between UN member countries and advises on international law - judgements are generally binding 15 judges - 5 from West and rest from other parts of world Only deals with cases brought by individual countries, rather than individual people - no tobacco companies etc Aims to achieve geopolitical stability and hold governments accountable for actions against welfare and human rights of their people
Impact of TNCs on global trade?
Trade in 1960-2010 increased by at least 45% a decade In 2000s, global trade increased by over 85% Caused by global shift in manufacturing and race to bottom ideology
US-China Trade War Tariffs?
US to Chinese imports = tariffs on $550 billion worth of Chinese goods Chinese to US imports = tariffs on $185 billion worth of US goods
World Systems Theory?
Wallerstein - Marxist Core, semi-periphery and periphery Core = economic powerhouses and therefore control most aspects of global trade e.g. trade agreements and trading currency - produce goods and capital Semi-periphery = manufacturing Periphery = provide labour and resources for core regions - results from colonialism during time when Western superpowers assumed control over areas rich in resources in Latin America, Asia and Africa Trade between colonial rulers and colonies was unequal - core regions profited from processing primary materials from peripheral regions First core regions = UK, Europe, Japan, North America, ignoring that in 1800, China and India were the world's largest economies Western core now owns and consumes 75% of global goods + services - global shift in Asia means China and India are regaining their former core status Advantages - Changes over time e.g. Russia moved from core to semi-periphery because of the collapse of communism Models a 3 sided world Disadvantages - Did not account for China and India being the biggest economies in 1800 Poorly designed as 'world', but regional Semi-periphery are catching up Theory is analysis of world's pattern of power and wealth rather than explanation of them
Orientalism?
Western Liberal Democracy VS Islamic Fundamentalism Western Capitalism VS North Korea etc Capitalism VS Communism Said - West defines itself as the West with freedom, democracy etc - presents as good by saying that East is backward, exotic and uncivilised USA struggles to maintain positive influence in Arab World as wars, invading Iraq in 2005 9/11 was first challenge to Western Liberal Democracy Concept of a discourse of power that creates a false distinction between a superior West and an inferior East
WEF?
World Economic Forum - Swiss not-for-profit working across national borders as IGO - meets annually in Davos Promotes public-private co-operation with aim to improve state of world by bringing everything together Founded in 1971 to resolve disputes and promote global thinking - discusses issues of corruption and terrorism with social and economic systems e.g. health Members think internationally and encourage governments to promote global links - TNCs gain a lot from government policies e.g. low taxation so networking with world leaders is useful for them Only most powerful are involved and direct access to Government, therefore not very democratic Instinct can conflict with WEF's globalised ideas e.g. in 2016, UK electorate voted to leave EU Helps to maintain/extend power of already economically powerful countries as only most powerful are involved, therefore ideas regarding how to extend/maintain power can be discussed + direct access to Government means can control whole countries
