Grammar

Auxiliary Tip #1

"Have", "be", & "do" aren't used exclusively as auxiliaries; they are three of the most commonly used main verbs. Ex: "I have a brown pen." - Main Verb "I have lost my brown pen." - Auxiliary "He is a good speaker." - Main Verb "He is becoming a good speaker." - Auxiliary

Six Verb Tenses

1. Present: "We play football in the backyard." 2. Past: "We played football in the backyard." 3. Future: "We will play football in the backyard." 4. Present Perfect: "We have played football." 5. Past Perfect: "We had played football." 6. Future Perfect: "By tomorrow, we will have played football."

Two Alternative Sentence Patterns: Passive vs. Question

1. Sentences that use passive verbs. 2. Sentences in the form of a question.

Subject Complement (predicate noun/adjective)

Completes the verb & renames (predicate noun) or describes (predicate adjective) the subject. The complement follows the verb & completes the thought of the sentence. Ex: "John is a genius." ("John" = "genius") "John and Alanna are athletes." ("John and Alanna" = "athletes") (Compound Subject: "John" and "Alanna" are both the subject of the sentence- coordinating conjunction: "and") "Marathons were one (of the first Olympic events.)" ("Marathons" = "one")

Comparative Degree (Adjectives)

The second form, it compares two things. Ex: -[greater] trust -[more sensible] answer

Prepositions

Words we use before nouns or pronouns to show their relationship with other words in the sentence. A word that introduces a phrase & shows the relationship between the object of the phrase (nouns/pronouns) & some other word(s) in the sentence. Ex: about, above, across, after, against, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, etc. -"Behind (the tree)" -"Across (Maple Street)" -"Down (the stairs)"

Examples of Abstract Nouns in Sentences

-"I want to see 'justice' served." -"I'd like the 'freedom' to travel all over the world." -"Joe felt a nagging sense of 'doom.'" -"Love is a kind of irresistible 'desire;' it's hard to define." -"When Sarah jumped into the lake to rescue a drowning cat, her 'bravery' astonished onlookers."

Adjectives Including Articles, Numerals, & Possessives

-(An) apple -(The) weather -(My three) roommates

Nouns That Modify Other Nouns

-(Basketball) players -(Summer) days -(Crop) failures

Modifiers That Can Be Used as Pronouns

-(These) people -(Some) friends -(All) workers

Pattern #2: Subject + Verb + Subjective Complement (predicate noun/adjective)

-Also uses an intransitive verb (no direct object). -Includes two sentence purposes: 1. To rename the subject. 2. To say the subject is the same as something else.

Verb Tenses: Present

Action occurring at the present moment. Ex: "He earns a good salary."

Modal Auxiliaries

Add a specific condition to the verb. Any of the verbs that combine with the main verb to express necessity (must), obligation (should), permission (may), probability (might), possibility (could), ability (can), or tentativeness (would).

Adverbs Explain How, Why, When

Adverbs tell certain things about the verb, such as manner, time, frequency, place, direction, & degree. Manner/How Ex: "John performed {well}." Time Ex: "We {often} go on picnics, {sometimes} at the lake but {usually} in the city park." Place Ex: "{There} he sat, alone and silent." Direction Ex: "The police officer turned {away}." Degree/How Much Ex: "I could {barely} hear the speaker."

Nouns Often Follow Articles

Articles: the, a, an, etc. The word that answers the question "What?" after an article is a noun. (Can have an adjective in between.) Ex: "A/The happy girl."

Preceding Adjective

Before a noun that is in any of the noun positions within the sentence. Ex: "The [small] child left." "I saw the [small] child." "I gave it to the [small] child."

Other Classes of Words that Modify Nouns

Besides "true adjectives" there are other classes of words that modify nouns. If you concentrate on the functions of the various kinds of words you can safely classify all words that precede nouns & limit their meanings as adjectives.

Suffixed Adjectives

Certain characteristics of form & function help you recognize adjectives. There are several suffixes that, when added to other words or roots of other words, form adjectives. Ex: able (readable), ible (irresistible), al (international), ant (resistant), ent (divergent), ary (budgetary), ful (meaningful), ical (hysterical), ish (foolish), y (greasy), etc.

Concrete Nouns vs. Abstract Nouns

Concrete Nouns: Person, place, or thing. They can be experienced with the five senses. Abstract Nouns: Feelings, states, emotions, qualities, concepts, ideas, events. They cannot be physically experienced.

Intensive & Reflexive Pronouns

End in -self or -selves. Uses "self" to add emphasis. Intensive Ex: "You <yourself> made the decision." Reflexive Ex: "The boy fell and hurt <himself>." Ex: yourself, myself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, & themselves.

Progressive Verb Forms: "Be" + Present Participle of the Main Verb (-ing verb)

Expresses a continuing action. Uses a form of "be" (is, am, are, was, were) followed by the present participle. (At times can have -ing on the end of the verb.) Ex: Present: "I am walking." Past: "I was walking." Future: "I will be walking."

Examples of Abstract Nouns

Feelings: anxiety, confusion, fear, pain, pleasure, stress, etc. States: being, chaos, freedom, luxury, misery, peace, nervousness, etc. Emotions: anger, despair, happiness, hate, joy, love, etc. Qualities: beauty, brilliance, courage, dedication, honesty, determination, trust, etc. Concepts: charity, comfort, culture, energy, failure, faith, etc. Ideas: beliefs, curiosity, friendship, knowledge, sacrifice, wisdom, etc. Events: adventure, birthday, career, childhood, death, future, life, etc.

Pattern #1: Subject + Verb: Adverbs

In this pattern you can usually expect adverbs. Specifically modifiers that answer "How?", "When?", or "Where?" the action occurred. Ex: "Yesterday the neighborhood children played noisily in the vacant lot." When: "Yesterday", How: "noisily", Where: "in the vacant lot"

Modal Auxiliaries: "Must"

Indicates an obligation. Ex: "I must go to town."

Linking Verbs

Instead of reporting an action, they describe something about the condition of the subject. They include all forms of the verb (to be), plus other words like (look, feel, appear, act, go), followed by an adjective. They serve as connectors. They join the (subject) to something that is (said about) the subject. Ex: "You (look) happy." "The long first <chapter> (seemed) particularly difficult." "<Each> of my sisters (is) tall." "Only <one> of these watches (works)."

Linking Verbs (Intransitive Verbs)

Intransitive verbs that do not express an action. They link/connect a subject to a noun that renames the subject OR to an adjective that modifies the subject. Ex: "John is a genius." OR "John is brilliant." Subject = "John" Verb = "is" ("John" is simply linked by the verb to a word that identifies/modifies it.)

Modifiers & Prepositional Phrases

Modifiers or "describing" words (adjectives & adverbs) & prepositional phrases make sentences more varied/complete. Ex: "He is a small child."

Modal Auxiliaries: "Do"

Occasionally "do" acts as a modal auxiliary & combines with the base form of a main verb to make an "emphatic" form. Ex: "But I did pay the bill last month."

Modal Auxiliaries: "To"

Other variations of some modals & time auxiliaries make use of "to" in the verb phrase. Ex: "Mr. Nelson has to retire early." ("has to retire" = must retire) "You ought to eat more vegetables." ("ought to eat" = should eat)

Passive Voice vs. Active Voice

Passive Ex: "The crime was committed by him." Past Participle (of the word commit) = "committed" "By" Prepositional Phrase = "by him" ("by him" could be removed from the sentence & no one has to accept 'responsibility' for the action.) Active Ex: "He committed the crime." (Pronoun/Subject - verb - object) Guideline: When identifying the performer of an action is unimportant or difficult, using the passive voice allows you to write a grammatical sentence without mentioning the actor. Ex: "Bacterial infections are usually treated with antibiotics." (Justification for using passive voice: you don't know who treated the infection, or it doesn't matter, all that matters is that it was treated.)

Simple Verb Tenses

Past Present, Future The action has specific time duration. (They don't have an auxiliary verb.) Ex: "I erase the board after each example."

5 Sentence Patterns in English

Pattern #1: Subject + Verb Pattern #2: Subject + Verb + Subjective Complement (predicate noun/adjective) Pattern #3: Subject + Verb + Direct Object (noun/pronoun) Pattern #4: Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Objective Complement ((renames (Noun) or describes (Adjectives) direct object)) Pattern #5: Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Objective Complement ((renames (Nouns) or describes (Adjectives) direct object))

Most Nouns Show Whether the Noun is Naming One/Multiple Things

Plural Number: Adds (s) or (es) to the singular form. Ex: coat - coats, lunch - lunches, etc. Proper Nouns are rarely pluralized & some common nouns have no plural form. Ex: honesty, courage, ease, hardness, etc.

Reciprocal Pronouns

Pronouns that show a mutual action. Each other: used when the antecedent is two things. One another: used when the antecedent is three or more things. Ex: "We try to help (each other) with our homework."

Pattern #1: Subject + Verb: Purpose of Sentence

Sometimes the purpose of the sentences is just to say that the subject exists. Ex: "The glasses are in the cabinet." "Flash floods often occur in the spring." "There were several birds around the feeder."

Person (Verb)

Specifies the person(s) speaking (1st Person: I, we), the person spoken to (2nd Person: you), & the person/thing spoken about (3rd Person: he, she, it, they).

Demonstrative Pronouns

Substitute for things being pointed out. A word that points out a specific person, place, or thing. Ex: this, that, these, those, etc.

Indefinite Pronouns

Substitute for unknown or unspecified things. Ex: each, either, neither, one, anyone, all, someone, somebody, anybody, everything, all, few, many, so on, etc. ((Those ending in (-one) and (-body) are singular.))

Principal Parts of a Verb: Past

The form used in the simple past tense. Ex: was/were, became, bit, broke, caught, did, ate, put, rang, ran, saw, etc.

Principal Parts of a Verb: Past Participle

The form used in the three perfect tenses. Ex: been, become, bitten, broken, caught, done, eaten, put, rung, run, seen, etc.

Passive Voice

The opposite of active voice; in this voice, something happens to someone. The subject of the sentence is not the "doer" but the "receiver" of the action. (Always transitive) Alters the subject-verb-object word order we expect in English. (AKA language of the Bureaucrats- those who don't want to accept responsibility for the action.)

Superlative Degree (Adjectives)

The third form, it distinguishes among three or more things. Adjectives that have "est" or "most" or "least" and compare more than two things or people. Ex: -[greatest] trust -[most sensible] answer

Regular/Irregular Verbs

The two groups into which all English verbs are classified. Regular Verb: A verb that forms its past and past participle by adding-d or-ed to the base form. Ex: earn Irregular Verb: A verb that forms its past and past participle in some way other than by adding (-d) or (-ed) to the base form. Ex: grow

Subject

The unit about which something is said. The noun, pronoun, or set of words that performs the verb. Ex: "The (woman) hurried." "(She) was late." "(Shakespeare in Love) won an Academy Award."

Intransitive Verb

The verb doesn't transfer its action to an object (noun/pronoun). -(What?) -The action of the verb is complete within itself. -No direct object. Ex: "John spoke softly." Action = "spoke" Actor = "John" (The action <does not> "go across" to a noun that receives the action.)

Question Sentence Types

There are two kinds of question sentence types. 1. Questions answered by yes or no. 2. Questions answered by information.

Pattern #5: Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Objective Complement ((renames (Nouns) or describes (Adjectives) direct object))

Use the words, "To Be" between the Direct Object & the Objective Complement. An object complement completes the direct object. Ex: "John finds marathons challenging." ("John" "finds" "marathons" To Be = "challenging") "The marathoners elected Alanna their team leader." ("marathoners" "elect" "Alanna" To Be = "leader")

Pattern #1: Subject + Verb

Uses Intransitive Verbs (no direct object). Ex: "Alana runs (in two marathons annually." -(Intransitive Verb) "John runs in only one." (You could put a period after "runs" & have a complete sentences.) -No completer is needed because the action of the verb isn't transferred to anything. Ex: "The child runs." "The tree fell." "The customer complained loudly."

Pattern #3: Subject + Verb + Direct Object (noun/pronoun)

Uses transitive verbs (take a direct object) A noun/pronoun receives the action of the verb. To find the Direct Object you ask "What?" about the subject & the verb. Ex: "Alanna runs marathons (in St. George and Logan.)" ("Alanna" "runs" "marathons") "Marathons test an athlete's physical and emotional stamina." ("Marathons" "test" "stamina")

Auxilary Verbs

Verb forms that consist of more than one word. Verbs used before the main verb in a sentence to give extra information Ex: Will earn, have grown, had earned, will have been, etc. "I have seen him."

Perfect Verb Tenses

Verb tenses that use helping, or auxiliary, verbs to show continuing action or a time relationship. Ex: have studied, had studied, will have studied "I (have erased) the board many times in my career."

Six Progressive Forms of Verb Tenses

Verbs ending in -ing. They always use auxiliary verbs. 1. Present Progressive: "We are playing." 2. Past Progressive: "We were playing." 3. Future Progressive: "We will be playing." 4. Present Perfect Progressive: "We have been playing." 5. Past Perfect Progressive: "We had been playing." 6. Future Perfect Progressive: "We will have been playing."

Pattern #4: Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object

Verbs that commonly take indirect objects: give, buy, teach, bring, tell, show, & offer. Answer "To Whom?" OR "For Whom?" Ex: "Marathons give John an opportunity to test his stamina." ("Marathons" "give" "opportunity" to "John") "(After marathons), local businesses offer runners breakfast items and other nourishment." ("businesses" "offer" "items" and "nourishment" to "runners")

Prepositional Phrase

When a preposition has its object along with any modifiers. A preposition always has an object. Ex: "(After) breakfast I walked (to) town (without) my friend." [Objects: "breakfast", "town", "friend"] "(On) account (of) the rain, I cancelled my plans (for) a game (of) tennis (at) the park (with) John." [Objects: "rain", "game", "tennis park", "John"]

Auxiliary Tip #2

When the verb unit contains auxiliaries, short adverbial modifiers may separate parts of the whole verb phrase. Ex: "We have occasionally been sailing." "He has, of course, been telling the truth."

Combining "Naming" Words & "Action/Linking" Words

With "naming" words (nouns & pronouns) & "action"/"linking" words (verbs) you can construct true sentences. Ex: "Janice arrived." "He laughed." "Power corrupts."

Complement

Words that follow the verb (predicate) & complete the thought of the sentence. (They are often part of the predicate.) They can be nouns, pronouns, or adjectives. They all serve the same purpose, they complete the idea or sense of the sentence.

subordinating conjunction****

connects an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses; examples: since, before, unless, however.

Occasionally the Verb Precedes the Subject

"Behind the house (stood) an old <mill>." A very common type of verb-subject sentence arangements uses (here) or (there) preceding the verb. Ex: "There (are) three willow <trees> in our yard." "Here (is) a <list> of candidates."

Commas- With Nonessential Clauses & Phrases

"Diamonds, which are expensive, are often used in wedding rings."

Perfect Progressive Forms

"Has", "have", or "had" + "been" + present participle of the main verb (-ing verb). Present Perfect (have been), Past Perfect (had been), and Future Perfect (will have been) Ex: Present Perfect Ex: "I have been walking." Past Perfect Ex: "I had been walking." Future Perfect Ex: "I will have been walking." "I (have been) erasing the board between classes."

Commas- With Conditional Sentences Starting with "If Clauses"

"If you have any questions, let me know."

Commas- In a Direct Address

"John, put down your pencil this minute."

Commas- After Interjections

"Oh, he's coming along too?"

Adverbs Modifying Verbs

"She walked {quickly}."

Commas- With Cities and States

"Squiggly flew to St. Louis, Missouri, to visit the Bowling Hall of Fame."

Commas- With Dates

"Squiggly met Aardvark July 14, 2008, at a rock concert."

Commas- Between Two Main Clauses Joined by a Coordinating Conjunction

"Squiggly ran to the forest, and Aardvark chased the squirrels."

Commas- Between two Main Clauses Joined by a Coordinating Conjunction

"Squiggly ran to the forest, and Aardvark chased the squirrels."

Commas- To Introduce Dialogue

"Squiggly said, "Aardvark didn't steal the chocolate. I did."

Commas- To Emphasize Contrast

"Squiggly was wide awake, despite getting up at four in the morning."

Compound Sentence vs. Sentence with a Compound Verb

"The <cashier> [took] my money, AND <he> [put] it (in the cash register)." "The <cashier> [took] my money AND [put] it (in the cash register)."

Commas- In a List

"The American flag is red, white, and blue." "We will be testing Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday."

Adverbs Modifying Adjectives/Adverbs

"The {very} old man walked {quite} slowly."

Adverbs Modifying an Entire Sentence

"{Consequently}, we refused the offer."

Sentence-Combining Technique #2

2. Subordinate sentences by making one sentence/clause dependent on the other. Combine two or more sentences using subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns.

Transitive Verbs

<Does> transfer its action to an object (noun/pronoun). Takes a direct object. Ex: "Jack throws the ball." -"Jack throws" [What?] = "ball" (The "ball" receives the action of the verb.)

Subordinate Clause****

A clause in a complex sentence that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence and that functions within the sentence as a noun or adjective or adverb. Has a subject & verb but begins with a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun, which <subordinates> the clause, making it depend on a main clause for meaning. Created by a subordinating conjunction, a clause that modifies an independent clause.

Main Clause

A clause in a complex sentence, that has a subject and a predicate, that can stand alone as a complete sentence.

Auxiliary Tip #3

In a few set expressions following introductory adverbs (usually adverbs of time), the subject is placed within the verb phrase between an auxiliary and the main verb. Ex: "Only lately have I learned to drive." "Rarely do we turn on the television set."

Morpheme

In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).

Possessive Pronouns

Substitute for things that are owned. Pronouns that attribute ownership. Ex: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs, etc.

Principal Parts of a Verb: Base or Infinitive

The "name" of the verb, used in the present tense with s (es) added in the third person singular. Ex: be, become, bite, break, catch, do, eat, put, ring, run, see, etc.

Commas- After e.g. or i.e.

"Aardvark likes card games, e.g., bridge and crazy eights."

Commas- With Nonessential Appositives

"Aardvark's best friend, Squiggly, went to the store."

Commas- In Sentences that Start with Subordinating Conjunctions

"Although he was scared, Squiggly ran to the forest."

Prefix

A syllable or word that comes before a root word to change its meaning.

Commas- Between Coordinate Adjectives That Can Be Flipped & Can Be Joined by "And"

"Aardvark is a small, blue mammal."

Gerund Phrase

-Begins with a gerund (an -ing word) -Includes other modifiers &/or objects -Functions as a noun, so acts as a sentence's subject, subjective complement, direct object, or object of a preposition. Subject: "Eating ice cream on a windy day <can be> a messy experience if you have long hair." Subjective Complement: "A more disastrous activity for long-haired people <is> (blowing giant bubble gum bubbles with the car windows down." Direct Object: "Wild food adventures <require> (getting your hair cut to a short, safe length." Object of Preposition: "The police <arrested> him (for speeding)."

Participle Phrase

-Begins with a present or past participle (an -ing or -ed word). -Includes other modifiers &/or objects. -Functions as an adjective, so qualifies or describes nouns or pronouns in a sentence. Modifies a Noun: "The <horse> (trotting up to the fence) hopes that you have an apple or carrot." Modifies a Noun: "The water drained slowly in the <pipe> (clogged with dog hair)." Modifies a Pronoun: "(Eaten by mosquitoes), <we> wished that we had made hotel, not campsite, reservations."

Infinitive Phrase

-Begins with an infinitive (to + simple form of verb). -Includes other modifiers &/or objects. -Functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb. Noun Ex: "(To finish her shift without spilling another pizza into a customer's lap) <is> Michelle's only goal tonight." (Acts as subject of verb "is".) Adjective Ex: "The best <way> (to survive Dr. Peterson's boring history lectures) is a sharp pencil in your thigh if you catch yourself drifting off." (Modifies the noun "way".) Adverb Ex: "Kevin, an aspiring comic book artist, <is taking> anatomy and physiology this semester (to understand the interplay of muscle and bone in the human body)." (Explains why Kevin is taking the class.)

Commas- In Numbers Over 999

1,203

3 Types of Subordinate Clauses

1. Adverb Clauses 2. Adjective Clauses 3. Noun Clauses

Adjective Clause

1. Contains a subject & verb. 2. Begin with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, that, or which) or a relative adverb (when, where, or why). 3. Functions as an adjective, answering the questions: What kind? How many? or Which one?

Sentence-Combining Technique #1

1. Coordinate two sentences for equal emphasis on both ideas. Combine simple sentences with a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS- for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). Coordinating two sentences gives both equal weight.

Clause

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb.

Idiomatic Phrase

A group of words that do not mean what they appear to mean. Using, containing, or denoting expressions that are natural to a native speaker.

Compound Noun

A noun of more than one word. Ex: tennis court, gas station, etc.

Simple Sentence

A sentence consisting of one independent clause and no dependent clause, with a single subject and predicate. "No one (in the class) [could have finished] that test (within the allotted time)."

Adverb Intensifiers

A subclass of adverbs that modify adjectives/adverbs but not verbs. Words that can emphasize and strengthen your meaning. Ex: -"A {very} good meal" -"His {quite} surprising reply" -"{Too} often" -"{Somewhat} reluctantly"

Action Verb

A verb that expresses either physical or mental activity. Way to tell if a word is an action word: "Let's _____!"

Coordinating Conjunction (FANBOYS)

A word holding words, phrases, and clauses together. It holds two simple sentences together (like glue). Used to combine simple sentences- for variety & emphasis. For: Means "because" & introduces the effect of a cause-effect relationship. And: Adds information. Nor: Removes alternatives & tells what something is not, rather than what it is. But: Contradicts, offers a contrast, or introduces something unexpected. Or: Offers a choice. Yet: Expresses a stronger contrast than "but". So: Means "as a result" & introduces the effect of a cause-effect relationship.

Noun

A word or set of words for a person, place, thing, or idea.

Verb

A word or set of words that shows action, feeling, or state of being. Every verb has a base/infinitive. This form of the verb "names" the verb. The form of a verb can change based on various conditions. (Person, Number, Tense) Ex: run, is going, has been painting; loves, envies; am, are, is, have been, was, seem, etc. Ex 2: "He ran around the block." "I like my friend." "They seem friendly."

Adverbs

A word that modifies anything but a noun/pronoun. A word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb. The most frequently used adverbs answer questions like "How?" (manner/degree), "When?" (time/frequency), "Where?" (place/direction).

Pronoun

A word that takes the place of a noun.

Adjectives

A word used to modify or describe a noun or pronoun. They are found in 3 positions (preceding, following, directly following) in a sentence. Ex: happy, sad, pretty, etc.

Sentence-Combining Technique #3

A. Subordinating Conjunctions. The sentence to which you add the subordinating conjunction becomes dependent on or subordinate to the main clause. Choose a subordinating conjunction that clearly demonstrates the connection between the two clauses. When you subordinate a clause, you de-emphasize it & place the emphasis in the sentence on the main clause. Remember, subordinating conjunctions typically introduce adverb clauses (when, where, why). Ex: "The baby cried <when the telephone rang."

Verb Tenses: Future Perfect

Action continuing to a fixed moment in the future. Ex: "By next Christmas he will have earned $10,000."

Verb Tenses: Past Perfect

Action continuing to a fixed moment in the past. Ex: "Before leaving for college, he had earned $10,000."

Verb Tenses: Present Perfect

Action continuing up to the present moment. Ex: "So far this year he has earned $10,000."

Verb Tenses: Past

Action occurring at a definite time before the present moment. Ex: "Last year he earned a good salary."

Verb Tenses: Future

Action occurring at some time beyond the present moment. Ex: "Next year he will earn a good salary."

Following Adjective

An adjective after a "describing"/"linking" verb & modifying the subject. Ex: "The child is [small]." "Mary looked [unhappy]." "We became [upset]."

Suffix

An affix/morpheme/unit added or occurring at the end of a word, base, or phrase. (Another way to identify nouns.) Ex: able (singable), age (breakage), ance (resistance), ence (insistence), dom (kingdom), hood (childhood), ion (prevention), ism (nationalism), ness (firmness), etc.

Phrasal Verb

An idiomatic phrase consisting of a verb and another element, typically an adverb, a preposition, or a combination of both. A multiple-word main verb. Ex: breaking down, see to, look down on, etc.

Sentence-Combining Technique: Relative Pronouns

Combining sentences using a relative pronoun also creates a subordinate clause. Relative pronouns create adjective clauses that describe the word they modify. Ex: "I looked into the sky, <which was filled with towering cumulus clouds>." A. "Tommy scrubbed the bathroom tile <until his arms ached>." (<How> did Tommy scrub?) B. "Josephine's three cats bolted from the driveway <once they saw her car turn the corner>." (<When> did the cats bolt?) C. "After her appointment at the orthodontist, Danielle cooked eggs for dinner <because she could easily chew an omelet>." (<Why> did Danielle cook eggs?)

Compound Subject

Consists of two or more subjects that are joined by a conjunction and that have the same verb. Two or more subjects joined together usually by "and" or "or" that share a common verb. Ex: O: "Dad read the notice. I read the notice." R: "Dad <and> I read the notice."

Independent Clause

Expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. Has both a subject and a verb. Ex: "The <team> [has grown] very tired (of that repetitious drill)." "<I> [could show] you the list (of actors) (in that movie)."

Subordinate Clauses: Adjective Clauses

Function as modifiers of nouns or pronouns; also called relative clauses because they often begin with relative pronouns.

Subordinate Clauses: Adverb Clauses

Function as modifiers of verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs; always begin with subordinating conjunctions.

Gerund Phrase vs. Participle Phrase

Gerund phrases & present participle phrases begin with an -ing word, but gerund phrases always act as nouns, & participle phrases always function as adjectives. Gerund Phrase: "(Walking on the beach) <is> painful if jellyfish have washed ashore." (Acts as subject of verb "is".) Participle Phrase: (Walking on the beach), <Delores> dodged jellyfish that washed ashore." (Describes noun "Delores".)

Noun Clause

In a sentence, a noun clause functions as a subject, subjective complement, direct object, object of a preposition, or appositive. A subordinate clause used as a noun; examples: WHAT YOU SAY is true. Subordinates that Introduce a Noun Clause Ex: that, when, who, why, how, where, whom, if, what, which, whomever, whether, whatever, whichever, whose. 1. "The weather forecaster predicted [THAT <today> (would be) bright and sunny]." (Direct Object) 2. "[WHAT <you> (heard) {about the new agenda} {for the meeting}] is correct." (Subject) 3. "It's wonderful [THAT <you> (can come) {for a visit}]." (Delayed Subject)

Compounding

Joining grammatically equal parts of a sentence so they function together. -Compound Subjects -Compound Direct Objects -Compound Verbs -Compound Objective Complements -Compound Prepositional Phrases

Strengthened Adjectives Using More/Most

Nearly all adjectives, when used in comparisons, can be strengthened or can show degree by changing form or by using [more/most]. Ex: -[great] trust, [greater] trust, [greatest] trust. -[sensible] answer, [more sensible] answer, [most sensible] answer.

Absolute Phrase

Noun + Participle + Optional Modifier(s) &/or Object(s) A sentence part describing the rest of the sentence in which it appears. Combines a noun and a participle with any accompanying modifiers or objects. A noun+participle combination grammatically isolated from the sentence. Ex: "Legs quivering" ("Legs" = noun; "quivering" = participle) "Her arms were folded across her chest." ("Arms" = noun; "folded" = participle; "her, across her chest" = modifiers.) Describing the Whole Clause/Sentence Ex: "(Legs quivering), our old dog Gizmo dreamed of chasing squirrels." "(Her arms folded across her chest), Professor Hill warned the class about the penalties of plagiarism."

Compound Prepositional Phrases

O: "I can see you during your lunch hour. I can see you after 5 o'clock." R: "I can see you during your lunch hour <or> after 5 o' clock."

Compound Objective Complements

O: "I found the lecture interesting. I found the lecture instructive." R: "I found the lecture interesting <and> instructive."

Personal Pronouns

Refers to the one speaking (first person), the one spoken to (second person), or the one spoken about (third person). Takes the place of a noun or nouns; they show number and gender. Singular Ex: I, me, my, mine, you, your, yours, he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its, etc. Plural Ex: we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, they, them, their, theirs, etc.

Tense (Verb)

Refers to the time represented in the sentence, whether it applies to the present moment (I believe him) or to some other time (I believed him, I will believe him).

Directly Following Adjective

Right after the noun (the least common position). Ex: "He provided the money [necessary] for the trip." "The hostess, [calm] and [serene], entered the hall."

Number (Verb)

Shows whether the reference is to one thing (singular number) or multiple things (plural number).

Sentence Clauses: Simple, Compound, & Complex Sentences

Simple Sentence: One main clause. Compound Sentence: Two or more main clauses, no subordinate clauses. Complex Sentence: One main clause, one or more subordinate clauses.

Questions Answered by Yes or No

Structure of a statement vs. yes/no question. Ex: "Beth is happy." vs. "Is Beth happy?" "You were there." vs. "Were you there?" If the verb is "be" in the present or past tense, the subject & the "be" form (am, are, is, was, or were) reverse positions. With other one-word verbs in the present or past tense, the proper form of the auxiliary "do" is used, followed by the subject & the base form of the main verb.

Progressive Form of Verbs: Be + Present Participle (the -ing form of the main verb)

The -ing shows that the action is not fixed in an exact moment of time, but is continuing activity. Six Tense Ex: "We are reviewing." "We were reviewing." "We will be reviewing." "We have been reviewing." "We will have been reviewing."

Casual/Informal Language Often Combines Short Verbs & Subjects Using Apostrophes

The apostrophes represent the omitted letters. Ex: -I'm: I am -It's: It is -You've: You have -They're: They are

Positive Degree (Adjectives)

The base form. Ex: -[great] trust -[most sensible] answer

Compound Direct Objects

Two or more nouns or pronouns that receive the action of the same transitive verb. Ex: O: "Margo enjoys golf. Margo enjoys tennis." R: "I studied very hard <but> failed the test."

Predicate

The unit that says something about the subject. Usually includes other modifying words or phrases, but the indispensable part of a predicate is the verb.

Helping Verbs

They help clarify the intended meaning. Ex: had, been, is, shall, must, do, has, can, keep, get, start, help, etc.

Proper Noun

They name specific people, places, and things. They are always capitalized. Ex: Joe, Horace Mann Junior High School, Chicago, Academy Award, etc.

Principal Parts of a Verb

Three distinct forms of a verb to show the difference between regular & irregular verbs. -Base or Infinitive -Past -Past Participle

Compound Sentence

Two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon. "Two more <people> [walked] (in the door), AND <I> [gave] them seats (at the back) (of the room)." "Two more <people> [walked] (in the door); <I> [gave] them seats (at the back) (of the room)."

Run-on Sentence

Two or more sentences incorrectly written as one sentence without adequate punctuation or connecting words. Two independent clauses placed together with no coordinating conjunction or punctuation. O: <Parking> (on the campus) [is] very limited thus <I> usually [walk] (to class) (from my dorm)." R1: "<Parking> (on the campus) [is] very limited; thus, <I> usually [walk] (to class) (from my dorm)." R2: "Parking on the campus is very limited. Thus, I usually walk to class from my dorm."

Compound Verbs

Two or more verbs joined by a conjunction or comma Two or more verbs in one sentence that have the same subject and are joined by a conjunction. Consists of two or more verbs that are joined by a conjunction and that have the same subject Ex: O: "I studied very hard. I failed the test." R: "I studied very hard <but> failed the test."

Comma Splice

Two sentences (independent clauses) joined incorrectly by a comma instead of a conjunction, period, or semicolon. O: "The <room> [was] full, the <presentation> [had] not [begun]." R1: "The <room> [was] full, BUT the <presentation> [had] not [begun]." R2: "The <room> [was] full. The <presentation> [had] not [begun]." R3: "The <room> [was] full; the <presentation> [had] not [begun]."

Modal Auxiliaries: "Could"

Used to indicate ability, possibility, or permission in the past tense. Ex: "I could have gone to town." (If I had wanted to go.)

Modal Auxiliaries: "May", "Can", "Might"

Used to suggest possibility. "Can" sometimes also suggests capability. Ex: "I may go to town tomorrow." (If certain conditions exist.) "I might go to town tomorrow." (If certain conditions exist.) "I can go to town tomorrow." (I am able to go.)

Common Noun

Words for a general class of people, places, things, & ideas. They are not capitalized. Ex: man, city, award, school, relative, honesty, etc.