Groups At Work: Exam 1

From Ellis and Fisher Chapter 2: How might you go about increasing cohesion in a decision-making group?

- Encourage external threats: When groups take on a threat to their dignity or existence as a whole, getting through this moment of diversity most likely will make the group stronger in the long-term. - Create history: As all members share more about themselves and their experiences it provokes a feeling of unity by just simple knowledge of each other's past. - Establish interdependent goals: Goals that require membership from every single individual in the groups are the ones that are going to create the best feeling of cohesiveness. When everyone has a part in the work to reach a common goal, it makes each individual feel important and prioritized in the group. - Accomplish something: When group members get something done it gives them a sense of confidence that they can also accomplish other aspects of their goal. - Develop relationships and shared norms: Having common shared norms ensures the group has a sense of intimacy and friendship which is important in respect and boundaries. - Promote acceptance for group members: Members appreciate being told they are valued and that their attributions have been acknowledged.

Chapter 1, Ellis and Fisher provide some necessary conditions for a bunch of people being called a "group". What are these conditions? Describe some bunches of people who do not meet these criteria and yet are not just a random collection of people.

1. A small enough number of people for each to be aware of and have some reaction to each other 2. A mutually interdependent purpose in which the success of each is contingent of the success of the others 3. A sense of belonging or membership felt by each person, with each one identifying with the other members of the group 4. Oral interaction. (Not all the interaction will be oral, but a significant characteristic of a discussion group is the reciprocal influence exercised by talking). 5. Behavior is based on norms and procedures adapted by all members Bunches of people that do not fit the criteria: people shopping in a grocery store, people in an elevator, people congregating at a bus stop

What are Haslett and Ogilvie's 8 suggestions for giving feedback? Pick a group member and construct a feedback message to them that hits on at least 3 of these suggestions.

1. Be specific and clear 2. Support comment with evidence 3. Separate the issue from the people 4. Soften negative messages 5. Sandwich negative messages between positive 6. Pose the situation as a mutual problem 7. Use good timing 8. Use proper manner of delivery Lilly, you seemed to get off-topic when were were doing the survival activity. You mentioned submarines when the activity was about surviving in the Arizona desert. Although you can get off topic the group believes that you have good ideas at times.

Using the Five Square Exercise as a frame of reference, what are three conditions that affect the ability of individuals in a group and the group to collaborate? Give an example of each.

1. Each individual must understand the total problem. Example: knowing which pieces create squares 2. Each individual should be aware of the potential contributions of other individuals. Example: everyone figuring out their own square 3. There is a need to recognize the problems of other individuals in order to aid them in making maximum contributions. Example: when Audrey was struggling with her pieces and Lilly gave her the entire square to trade.

What norms establish the conditions for groupthink?

1. Mindless Cohesion: This is when a group feels like it can do no wrong because it is extremely optimistic and committed. Cohesion becomes counterproductive when members dismiss anything that might threaten the group. 2. Pressuring Nonconformists: Group members are pressured into going along with the group. The pressure can be subtle (rolling eyes or frowning) or more direct (expulsion from the group). This makes members avoid expressing opinions. 3. Failing to reward critical thinking: Sometimes people give in to the pressures of high-status individuals. Very often groups that do not encourage critical thinking are those with strong leaders who demand support, not conflict. The group and its leader feel invulnerable. This feeling of invulnerability is a classic symptom of groupthink. 4. Tendency to justify what they have done: Groups make poor decisions when they discount information because it is inconsistent with an established position. Groupthink decisions emerge from rationalizations. The group blindly believes that what it has done in the past is right and rejects any new ideas and information. This leads to a false sense of consensus.

What implications does leaderless have for the group?

A leaderless group doesn't have someone who makes sure everyone is working cohesively. They're missing the person who is supposed to coordinate and unite all the pieces of the group. A leader's role includes being the social facilitator of the group and creating harmony. A leaderless group won't have the group cohesiveness that a group with a leader would have. Therefore, this type of group leads to having bad cohesiveness, relationship, and productivity.

From Ellis and Fisher Chapter 5 (you need to read carefully since the term does not appear as a major heading): What do the authors mean by a leaderless group?

A leaderless group is a group that doesn't have an assigned or unassigned leader role. When groups are assigned randomly for small tasks, there may not be roles assigned, however, over time, someone starts to take on each role that fits them. A leaderless group can also be one where the group leader does not fulfill the role obligations.

What problem with cohesion might a long established group want to be concerned with and why?

A long-established group might be concerned with groupthink. Groupthink is a concern with groups that are highly cohesive and affects the quality of decisions a group makes. Groupthink happens when a group makes a poor or extreme decision because the members suspend their critical thinking abilities in favor of consensus.

Indicate where a newly formed group and a long established group might be on the graph and indicate your reasons why.

A newly formed group would lie at the beginning of this graph where both cohesiveness and productivity are low. The reason behind this is that the group is still in the initial stages and is developing norms. The goals of the group are also still being understood and members are still establishing their roles and relationship with other members.

In terms of Ellis and Fisher's recommendations, how effective were your group's techniques? How could they be improved upon?

According to Ellis and Fisher's recommendations, the best technique to conquer tension in a group is through direct confrontation. You should not fear social tension, but be okay with it and willing to work through it. My group has done just this and learned how to effectively work through concerns we have within our group. Ignoring issues we have instead of expressing them leads to a build-up of tension and results in more harm than good. One way that we could improve our tactics for solving tension is by attempting to not only call out each other's "flaws" per se, but also mention the positive things about each other. It is known in our group how much we enjoy each other, however a reminder about the good things we do when giving each other feedback can go a long way.

From Ellis and Fisher Chapter 2: According to the authors, what is the difference between defensive and supportive communication? What are the similarities of these forms of communication and the rules for constructive feedback (from the observing skills activity) that we practiced in class?

According to the authors, supportive communication includes displaying your emotions without making others feel bad about themselves, communicating honestly and openly, focusing on issues and the right solutions, showing your caring side to your group, and treating each other with equality. Defensive communication, however, includes portraying that you are always right, showing a lack of interest, making differences stand out in a negative way, manipulating others for your own gain, and being too dominating in the group. The similarities between these are that they both can occur by nonverbal cues and they also both require active listening. The rules of constructive feedback include being respectful when giving criticisms and feedback and having the ability to talk in a firm, but still open and accepting manner. Supportive communication = constructive feedback

What is an example of a norm in your group which facilitates the group's effectiveness?

All members show up on time every time

What is the difference between cohesion and satisfaction? What are Marston and Hecht's suggestions for increasing satisfaction? Have any of them been observable in your group and with what consequence?

Cohesion is seen as the extent to which members enjoy their group experiences; it's how well they get along, and interpersonal attraction can further develop cohesion. Satisfaction is more so used to refer to morale, or how much an individual is pleased with their group. An increase in cohesion leads to an increase in satisfaction. Marston and Hecht suggest that participation and feeling like members are included in the group is important. The types of messages that groups contribute to the conversation are also important. Feedback, both positive and negative, can help change group member's behaviors in order to help the group. Interaction management refers to one's skill in coordinating the group; taking turns and managing the flow of conversation can increase satisfaction. Another thing that helps is having group members comfortable with the status hierarchy; agreeing with the power in the group can make everyone feel more comfortable. Lastly, there's motivation and a desire for everyone to contribute and perform in the group. I believe that participation is strong in our group, so much so that interaction management and agreeing on a status hierarchy is oftentimes hard. But I think that you can see a lot of motivation and orienting communication in our group, we oftentimes enjoy the task and all want to be an active part of it in one way or another.

How can content seduction interfere with a group's effectiveness in problem-solving?

Content seduction can interfere with a group's effectiveness in problem-solving by creating stress between group members, and content seductions occur by allowing Groupthink to occur, the lack of strategy, and failure to complete the process questions or not taking them seriously. Content seduction can also result in a lack of strategy or organization, lead to group members' ideas being dismissed or overlooked, and personal opinions can negatively impact the group's time management skills.

What is meant by content seduction?

Content seduction is when someone becomes tied up with a task and loses awareness of the underlying process.

From the introduction in Ellis and Fisher: According to the authors, what is wrong with conventional wisdom?Give two examples of conventional wisdom about groups and group decision-making and indicate how each could cause problems in a group

Conventional wisdom can lead to false reality and can affect decision quality and communication within the group Example 1: The most important thing is to make a decision when completing a task, not to get along with other group members. Social tension could cause a lack of productivity Example 2: Members of a group are expected to fulfill certain duties. The dynamics of a group can be strained, especially if someone assumes a leadership role without contributing the way others do.

What might the group do to minimize the negative effects of content seduction? How would it have been applied to the context of your group?

Create strategies that are effective to each individual activity, encourage differing ideas within the group (avoid groupthink), and be sure to complete the process questions because they allow us to reflect on the entire process and our individual behavior. In our group we could really be giving more honest and accurate feedback and work on critical thinking skills.

In Chapter 3, Ellis and Fisher discuss processes of feedback. How important are these processes in regulating and improving group performance?

Feedback responses are essential to reinforce or extinguish behavior. By agreeing to a comment someone made, you are enhancing that behavior from them whereas if you disagree with someone and make nonverbal cues such as giving them a dirty stare, you are making that behavior less likely to happen again in the future. By expressing these thoughts and emotions to each other, we can keep a solid standard for our group and we are each able to improve ourselves based on feedback we've gotten.

When did primary tension take place in your group and why did it occur?

Fortunately, our group did not experience any extreme primary tension. All members in our group were very social and friendly so we all immediately connected. Another thing that helped us achieve the relationship that we have is the aspect that we are an all girl group so from the start we already feel more comfortable with one another because we can relate to one another. One thing we did experience was long pauses in between conversations. During the initial formation of our group, we were figuring out the type of personalities each member had so that we could understand each other's boundaries. For this reason, we didn't know how far we could go in conversations and what we could or could not talk about. We quickly learned that we are all very open people so we have become comfortable talking with each other about anything and everything and have therefore resolved this issue.

How do group members develop their roles (there isn't just one way and people do belong to other groups)?

Group members adapt to their group and will behave in a way that is expected based on the other members of the group, as well as the actual behavior of the individual while in the group.

From Ellis and Fisher Chapter 5: Define group norms and distinguish between implicit and explicit norms.

Group norms: behavioral and intellectual standards developed in a group. Implicit: created by the group members unknowingly and becomes known as interactions continue. Explicit: Created on purpose and known to the group.

What function does groupthink serve for a group?

Groupthink creates a powerful vision of unanimity, which is not actually the case. Groupthink is the lack of critical thinking done by the group members just to be in consensus regarding decisions made.

What produces groupthink?

Groupthink is produced when a group avoids conflict and reaches consensus without criticizing and evaluating ideas. This happens in highly cohesive groups when members leave critical thinking in favor of consensus among the group and its decisions.

What is an example of a norm in your group which hinders the group's effectiveness?

How much we converse. There is no formal "it is your turn now" to allow everyone to express their thoughts and ideas. This can make it difficult for us to stay on the specific topic of discussion.

What sorts of roles have group members (yourself included) developed that have facilitated or hindered your group (decision making and group development)

I feel like it's hard to say with our group, one of the problems we've identified is that we don't have set roles, and because of it, it makes accomplishing tasks harder. It seems as though most of us are trying to be initiators/contributors or information givers and it often leads to us shouting over one another and not having a set plan. When people act as more of a orienter or an opinion/information seeker, the group tends to listen. It's almost like we want someone to lead us in the right direction, we just haven't figured out how to do so yet. I do think that in our group we are all sort of encouragers and harmonizers as well. We may yell over each other, but we are also quick to reinforce each other's ideas. Maybe that's our issue, we are all trying to be different roles at once.

In your group, are there examples of implicit and explicit norms? Have any norms been made explicitly? Can you track the development of a norm in your group?

Implicit: The seats we sit in each time we show up to class. We have developed an unspoken norm about where each member sits. Explicit: Abiding by classroom rules. We signed a document during the second week of class.

What is the antidote for groupthink mentioned by Ellis and Fisher and how might you promote it in your group this semester?

In order to avoid groupthink, it is necessary to find the right balance between conformity and critical analysis. To promote a balance between conformity and critical analysis, the group members this semester could appoint a devil's advocate for the group. This would ensure that a lot of the decisions made by the group are met with critical analysis regarding the decisions. The group can also reward and encourage expressions of ideas. This would lead to people being open with their opinions and prevent the development of groupthink.

Using your group as a frame of reference, discuss how the idea of networks applies and give examples to illustrate your points.

In terms of communication networks, our group would be seen in the "circle" formation since all of us have someone whom we interact with a little more due to our location near each other. The messages/information that flow within ourselves is what helps us work through our class activities. In accordance with the relational approach to networks, our group focuses on direct communication between the group members and everyone is slowly developing a role in the group. In terms of network size, each member of the group is linked to at least two other members. Since each member of the group is linked directly to at least two people, reachability is not bad. This leads us to the density of our group, which is low, as each person is not linked to a lot of people.

From Ellis and Fisher Chapter 1: When is it best to use a group to solve a problem and when is it best to use an individual? Cite at least two reasons for each and give an example for each.

It is best to use a group for more complicated tasks because it will help improve their skills and make them more confident. Two reasons why groups are great to work in to solve problems are because they tend to be more creative and are better for more complex issues. An example of how a group can be more creative than individuals is that one group member may know a lot about social media, while another may know more about artistic abilities so this diverse background knowledge can help give a better outcome and be more efficient. Each member comes with unique ideas that others have not thought of. It is best to work individually if you are planning to do something more technical or if it would be faster to complete it by yourself. It is best to use individual work on something that may be more of your own specialized skill for example. This is because the individual has more knowledge on a certain subject than the rest of the people and it is something they can complete faster and more efficiently by themselves rather than having to answer questions from a group that does not know about that subject matter which could waste time.

How are leaderless groups different from other types of groups?

Leaders emerge based on what qualities the group needs unless one is assigned that role from the start. Therefore leaderless groups are required to work together through activities to develop a leader and see who fits the role best for their group specifically. Groups with leaders already have that role set into place and are not tasked with figuring out who fits what. Example: in jobs people are hired into specific roles such as manager

It is not surprising that Ellis and Fisher would have a chapter on "communication in groups" that is based heavily on communication theory that goes beyond just who talks to whom and how. Take any two of the methods/approaches that are introduced in chapter 4 (Content/relationship dimensions, analyzing interactions, organizing interactions, dimensions of communicative behavior, listening and questioning, nonverbal functions) and explain the approach to analysis. Then, analyze some of your group's behavior using the 2 approaches you described.

Nonverbal functions are the cues we make by not speaking such as smiling or raising our eyebrows in the form of facial expressions, They can also help portray our level of confidence in the way of our body language. This method was used in our group in various occasions and ways such as having good eye contact, using hand gestures, using our tone of voice to express excitement or disagreement, and showing interest or disinterest in the topic by our posture. Organizing interactions include having a way to stay in contact with each member in the group and communicating whatever we all think is the necessary means of accomplishing our common goal in an effective way. We used this method when trying to get our group together to come to a consensus on certain topics where we may have had differing opinions. We also used this method to help us plan and strategize in the beginning of whatever problem we faced.

From the Five Squares Exercise, what are some of the difficulties/barriers that kept the group from efficiently completing the task? Do you think there was anything about the structure of the exercise that made these difficulties more problematic or are they common?

Not being able to clearly discuss strategies and ideas with our group members because we weren't allowed to speak made completing the task difficult. Through the lectures, we have learned that one of the most important things to focus on in order to work well in a group is communication. We were forced to work extra hard as a group in this activity to do just that. In comparison to other projects where we aren't required to put as much thought and effort into working as a team because we're able to communicate easily, in this one, we had to figure out how to communicate without speaking. For this task, we had to internally remind ourselves that even though we can't speak with each other, we still have to figure out how to help one another if we want to have the best results. These strict regulations aren't common for us so navigating an effective way to work through it was something new. Our outcome of the activity proved that sometimes, less is better. We were able to efficiently finish in a quick manner and get first place. Taking out the verbal communication improved our performance.

How might you in the role of participant/observer become aware of content seduction? What might you do to make help the group be more effective? Cite examples from your group.

Notice when the group is focused too much on the content of the activity and not paying attention to the actual process. I could become more aware of content seduction by looking to see who is arguing over correct answers only to justify their own argument, and who is not sharing their thoughts and feelings with the group. For example, When doing the process questions our group could make sure they are reflecting on the actual process of the activity and not just individual behaviors but also who is actively thinking back on the activity rather than just sitting and listening to others' responses.

Does inference or observation usually happen first? Why? How might the choice to communicate one over the other affect our relationships?

Observation, which is defined as the skill of recording by describing specific and circumscribed verbal, nonverbal, and paralinguistic behavior happens first. This is because inference, which is the interpretation or internalizing intentions of the behavior observed, can only be done once the behavior has been observed. Communicating observations will make the observed person aware of their behavior whereas communicating inferences about the observed behavior would make the person know what the other person is understanding when they do a particular behavior.

When did secondary tension take place in your group and why did it occur?

Our group has yet to experience secondary tension. Currently, we are below our tolerance threshold so we have been able to function effectively as a group. Secondary tension does however occur abruptly so there is no telling when it will happen.

From the Desert Problem and others: What is meant by strategy? Define at least two levels of strategy and give an example of each from your group.

Planning, managing, and implementing operations to be performed by groups in order to accomplish a group task. It is translated into a set of observable and specific behaviors and skills exhibited by group members. relational-interpersonal level: strategy is defined as directing and monitoring group member input. example: allowing each member to express their opinion technical or instrumental level: strategy is defined as directing a path and devising means for effective group problem-solving and task performance. example: analyze the consensus in order to formulate the underlying issue of staying or leaving and the reason for the decision. then, examine the usefulness of items.

From Ellis and Fisher Chapter 2: Explain the difference between primary and secondary tension.

Primary tension occurs during the initial period of formation in groups. Comparable to stage fright. Group members will talk less, rarely interrupt each other, long pauses of silence happen between comments and conversations, and members speaking over each other results in apologies. Primary tension usually fizzles out over time. Secondary tension happens in an abrupt change in group routine(unpredictable). 2 or more group members may have a heated argument. Lots of aggressive and quick messages will be exchanged between the group members arguing while the rest of the people in the group remain silent and just stare at the wall and then a long silent pause will proceed. This can threaten the group's relationship. Things such as a shortage of time to complete an activity can make this rise. Secondary tension needs to be fixed by the group immediately if the group is to succeed.

From Ellis and Fisher Chapter 2: What is the relationship between productivity and cohesion? Define each and draw a graph to illustrate the relationship.

Productivity: the extent to which the group accomplishes the task it was given and can also be viewed as the outcome of the group's task dimension. Cohesion: the ability of group members to get along with each other, feel commitment towards each other, feel proud of their membership, and can also be viewed as the outcome of the process in the group's social dimension. Relationship between cohesion and productivity: In every group, both cohesion and productivity exist to some degree. A group's productivity and cohesion should be visualized as a point in a continuum. As a group increases their level of cohesiveness, their productivity will increase and vice versa.

What is the norm of reciprocity? Is there evidence from your group that it is as essential to group functioning as Ellis and Fisher suggest?

Reciprocity: Reciprocity is the tendency of members to reciprocate similar behaviors in response to those of others (if someone is rude to you, you will reciprocate rudely). When one group member is actively involved, it motivates the other group members to do the same, leading to a wider range of information.

How do role differences between group members develop and to what consequence?

Role differences happen when a member's role in the group differentiates them from the other group members, they consistently perform certain behaviors that receive positive reinforcement from their other group members. Groups overtime will often develop informal and unspoken roles, in addition to any preestablished roles that a member might give to themselves or others.

Elaborate on role performance, role conflict, and role differences. How do these relate to you and your group?

Role performance is the actual behavior of an individual while they are in the group. In our group, we have a very playful, loud, and sociable dynamic. Role conflict is when your role behavior in one group conflicts with your role performance in another group. If our group were to act the way we do in a professional setting, or during the beginning of class when information is being explained, our behavior might be looked down upon. Role differences are each of the member's roles that cause them to be different from the other group members. In our group, we have people who take more of a leadership/ task role, while others take more group-building roles.

Ellis and Fisher (and Dr. Green) advocate that each group member should develop the roles of both a participant and an observer of group decision-making. What are the differences between the roles and how are they related to effective group functioning?

The difference between being an observer (who is sensitive to the process of group decision-making) and a participant is that while observing members would not engage in the decision-making process of the group whereas a participant would engage. They are related to effective group functioning in the way that being both is good. Observing members might help you understand the different processes that are happening and a participant would help bring their perspective to the decision. Each member needs to learn to be both at the same time.

From Ellis and Fisher Chapter 2: Explain the difference between the task and social dimension of a small group's functioning. Does it map neatly onto the concepts of content and process? What are the relationships between the task and social dimensions?

The task dimension is the relationship between the group and the work that they are performing. The social dimension is the relationship between the members of the group. There is a virtually inseparable relationship between the task dimensions and the social dimensions → One cannot exist without the other. Both dimensions align with content and process. The content relating to task and process relates to social dimensions. They contribute to how the activity gets done.

How has the physical structure of the class (spatial ecology) affected the classes' (or individual's) behavior? Provide some examples

There are a few ways that the spatial ecology of the class has impacted the behavior of individuals and the groups as a whole. From day one of class, the fact that the desks were organized in sectioned-off groups already made us as humans more prone to getting to know the people at our own tables and the people sitting around us. An example of how spatial ecology has impacted our groups is due to the fact that each group is in their own room. I believe that if all groups were in the same classroom we would have gotten different results than we have been. There would have been even more talking over one another just because the room would be even louder. There would also be a chance of members from other groups overhearing a different group which would impact their decisions whether they want it to or not. The simple fact that all groups are in different rooms honestly has had a positive impact on the each groups behavior and way of getting tasks done.

In the Desert Problem: Was there any evidence for the "assembly effect" that Ellis and Fisher write about on pages 49-50?

There was evidence that the assembly effect was at work during the desert problem. My individual sum of D's was 36, while the group's was 22. While there were some outliers in the class, most of the people had the same thing happen; their group score was higher than their individual score. When it comes to working towards an answer—one that doesn't have a set of technical steps to follow—it is better done with a group of people.

What are two dimensions on which networks can vary?

Two dimensions on which networks can vary are: network size and centrality. Network size: This refers to the number of people to which a person is linked. It is possible to establish the size of an individual's network and the size of the network as a whole. Centrality: This concept refers to the point every member of the network is assigned a centrality figure on the basis of how close they are to all other links between everyone else. This is also studied with regard to problem-solving accuracy. Centralized networks solve simple problems most accurately whereas decentralized networks solve complex problems most accurately.

The exercise on observation skills indicated that communication could occur on what three levels? Give an example of each level of communication.

Verbal: linguistic part of the verbal message such as words, sentences, and utterances. For example, "I am having so much fun". Para-linguistic: non-linguistic part of the verbal message such as tone, rate of speech, and pattern. For example, "I am having so much fun" in a high tone indicates excitement about the conversation. Nonverbal: body language, facial expression, and physical space. For example, "I am having so much fun" while his/her arms are crossed indicates this is a false statement.

Describe what techniques were used in your group to reduce these Tensions.

We resolved our group's primary tension by simply waiting and listening to each other. After taking part in the first group activity, we were able to listen to the way we all behaved and spoke and from there, we figured out our group's comfortability level. We have achieved working as a group without experiencing secondary tension yet because we have chosen to resolve concerns we have about each other head on before they even become an issue. By this I mean we have been able to express our thoughts and concerns on things we each believe we could improve on so that in the future, it doesn't result in an argument. This creates an open group dynamic where we don't fear confrontation, but instead appreciate it.