History Final

Avant Garde

When: 1930s new and unusual or experimental ideas, especially in the arts, or the people introducing them. people or works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox with respect to art, culture, or society. It may be characterized by nontraditional, aesthetic innovation and initial unacceptability, and it may offer a critique of the relationship between producer and consumer.

George F. Kennan

an American advisor, diplomat, political scientist, and historian, best known as "the father of containment" and as a key figure in the emergence of the Cold War. He later wrote standard histories of the relations between Russia and the Western powers.

GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade)

international agreement first signed in 1947 aimed at lowering trade barriers From 1948 to 1994, the GATT provided the rules for much of world trade and presided over periods that saw some of the highest growth rates in international commerce. It seemed well-established but throughout those 47 years, it was a provisional agreement and organization.

Free Trade

international trade left to its natural course without tariffs, quotas, or other restrictions. Laisse Faire Economics (Adam Smith) Invisible Hand (only time government can intervene is in the event of a war between countries, to create currency, and to build infrastructure that individual entrepreneurs cannot achieve)

Bismarck

(1870-1898) Prussian chancellor who engineered the unification of Germany under his rule. Delivers "blood and iron" speech. Realpolitik: real politics; politics is about power Modern morality has nothing to do with politics Franco-Prussian War 1870: Easily defeats France Tends to buy Great Britain off so that they won't get too involved as Germany unifies (promises to not seek overseas territories); Also buys Russia off with territory Takes Alsace-Lorraine despite it being mainly French (antagonizes France; overstepping by Germany) Allies himself with Russia to keep them away from the French to avoid a two front war

"All Quiet on the Western Front"

(1929) a novel written by Erich Maria Remarque illustrating the horrors of World War I and the experiences of veterans and soldiers. It was extremely popular, but also caused a lot of political controversy when it was first published, and was banned in Germany in the 1930's.

The Balfour Declaration

1917, Britain's declaration of support for the foundation of a Jewish state or nation in Palestine. Britain is committed for creating a permanent place for Jews to live Middle East is divided into Mandates post WWI and Britain gets Palestine and Iraq The British promised the Jews a "national home" in Palestine 1921: The British moved the Hashemites into their mandates of Iraq and Transjordan in accordance with the Sykes-Picot agreement (1916) In Palestine, the contradiction between the promises to Arabs and Jews during the war forced Britain to build a direct administration under a high commissioner Zionism: The belief, based on the writings of Theodor Herzl, that European Jews- and by extension all Jews everywhere - were entitled to a national homeland corresponding to the territory of ancient Israel It grew into a form of ethno religious nationalism and ultimately led to the formation of the state of Israel in 1948 1929 and 1936-1939: Two Palestinian-Arab nationalist uprisings

Truman Doctrine

1947, President Truman's policy of providing economic and military aid to any country threatened by communism or totalitarian ideology, mainly helped Greece and Turkey

Truman

1947, President Truman's policy of providing economic and military aid to any country threatened by communism or totalitarian ideology, mainly helped Greece and Turkey August 6 & 9, 1945: President Harry S Truman had two atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Ho Chi Minh

1950s and 60s; communist leader of North Vietnam; used geurilla warfare to fight anti-comunist, American attacks under the Truman Doctrine; brilliant strategy drew out war and made it unwinnable September 2, 1945: Ho Chi Minh, leader of Vietnam, declared Vietnam independence on the day of Japan's surrender to the US 1959-1960: Ho Chi Minh gained the support of China and the Soviet Union; the Vietcong rebuilt their insurgency in South Vietnam

Baby Boom

A cohort of individuals born in the United States between 1946 and 1964, which was just after World War II in a time of relative peace and prosperity. These conditions allowed for better education and job opportunities, encouraging high rates of both marriage and fertility.

Bretton-Woods

An international conference in New Hampshire in July 1944 that established the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) Dollar backs everything The IMF was charged with the maintenance of a system of fixed exchange rates centered on the U.S. dollar and gold. A forum for consultation and cooperation, the organization would contribute to orderly international monetary relations and the expansion of world trade by providing short-term financial assistance to countries experiencing temporary deficits in their balance of payments; balance of payments deficits attributable to more long-term structural factors could be addressed through modification of a country's exchange rate.

Potsdam Conference

July 26, 1945 - Allied leaders Truman, Stalin and Churchill met in Germany to set up zones of control and to inform the Japanese that if they refused to surrender at once, they would face total destruction. Stalin, Churchill, and Truman gathered to decide how to administer Germany, which had agreed to unconditional surrender nine weeks earlier. The goals of the conference also included the establishment of postwar order, peace treaty issues, and countering the effects of the war.

Dien Bien Phu

In 1954, Vietminh rebels besieged a French garrison at Dien Bien Phu, deep in the interior of northern Vietnam. In May, after the United States refused to intervene, Dien Bien Phu fell to the communists. May 1954: The Vietminh defeated the French decisively at Dien Bien Phu The French surrender resulted in a division of Vietnam into north and south pending elections and the creation of the new nations of Laos and Cambodia Historical: Led to the Geneva Conference where the US stepped in

Treaty of Versailles

In June 1919, the peacemakers summoned representatives of the new German Republic to the palace of Versailles outside Paris. The Germans were ordered to sign the treaty drawn up by Allies. German reparations would come to over $33 billion dollars. They were forced to assume full responsibility for causing the war. Break up of Austria-Hungary; League of Nations with the exclusion of Germany; Demilitarization of the Rhineland (no standing troops) Alsace-Lorraine to the French Germany is not allowed to have a navy or airforce; limited army The German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires were all dismantled and new nation-states were created Allies declared Germany responsible for the war Germany lost Alsace-Lorraine, overseas colonies, and West Prussia Subjected to military restrictions and reparation payments League of Nations: An international body of 58 states, created as part of the Versailles Treaty and functioning between 1919 and 1946, that sought to ensure world peace US Senate refused to join Versailles peace was deeply flawed, encouraging Germany to go it alone and dominate in the east later on

Zimmerman Telegram

March 1917. Sent from German Foreign Secretary, addressed to German minister in Mexico City. Mexico should attack the US if US goes to war with Germany (needed that advantage due to Mexico's promixity to the US). In return, Germany would give back Tex, NM, Arizona etc to Mexico. Brings the US into the War (unchecked possibilities for American manufacturing)

Mussolini

Son of a village school teacher and blacksmith Begins as a radical socialist 1914: Breaks w/ Socialist Party because he wants to go to war 1919: Organizes groups of veterans alienated by Treaty of Versailles (Fascist: someone who bands together) Mussolini's initial program is a mix between nationalism and socialism (worker benefits, land reform, getting people back to work) Begins to advocate more middle class things and condemns socialism (gains him supporters) 1923: Mussolini led his coalition government in passing a law that gave ⅔ of the seats in parliament to the party that garnered the most votes Il Duce ("the Leader"), as Mussolini called himself, won ⅔ the next year and began to implement his fascist corporate state 1933: Mussolini formed the Industrial Reconstruction Institute Took over the industrial and commercial holdings of the banks that failed earlier Italy's military industry allowed Mussolini to proclaim a policy of autarky with the help of overseas territories 1931: brutally conquered the formerly Ottoman Libya 1935-1936: conquered Ethiopia and merged it with Italian Eritrea and Somalia to make Italian East Africa The Ethiopian conquest prompted protests by the League of Nations Mussolini felt isolated so he sought relations with Hitler and the Nazis

Long Telegram

The message written by George Kennan in 1946 to Truman advising him to contain Communist expansion. Told Truman that if the Soviets couldn't expand, their Communism would eventually fall apart, and that Communism could be beaten without going to war.

Information Age

The present time, during which infinite quantities of facts are widely available to anyone who can use a computer

Fourteen Points

The war aims outlined by President Wilson in 1918, which he believed would promote lasting peace; called for self-determination, freedom of the seas, free trade, end to secret agreements, reduction of arms and a league of nations. Woodrow Wilson Called for freedom of the seas, the rights of neutral powers, self-determination for all peoples, and peace "without annexations or indemnities"

The Congress System

When: 1815 Where: Europe Established by Metternich European powers would come together and work out issues instead of going to war Ex: Congress of Berlin (Scramble for Africa) Precursor to the League of Nations and the United Nations

George Marshall

United States general and statesman who as Secretary of State organized the European Recovery Program (1880-1959)

War Socialism

When: 1917 Wilson, FDR when government takes over economy to stop strikes, ration goods, control prices, etc. redirecting resources from their alternative productive uses in the private sector.

The Concert of Europe

When: 1815 a series of alliances among European nations in the 19th century, devised by Prince Klemens von Metternich to prevent the outbreak of revolutions was dominated by five Great Powers of Europe: Prussia, Russia, Britain, France and Austria. The more conservative members of the Concert of Europe, who were also members of the Holy Alliance, used this system to oppose revolutionary movements, weaken the forces of nationalism, and uphold the balance of power.

Alexander II of Russia

When: 1861 Where: Russia Alexander II believed Russia lost the Crimean war because of a technologically inferior army, lack of infrastructure, and the unwillingness of the serf-owning aristocracy to shift from subsistence to market agriculture Implemented major reforms that threw the empire into a time of social destabilization 1861: Emancipation Edict Peasants were freed from their bondage to their villages and their dues and labor services to the Russian landowning aristocracy Edict fell short of liberating peasantry for three reasons: The decree took 2 years to be fully enacted Peasants were not given land titles directly Serfs had to redeem their new holdings by making annual payments to the state Proceeds were given to landowning nobility 1864: the administration of government at the local level was reorganized by the establishment of regional councils known as zemstvos Each zemstvo was controlled by the local aristocracy; peasants had a say in their election 1874: Reforms aimed at modernizing the military and bringing it closer to Western standards Infrastructure reforms remained limited by lack of funds Historical Sig: Alexander II's death caused a great setback for the reform movement; The assassination triggered major suppression of civil liberties in Russia, and police brutality burst back in full force

The Belle Epoque

When: 1870s "Beautiful Era" period of time between Franco-Prussian War and World War I, considered a golden age Occurring during the era of the French Third Republic (beginning 1870), it was a period characterized by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity, an apex of colonial empires, and technological, scientific, and cultural innovations. In the climate of the period, especially in Paris, the arts flourished

Porfirio Diaz

When: 1876-1910 Where: Mexico Takes power with the help of liberals and indigenous; amends Mexican constitution to allow himself to be elected indefinitely; Slogan: "Bread or the Club" (I will feed you or beat you) Diaz favored infrastructural and industrial development Rail, telegraph, and telephone systems were laid Textile factories and heavy industries set up; oil was produced in quantity Improvements in agriculture Faction of Creole landowners added technocrat administrators, financiers, land speculators, and industrialists Porfiriato regime was marked by corruption 1857: Critics among the urban and professional classes demanded a return to the constitution; arrested, beaten, and exiled as the Porfiriato became more repressive Increases the role of Americans in Mexican economy (Yankee Imperialism); Increases concentration of landownership The Fall of Diaz: Economic depression, bad harvests (food prices skyrocket), Worker strikes, riots, etc.

Nietzsche

When: 1880s German philosopher, cultural critic, composer, poet, philologist, and Latin and Greek scholar whose work has exerted a profound influence on Western philosophy and modern intellectual history. influential German philosopher remembered for his concept of the superman and for his rejection of Christian values (1844-1900) After his death, his sister Elisabeth became the curator and editor of Nietzsche's manuscripts, reworking his unpublished writings to fit her own German nationalist ideology while often contradicting or obfuscating Nietzsche's stated opinions, which were explicitly opposed to antisemitism and nationalism. Through her published editions, Nietzsche's work became associated with fascism and Nazism

Alexander III

When: 1880s Emperor of Russia, King of Poland, and Grand Duke of Finland He was highly conservative and reversed some of the liberal reforms of his father, Alexander II. During Alexander's reign Russia fought no major wars, and he was therefore styled "The Peacemaker" All of Alexander III's internal reforms aimed to reverse the liberalization that had occurred in his father's reign. The new Emperor believed that remaining true to Russian Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality (the ideology introduced by his grandfather, emperor Nicholas I) would save Russia from revolutionary agitation. Alexander's political ideal was a nation composed of a single nationality, language, and religion, as well as one form of administration. Alexander weakened the power of the zemstvo (elective local administrative bodies resembling British parish councils) and placed the administration of peasant communes under the supervision of land-owning proprietors appointed by his government.

Kaiser Wilhelm II

When: 1890s Where: Germany Wants to show the people that he is a better leader than Bismarck (dismisses Bismarck in 1890) Refuses to renew the treaty with Russia; didn't like the Russians and thought it wasn't necessary (Russians and French work out a treaty behind Germany's back) Wilhelm fails to keep France isolated; begins to antagonize England (builds a Navy and looks to create German colonies)

Fin de Siecle

When: 1890s the end of the century world-weariness, fashionable despair This period was widely thought to be a period of degeneration, but at the same time a period of hope for a new beginning. The "spirit" of fin de siècle often refers to the cultural hallmarks that were recognized as prominent in the 1880s and 1890s, including ennui, cynicism, pessimism, and "...a widespread belief that civilization leads to decadence."

Sino-Japanese War

When: 1894-1895 The war between China and Japan over control of Korea exposed the problems of China's self-strengthening efforts Many land battles were hotly contested, but superior organization and morale enabled the Japanese to drive steadily through Korea 1895: Li made a humiliating trip to Shimonoseki and was forced to agree to Japan's terms Severity of the provisions signals ed to the Western powers in East Asia that China was weak; has to acquiesce to massive economic and territorial demands "Race for Concessions": France demanded economic and territorial rights in south China adjacent to Indochina Britain wanted the Yangzi River Valley Russia and Japan wanted Manchuria Germany demanded naval bases and rights at Qingdao on the Shandong Peninsula 1899: China's total dismemberment was avoided when John Hay, US secretary of state, circulated a note with British backing suggesting that all powers maintain an "open door" for all trade in China

Empress Dowager Cixi

When: 1898 Where: China Ends the Hundred Days Reform; takes power Nullifies the reforms; go back to traditional way

Hundred Days Reform

When: 1898 Where: China Response to increased agitation for change by middle-class and intellectuals Constitutional monarchy, remodel education system, get rid of corruption (attempt), try to reform civil service, introduce western science and military The terms of the Shimonoseki treaty prompted patriotic demonstrations in Beijing and prompted urgent discussing about reform A group of younger officials headed by Kang Youwei petitioned Emperor Guangxu to implement wide-spread reforms, modeled on those recently enacted in Japan June-Sept 1898: Guangxu issued many edicts attempting to revampt China's government and institutions Resistance to this "hundred days' reform" program was extensive The emperor's aunt had the emperor placed under house arrest and executed many of Kang's supporters

Boxer Rebellion

When: 1898-1899 Where: China Anti-foreign campaign (anti-western/anti-christian) Would tear up train tracks (symbolized the west) 1899: Attacked foreigners, christians, etc. Europeans ended the rebellion with great force and brutality; Trial and execution of the Boxers (publicized to show power of the West) The "race for concessions" was particularly intense in north China Russia, Japan, and Germany were all clashing 1900: The German ambassador was assassinated by one of his Manchu bodyguards Germans demanded that the Qing crush the Boxers and suppress all anti-foreign elements, pay a huge indemnity, and erect a statue to their ambassador The empress dowager declared war on all foreign powers in China and openly threw the court's support behind the Boxer movement Resulted in civil war across northern China Foreign governments assembled a multinational relief force led by the Germans and British and manned by the Japanese Fought their way to the capital and chased the imperial court nearly to Xi'an Imposed the most "unequal treaty": extracted the right to post troops in major Chinese cities, demanded the total suppression of any antiforeign movements, and received such a huge indemnity that China had to borrow money from foreign banks to service interest on the loan

Russo-Japanese War

When: 1905 Where: Manchuria Sows the seeds of revolution in Russia Russia fails to beat Japan for dominance in the Pacific Surprise Japanese attack on Russians in Port Arthur Leads to cause for change in Russia b/c Russia loses Food Prices at home increase Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) Cause: Dramatic surge in Russian industrialization and imperial ambitions in East Asia Japan occupied Taiwan and the Liaodong Peninsula of Manchuria 1895: Triple Intervention Japan had to give up the Liaodong Peninsula which was leased to Russia the following year Russia continued railway through the Peninsula 1904: Japanese naval forces attacked the Russian fleet moored at Port Arthur Japan's imperial goals were threatened by Russian expansion The Russian Baltic fleet was too late to prevent the fall of the port and was destroyed in May 1905 Peace Settlement: Japan gained control of the Liaodong Peninsula and southern Manchuria; increased influence over Korea (Japan annexed Korea in 1910)

October Manifesto

When: 1905 Where: Russia Meant to placate the middle class (they leave the revolution) Develops the Duma (parliament) though they don't really do anything Minor reforms Never goes through with reforms; takes it back after the military returns from the Russo-Japanese war Issued by Nicholas II Promised to establish a constitutional government, including the creation of a representative assembly, the Duma

Duma

When: 1905 Where: Russia What: The elected parliament. Though through establishing this is seemed like the Czar was giving his people power, in reality he could easily get rid of this if they made any laws or such that he didn't like. In the subsequent October Manifesto, Nicholas II pledged to introduce basic civil liberties, provide for broad participation in the State Duma, and endow the Duma with legislative and oversight powers. Why: Meant to placate the middle class who were dissatisfied following the Russian Revolution of 1905 Historical Sig: Fails when it is put into power after the March Revolution

Bloody Sunday

When: 1905 Where: Russia in St Petersburg, Russia, when unarmed demonstrators led by Father Georgy Gapon were fired upon by soldiers of the Imperial Guard as they marched towards the Winter Palace to present a petition to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia. Bloody Sunday caused grave consequences for the Tsarist autocracy governing Imperial Russia: the events in St. Petersburg provoked public outrage and a series of massive strikes that spread quickly to the industrial centres of the Russian Empire. The massacre on Bloody Sunday is considered to be the start of the active phase of the Revolution of 1905. In addition to beginning the 1905 Revolution, historians view the events of Bloody Sunday to be one of the key events which led to the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Leon Trotsky

When: 1905-1917 Where: Russia What: son of an affluent Ukrainian Jewish family Trotsky rallied his "Red" forces against the more numerous but disunited "White" armies Flew the new "hammer and sickle" red flag he served first as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and later as the founder and commander of the Red Army, with the title of People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs. He became a major figure in the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War (1918-1922). Stalin forced Trotsky into exile and ultimately had him assassinated in Mexico in 1940 (Trotsky was supposed to be Lenin's successor) Russian revolutionary, Marxist theorist, and Soviet politician whose particular strain of Marxist thought is known as Trotskyism. Trotsky led the Soviet delegation during the peace negotiations in Brest-Litovsk

Naval Arms Race

When: 1906 Where: Europe Starting in 1890s, conflict between major countries such as Great Britain, France, Germany, U.S., Japan. They were trying to come up with better technologies and more military power than the rest, created tension and fear, led national leaders to the conclusion that if war should break out, the best protection would be to take the military offense. Kaiser Wilhelm Historical Sig: Leads to the Great War

Alexander Kerensky

When: 1917 a Russian lawyer and revolutionist who was a key political figure in the Russian Revolution of 1917. After the February Revolution of 1917, he joined the newly formed Russian Provisional Government, first as Minister of Justice, then as Minister of War, and after July as the government's second Minister-Chairman. A leader of the moderate-socialist Trudovik faction of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, he was also vice-chairman of the powerful Petrograd Soviet. On 7 November, his government was overthrown by the Lenin-led Bolsheviks in the October Revolution. He spent the remainder of his life in exile As one of the Duma's most well-known spacers from the monarchy and as a lawyer and defender of many revolutionaries, Kerensky became a member of the Provisional Committee of the State Duma and was elected vice-chairman of the newly formed Petrograd Soviet. These two bodies, the Duma and the Petrograd Soviet, or - rather - their respective executive committees, soon became each other's antagonists on most matters except regarding the end of the Tsar's autocracy.

Algeciras Conference

When: 1906 Where: Spain international conference of the great European powers and the United States, held at Algeciras, Spain, to discuss France's relationship to the government of Morocco. The conference climaxed the First Moroccan Crisis France & England get land; Germany gets nothing Germany sends a gunboat to show power; reaffirms existing beliefs that Germany wants to go to war find a solution to the First Moroccan Crisis of 1905 between France and Germany, which arose as Germany responded to France's effort to establish a protectorate over the independent state of Morocco. Germany was not trying to stop French expansion - its goal was to enhance its own international prestige, and it failed badly. The result was a much closer relationship between France and Britain, thus strengthening the Entente Cordiale, with both London and Paris increasingly suspicious and distrustful of Berlin. An even more momentous consequence was the heightened sense of frustration and readiness for war in Germany. Historical Sig: Causes all countries to begin to plan for a larger European conflict (military plans begin to run the countries); England and the US gave support to France German Schlieffan Plan is developed; cause of WWI

Three Principles of the People

When: 1908 Where: China Developed by Sun Yatsen Three Principles: - Nationalism - Democracy (initial goal; comes to believe China is not ready for this) - People's livelihood (Revolution needs to be deeper than political; must look to aid the common people/peasantry)

Marie Curie

When: 1910 A Polish physicist who, with French husband Pierre, discovered radium emits subatomic particles Notable female Polish/French chemist and physicist around the turn of the 20th century. Won two nobel prizes. Did pioneering work in radioactivity.

Economic Monoculture

When: 1910 Where: Argentina Majority of the economy is linked to a single product; linked directly to industrialization Due to colonization; certain countries are assigned a product to benefit the mother country Why: Argentina produces a singular product (grain & meat) as a raw material; Little home grown manufacturing Historical Sig: The economy completely collapses during WWI; leads to the Radical Era in Argentina; stagflation

New Youth

When: 1911 Chen Dixiu is the leader of a revolutionary group that rose in popularity; young intellecturals that want a change in ideology Began to question China & Chinese traditions Mr.Science: based on the enlightenment; new world view; critical thinking; empiricism Mr. Democracy: will of the people should be reflected in the government Why: Follows the hundred days reform (which was ended by Dowager Cixi); China is backwards Historical Sig: Not successful; part of the boycott on Japanese government; part of getting rid of the Xin The New Youth go to the Communist party; radicalizes them

Sun Yatsen

When: 1911 Where: China What: Early Revolutionary Leader; "Father of Modern China" Concludes that revolution MUST happen; Qing needs to be replaced Developed the Three Principles of the People (Nationalism, Democracy, and People's livelihood) Leads the Revolution of 1911 and is a success because it gets rid of the Xin Becomes the head of a weak democratic regime; relinquishes power the favor of a warlord because he didn't think China was ready for democracy and he thought China needed a powerful military leader

Revolution of 1911 (China)

When: 1911 Where: China What: a group of revolutionaries in southern China led a successful revolt against the Qing Dynasty, establishing in its place the Republic of China and ending the imperial system. The revolution consisted of many revolts and uprisings. The turning point was the Wuchang uprising on 10 October 1911, which was the result of the mishandling of the Railway Protection Movement. The revolution ended with the abdication of the six-year-old Last Emperor, Puyi, on 12 February 1912, that marked the end of 2,000 years of imperial rule and the beginning of China's early republican era. The revolution arose mainly in response to the decline of the Qing state, which had proven ineffective in its efforts to modernize China and confront foreign aggression. Many underground anti-Qing groups, with the support of Chinese revolutionaries in exile, tried to overthrow the Qing. The brief civil war that ensued was ended through a political compromise between Yuan Shikai, the late Qing military strongman, and Sun Yat-sen

Pancho Villa

When: 1911 Where: Mexico "Bandit" Raided American supplies; threatens Diaz from the North Francisco "Pancho" Villa: a muleteer-cum-cattle rustler who led a rebellion in Chihuahua

Francisco Madero

When: 1911 Where: Mexico Madero: Large-scale landowner, linked to the US Invades Mexico with Texan followers; threatens Mexico from the East liberal who was committed to the social justice proclaimed in the 1857 constitution Called on the middle classes, working classes, and peasants to rise up against Diaz As President, leads some weak land reforms, weak period of modernization (protects large landowners)

Emiliano Zapata

When: 1911 Where: Mexico Wants land redistribution; threatens Diaz from the South Creates the Plan of Ayala to redistribute land for peasantry; he was the voice of the rural poor; Civil war erupts Emiliano Zapata: head of a village in Morelos Him and his campesinos (tenant farmers, laborers, peasants) occupied sugar plantations and distributed plantation land amongst themselves

Plan of Ayala

When: 1911 Where: Mexico What: Zapata's revolt against Madero's cautious policy on land reform. It called for the immediate transfer of land to peasant farmer; redistribution of land for peasantry a document drafted by revolutionary leader Emiliano Zapata during the Mexican Revolution. In it, Zapata denounced President Francisco I. Emiliano Zapata had supported Francisco Madero against the regime of Porfirio Díaz. Díaz was deposed and Madero was elected president. He took office on June 7, 1911, and soon after had a meeting with Zapata where he demanded the disarmament of Zapata's army as a precondition for discussion of agrarian reform. Unsatisfied, Zapata returned to Morelos arguing that if the people were not able to achieve justice after rising in arms, there was no guarantee they would achieve it without them

Austria-Hungary

When: 1914 Austria-Hungary wanted to expand into the Balkans to maintain a large territory; put down the Serbs living there Archduke Franz Ferdinand is the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary; killed by an ultra right Serbian nationalist while on a tour in Sarajevo Austria-Hungary gives Serbia an ultimatum that was unfair to Serbian sovereignty so Serbia refuses This Central Power empire during WWI, started the war with their invasion of Serbia after the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand on June 28, 1914 . It was made up of Austria, Hungary and several other nations and territories. After World War I it split up into several nations.

Einkreisung

When: 1914 Einkreisung: The fact that France, Great Britain, and Russia (The Triple Entente) surrounded ("encircled") Germany Happens because Kaiser Wilhelm failed to keep France isolated; allowed France to create a treaty with Russia With the on-going naval discussions between Britain and Russia, of which Berlin had been informed at the end of May (by way of a German spy inside the Russian Embassy in London), the much-feared encircling ring (what the Germans then called "Einkreisung") around the German Empire appeared to be tightening ominously. Convinced that a war against Russia should be waged sooner, rather than later (owing to Russia's increasing demographic as well armaments advantage), the military in particular brushed aside all arguments against such a risky strategy. The key word of Germany's policies towards the Serbian conflict during the entire July crisis was "localisation" (Lokalisierung). The phrase "localising the conflict" seemed to imply that the German government had set on a course of conciliation, but the opposite was true: Germany demanded, or at least gave the impression of demanding, that the greater European nations France, Britain, and Russia, should idly stand by while Austria-Hungary punished and subdued Serbia

Trench Warfare

When: 1914 Fighting with trenches, mines, and barbed wire. Horrible living conditions, great slaughter, no gains, stalemate, used in WWI. A form of warfare in which opposing armies fight each other from trenches dug in the battlefield.

Yuan Shikai

When: 1914 Where: China What: Powerful warlord who was given power by Sun Yatsen (Relinquished power because he didn't think China was ready for democracy; thought China needed a powerful military leader) 1914: Starts to rule by decree; begins the Warlord Period Allowed Japan to increase its power

Schlieffen Plan

When: 1914 (WWI) Attack plan by Germans, proposed by Schliffen, lightning quick attack against France. Proposed to go through Belgium then attack France, Belgium resisted, other countries took up their aid, long fight, used trench warfare. Attack France first to keep England isolated and take out the Western Front easily; Then attack Russia (Go through Belgium to get to France; Belgium's neutrality is guaranteed by all of Europe so Britain would have to declare war) Failed because of the Battle of Marne, rapid Russian mobilization, and weak Austrian forces against Russia

T.S. Eliot

When: 1915 poet, essayist, publisher, playwright, and literary and social critic Eliot attracted widespread attention for his poem "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" (1915), which was seen as a masterpiece of the Modernist movement. It was followed by some of the best-known poems in the English language, including The Waste Land (1922), "The Hollow Men" (1925), "Ash Wednesday" (1930), and Four Quartets (1943).

Warlord Period

When: 1916-1926 Where: China What: Warlord Yuan Shikai was in power (powerful military leader); ruled by decree a period in the history of the Republic of China when control of the country was divided among former military cliques of the Beiyang Army and other regional factions, which were spread across the mainland regions of Sichuan, Shanxi, Qinghai, Ningxia, Guangdong, Guangxi, Gansu, Yunnan, and Xinjiang. In historiography, the era began when Yuan Shikai died in 1916, and lasted until 1928 when the Nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) officially unified China through the Northern Expedition, marking the beginning of the Nanjing decade. Several of the warlords continued to maintain their influence through the 1930s and the 1940s, which was problematic for the Nationalist government during the Second Sino-Japanese War. This era was characterized by constant military conflicts between different factions, Historical Sig: Allowed Japan to increase its power

Paul Valery

When: 1917 French poet and critic that spoke of a "crisis of the mind," and "a dark future for Europe" French poet, essayist, and philosopher. In addition to his poetry and fiction (drama and dialogues), his interests included aphorisms on art, history, letters, music, and current events.

Bolsheviks

When: 1917 Where: Russia What: 1903: The SDL Party developed into two competing factions Bolsheviks: more radical; led by Lenin Unwilling to wait for the evolutionary process to unfold; called for a revolution (Revolution of 1917) They ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.[d] The Bolsheviks, or Reds, came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). With the Reds defeating the Whites and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917-1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union (USSR) in December 1922. The Bolsheviks, founded by Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov, were by 1905 a major organization consisting primarily of workers under a democratic internal hierarchy governed by the principle of democratic centralism. They considered themselves the leaders of the revolutionary working class of Russia. Wanted to end participation in WWI; "Peace, Land, Bread"; rebuild and stabilize the country through the NEP

Nicholas II of Russia

When: 1917 Where: Russia What: Continued repressive policies of his father, distrusted and persecuted Russian Jews Mass migrations of Jews out of Russia Bloody Sunday Russia loses Russo-Japanese War Abdicates in 1917 Introduced the Duma Involved in WWI Obstacle: Poor transportation infrastructure Railroad construction was difficult due to the great size of the empire Russian railroads never adopted the standard gauge; costly and time-consuming changes of equipments 1890s: Minister of Finance Sergei Witte was the driving force in Russia's push for industrialization "Witte System": acceleration of heavy industrial output, the establishment of import tariffs, increased taxes on peasantry, and conversion to the gold standard Wanted to extend Russia's reach into Siberia with its rich agricultural and mineral resources 1891-1905: Trans-Siberian Railroad Witte's crowning achievement Connected Moscow with Vladivostok

Mensheviks

When: 1917 Where: Russia What: Follow Marx's idea of socialism 1903: The SDL Party developed into two competing factions Mensheviks: more moderate; willing to follow classical Marxism Evolutionary process from capitalism to social revolution a member of the moderate non-Leninist wing of the Russian Social Democratic Workers' Party, opposed to the Bolsheviks and defeated by them after the overthrow of the tsar in 1917.

February Revolution

When: 1917 Where: Russia What: forced Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate and create a provisional government The Bolshevik Party of Vladimir Lenin campaigned against continuing the war; launched a takeover of the government in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) in November Why: toll of the war led to the collapse of tsarist Russia Historical Sig: Led to the disastrous treaty of Brest-Litosvk between the new Bolshevik government and the Germans

October Revolution

When: 1917 a revolution in Russia led by the Bolshevik Party of Vladimir Lenin that was instrumental in the larger Russian Revolution of 1917. It took place with an armed insurrection in Petrograd on Oct 25 1917. The Bolshevik Party and the left fraction of Socialist Revolutionary Party - a fraction calling to stop the war and land to the peasants with overwhelming support from the countryside - actually had a majority in the Russian population. During this time, urban workers began to organize into councils (soviets) wherein revolutionaries criticized the provisional government and its actions.

Provisional Government

When: 1917 established immediately following the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II of the Russian Empire on March 15 1917.The intention of the provisional government was the organization of elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and its convention. The provisional government lasted approximately eight months, and ceased to exist when the Bolsheviks gained power after the October Revolution in October 1917. According to Harold Whitmore Williams the history of eight months during which Russia was ruled by the Provisional Government was the history of the steady and systematic disorganisation of the army. The State Duma was the more representative chamber out of the two in the Russian parliament established after the Revolution of 1905 The Provisional Government was unable to make decisive policy decisions due to political factionalism and a breakdown of state structures. This weakness left the government open to strong challenges from both the right and the left.

Ottoman Empire

When: 1918 A Muslim empire based in Turkey that lasted from the 1300's to 1922. Major Islamic state centered on Anatolia that came to include the Balkans, the Near East, and much of North Africa The Ottoman Empire participated in World War I as one of the Central Powers. The Ottoman Empire entered the war by carrying out a surprise attack on Russia's Black Sea coast on 29 October 1914, with Russia responding by declaring war on 5 November 1914. Ottoman forces fought the Entente in the Balkans and the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. The Ottoman Empire's defeat in the war in 1918 was crucial in the eventual dissolution of the empire in 1921. During WWI the Ottoman Empire engaged in a genocide against local ethnicities in its territory. The Armenian Genocide, also known as the Armenian Holocaust, was the Ottoman government's systematic extermination of 1.5 million Christian Armenians, mostly Ottoman citizens within the Ottoman Empire and its successor state, the Republic of Turkey. The starting date is conventionally held to be 24 April 1915, the day that Ottoman authorities rounded up, arrested, and deported 235 to 270 Armenian intellectuals and community leaders from Constantinople to Ankara, the majority of whom were eventually murdered

Vladimir Lenin

When: 1918 Where: Russia 1903: Lenin writes "What is to be done"; Takes socialism and splits it; argues that Marx's theory is outdated and that a communist revolution doesn't need to be worldwide (do not need a large proletariat); Menshiviks 1917: Agitator; meets with the soviets and radical parties in Russia 1918: Leon Trotsky & Lenin lead the Oct & Nov Revolutions; provisional government falls Lenin's slogan: "Peace, Land, Bread" Takes Russia out of the war, makes Russia communist; power base is weak when he comes into power (Cities are the communist party vs. rural) Implemented the New Economic Policy: allowed limited capitalism; encouraged cottage industry; cement his power amongst the peasants

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

When: 1918 Where: Russia What: Got the Russians out of WWI; Disastrous treaty between the new Bolshevik government and the Germans ⅓ of Russia's population, territory, and resources were given to the Germans in return for a Russian withdrawal from the war Why: Lenin was fulfilling his promise to take Russia out of the war so that they could focus on themselves Historical Sig: Lenin was able to focus on internal rebuilding for Russia; turns Russia communist and implements the NEP to engage in rebuilding and stabilizing the country

Weimar Republic

When: 1919 Where: Germany German republic founded after the WWI and the downfall of the German Empire's monarchy. Led by Social democrats; progressive left center coalition Began to stabilize Germany and the rest of the world takes notice September 1918: German Supreme Army Command (OHL) concluded that Germany had lost WWI Unrest broke out among military and workers November 9, 1918: Friedrich Ebert was appointed chancellor Summer 1919: Allies presented their peace settlement Germany had relatively moderate reparations for civilian casualties and had to accept responsibility for the start of the war The compromise didn't satisfy anyone France's security was uncertain German conservatives and nationalists were upset The democrats of Weimar were upset by the consequence of inflation Germany was asked to begin paying immediately; the German mark became virtually worthless and Germany had to suspend payments 1923: France and Belgium responded by occupying the Ruhr province Dawes Plan of 1924: US banks advanced credits to European banks to refinance the resumed German reparation payments, significantly reducing the plan France and Belgium withdrew from the Ruhr, inflation was reduced, and the currency was stabilized

May Fourth Movement

When: 1919 an anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement which grew out of student participants in Beijing. They protested against the Chinese government's weak responses to the stipulations of the Treaty of Versailles, especially it allowing Japan to receive territories in Shandong, which had been surrendered by Germany after the Siege of Tsingtao in 1914. China had fallen victim to the expansionist policies of the Empire of Japan, which had conquered large areas of Chinese-controlled territory with the support of France, the UK, and the US. This was finalized at the Treaty of Versailles. The demonstrations sparked national protests and marked an upsurge of Chinese nationalism, a shift towards political mobilization and away from cultural activities, and a move towards a populist base rather than intellectual elites. Many of the radical political and social leaders of the next two decades emerged at this time.

League of Nations

When: 1919 an international organization formed to promote cooperation and peace among nations An international body of 58 states, created as part of the Versailles Treaty and functioning between 1919 and 1946, that sought to ensure world peace US Senate refused to join

The Infamous Decade

When: 1930s Where: Argentina What: Military rule; manipulated by Yrigoyen Conservative economics: import substitution (must have price control), state controlled economy Enemies of the state just disappeared; church-oriented; growing power of women (twice as many women migrate to the cities than en) Why: Occurred as a result of the Radical Era; Yrigoyen co-opts the right and uses the military to shut down his own movement Historical Sig: Women grew in power; lots of single family households with woman as the sole provider; 39% of women were working

Americanization

When: 1920s Belief that assimilating immigrants into American society would make them more loyal citizens The process of an immigrant to the United States becoming a person who shares American values, beliefs, and customs by assimilating into American society. This process typically involves learning the English language and adjusting to American culture, values and customs. The Americanization movement was a nationwide organized effort in the 1910s to bring millions of recent immigrants into the American cultural system. 30+ states passed laws requiring Americanization programs; in hundreds of cities the chamber of commerce organized classes in English language and American civics; many factories cooperated.

Virginia Woolf

When: 1920s English author whose work used such techniques as stream of consciousness and the interior monologue considered one of the most important modernist 20th-century authors and also a pioneer in the use of stream of consciousness as a narrative device. Woolf became one of the central subjects of the 1970s movement of feminist criticism and her works have since garnered much attention and widespread commentary for "inspiring feminism."

New Economic Policy (NEP)

When: 1921 Lenin's mixture of private and state investment into factories and small-scale food marketing by peasants Allowed limited capitalism; encouraged cottage industry; cemented his power amongs the peasants 1928: a successful NEP helped the Soviet Union return to prewar levels of industrial production Why: Pulled out of WWI and then was ruling over a ruined country so he has to engage in rebuilding and stabilizing the country; did not want to antagonize the capitalist peasantries

Chinese Communist Party

When: 1921 Where: China What: Founded initially as a small group. Job was to expel foreign nationalism; anti-corruption; help the poor The Russians tell the CCP to link with the nationlists to expel the Japanese; leads to a split within the party Two factions: One with the Russians and one against the Russians CCP wins the Chinese Civil War against the nationalists in 1949

Brown Shirts

When: 1921 (founded) Hitler's private army of supporters, also known as the SA (Sturm Abteilung). SA, abbreviation of Sturmabteilung (German: "Assault Division"), byname Storm Troopers or Brownshirts, German Sturmtruppen or Braunhemden, in the German Nazi Party, a paramilitary organization whose methods of violent intimidation played a key role in Adolf Hitler's rise to power.

Fascism

When: 1922 a form of radical, right-wing, authoritarian ultranationalism, characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation of society and of the economy, A political system headed by a dictator that calls for extreme nationalism and racism and no tolerance of opposition

The March on Rome

When: 1922 October 22, 1922: 10,000 armed Blackshirts march on Rome because Mussolini wanted the king to disband parliament, have new elections, and name Mussolini as Prime Minister

Black Shirts

When: 1922 Where: Italy A private army under Mussolini who destroyed socialist newspapers, union halls, and Socialist party headquarters, eventually pushing Socialists out of the city governments of Northern Italy. Mussolini's thugs; mass identity; attack socialists and worker organizations October 22, 1922: 10,000 armed Blackshirts march on Rome because Mussolini wanted the king to disband parliament, have new elections, and name Mussolini as Prime Minister Street brawls contributed to the impression of a breakdown of law and order by this group; the democratic government could not control it Anti-communism was accompanied by denunciations of democracy

Munich Beer Hall Putsch

When: 1923 a failed coup d'état by the Nazi Party (NSDAP) leader Adolf Hitler—along with Generalquartiermeister Erich Ludendorff and other Kampfbund leaders—to seize power in Munich, Bavaria, which took place from 8 November to 9 November 1923. Approximately two thousand Nazis were marching to the Feldherrnhalle, in the city center, when they were confronted by a police cordon, which resulted in the death of 16 Nazis and four police officers. Hitler, who was wounded during the clash, escaped immediate arrest and was spirited off to safety in the countryside. After two days, he was arrested and charged with treason Hitler wrote Mein Kampf while in jail for this incident. Hitler now saw that the path to power was through legal means rather than revolution or force, and accordingly changed his tactics, further developing Nazi propaganda.

Mustafa Kemal Ataturk

When: 1923 leader of the Republic of Turkey after the dismantling of the Ottoman Empire Turkish field marshal (Mareşal), revolutionary statesman, author, and founder of the Republic of Turkey, serving as its first President from 1923 until his death in 1938. Ideologically a secularist and nationalist, his policies and theories became known as Kemalism. came to prominence for his role in securing the Ottoman Turkish victory at the Battle of Gallipoli (1915) during World War I. Following the Empire's defeat and subsequent dissolution, he led the Turkish National Movement, which resisted the mainland Turkey's partition among the victorious Allied powers. Establishing a provisional government in the present-day Turkish capital Ankara, he defeated the forces sent by the Allies, thus emerging victorious from what was later referred to as the Turkish War of Independence. He subsequently proceeded to abolish the decrepit Ottoman Empire and proclaimed the foundation of the Turkish Republic in its place. initiated a rigorous program of political, economic, and cultural reforms with the ultimate aim of building a modern, progressive, and secular nation-state. remembered for being the creator of a new, fully independent Muslim country at a time of encroachment by Christian powers, and for having prevailed in a struggle against Western imperialism

Mein Kampf

When: 1924 "My Struggle"-a book written by Adolf Hitler during his imprisonment in 1923-1924, in which he set forth his beliefs and his goals for Germany Advocated ridding Germany of its Jews who he blamed for WWI and communists (Final Solution) "Superior" "Aryan" (german) race Power in Germany must be taken legally/peacefull Liebenstraum = "living space" ; idea that Germans are entitled to expand into Slavic land (Poland, Balkans, etc.) Rails against the injustices of the Treaty of Versailles Fuhrer: Germany must have a single plarty leader to be great (no sharing of power)

Chiang Kai-shek

When: 1930s Where: China Trys to destroy the CCP; head of the nationalists Puppet of the Russians and later the US; loses the Chinese civil war

Locarno Treaty

When: 1925 Weimar Republic accepts the borders given to it in the Treaty of Versailles seven agreements negotiated at Locarno, Switzerland, on 5-16 October 1925 and formally signed in London on 1 December, in which the First World War Western European Allied powers and the new states of Central and Eastern Europe sought to secure the post-war territorial settlement, and return normalizing relations with defeated Germany (the Weimar Republic). It also stated that Germany would never go to war with the other countries. Locarno divided borders in Europe into two categories: western, which were guaranteed by Locarno treaties, and eastern borders of Germany with Poland, which were open for revision.

Werner Heisenberg

When: 1927 A German physicist that speculated that there was no real certainty in where an electron was, and only tendencies. This broke down Newton's dependable laws to only probabilities. a German theoretical physicist and one of the key pioneers of quantum mechanics made important contributions to the theories of the hydrodynamics of turbulent flows, the atomic nucleus, ferromagnetism, cosmic rays, and subatomic particles, and he was instrumental in planning the first West German nuclear reactor at Karlsruhe, together with a research reactor in Munich, in 1957. He was a principal scientist in the Nazi German nuclear weapon project during World War II. He travelled to occupied Copenhagen where he met and discussed the German project with Niels Bohr.

The Five Year Plans

When: 1928 Plans that Joseph Stalin introduced to industrialize the Soviet Union rapidly, beginning in 1928. They set goals for the output of steel, electricity, machinery, and most other products and were enforced by the police powers of the state.

Stalin

When: 1928 Stalin comes to power in Russia following the Russian Civil War 1903: Joins the Bolshevik party 1907-1910: Advocates for socialist cause 1922: Appointment and acceptance as General Secretary; has complete access to those who would join the pary and move within the party (controls admission); builds a socialist power base Stalin replaces Lenin because: -control of the party and ideological idea of revolution in one country -Nationalizes an ideology that is anti-nationalist Stalin engages in an incredible propaganda campaign to try to illustrate he was super close to Lenin; attacks the NEP (a capitalist program) 1928: Collectivization - Had to worry about kulags who would not give up land -Attacks these people; well off peasants are decimated -Five year plans to move them to government land -10-30 million dead 1936: Great Purge Dictator of the Soviet Union; led the SU through World War II and created a powerful Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe after the war

Chinese Nationalist Party

When: 1928 Where: China Kuomintang; The KMT was founded by Song Jiaoren and Sun Yat-sen shortly after the Xinhai Revolution of 1911. Sun was the provisional President, but he later ceded the presidency to Yuan Shikai. Later led by Chiang Kai-shek, the KMT formed the National Revolutionary Army and succeeded in its Northern Expedition to unify much of mainland China in 1928, ending the chaos of the Warlord Era. It was the ruling party in mainland China until 1949, when it lost the Chinese Civil War to the rival Communist Party of China. The KMT fled to Taiwan where it continued to govern as an authoritarian single-party state.

Republic of China

When: 1928 Where: China the formation of the Republic of China as a constitutional republic put an end to 4,000 years of Imperial rule The Republic had experienced many trials and tribulations after its founding which included being dominated by elements as disparate as warlord generals and foreign powers. In 1928, the Republic was nominally unified under the Kuomintang (KMT)—Chinese Nationalist Party—after the Northern Expedition, and was in the early stages of industrialization and modernization when it was caught in the conflicts among the Kuomintang government, the Communist Party of China, (founded 1921), which was converted into a nationalist party; local warlords, and the Empire of Japan

Lateran Treaty

When: 1929 treaty between Italy and the Vatican. It was signed by Benito Mussolini for the Italian government and by cardinal secretary of state Pietro Gasparri for the papacy and confirmed by the Italian constitution of 1948. Upon ratification of the Lateran Treaty, the papacy recognized the state of Italy, with Rome as its capital. Italy in return recognized papal sovereignty over the Vatican City, a minute territory of 44 hectares (109 acres), and secured full independence for the pope It recognized Vatican City as an independent state, with the Italian government, at the time led by Benito Mussolini as prime minister, agreeing to give the Roman Catholic Church financial compensation for the loss of the Papal States

Great Depression

When: 1929-1933 1929: the saturation of the market for consumer goods behind high tariff wasl led to falling profit rates in businesses Late 1920s: a slowdown in production shifted attention to unsustainable debt levels Farmers were deep in debt, having borrowed to mechanize while speculating wrongly on the continuation of high prices for commodities October 1929: people panicked and sold their stocks for super cheap Great Depression of 1929-1933: The global economic crisis that followed the crash of the New York Stock Exchange on October 29, 1929, and resulted in massive unemployment and economic misery worldwide Americans largely blamed Herbert Hoover (pres 1929-1933) for failing to manage the crisis; elected FDR in 1932 Hoover's approach: cut government spending, raise tariffs to protect US industries, and let market forces correct themselves Only made things worse; Smoot-Hawley Tariff of 1930 encouraged retaliatory tariffs and discouraged world commerce FDR urged Congress to enact the "New Deal" The government engaged in deficit spending to help the unemployed and revive business and agriculture Tennessee Valley Authority: a government-owned corporation of economic development in large parts of the southeastern US particularly hit hard by the depression Social safety net was created: Unemployment benefits and the Social Security Act 1934: the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) was created to enforce regulations governing the stock market 1937: Congress was frightened by the deficit so they lessened efforts to reduce unemployment The Supreme Court declared several New Deal programs unconstitutional Result was a new slump that America only recovered from with their entry to WWII

Mohandas Gandhi

When: 1930 Leader of the Indian independence movement and advocate of nonviolent resistance. After being educated as a lawyer in England, he returned to India and became leader of the Indian National Congress in 1920. most prominent advocate of nonviolence Suspended the push in 1921 1929: the new Labour government in Britain explored the possibility of giving India dominion status, but there was strong opposition Gandhi demanded complete independence in response to this failure March 12, 1930: 24-day Salt March to the sea led by Gandhi Went to pan salt which the government had refused to free from taxation 1935: Government of India Act Devolved all political functions except defense and foreign affairs to India

Logical Empiricism

When: 1930s Why: One long-term process with profound implications was the steady departure of the various sciences from philosophy to form autonomous disciplines. By early in the twentieth century mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, and the social sciences were all pursued professionally and independently from philosophy. The philosophical ideology that simply rejected the concerns of modern philosophy, like god and morality. Mainly started with Austrian philosopher Wittgenstein. only statements verifiable through empirical observation are meaningful.

The Great Purges

When: 1933 Also called the Terror, the Great Purges of the late 1930s were a massive attempt to cleanse the Soviet Union of supposed "enemies of the people"; nearly a million people were executed between 1936 and 1941, and 4 million or 5 million more were sentenced to forced labor in the gulag. Got rid of anyone who wasn't a Stalinist in his own party People were arrested, tried, and killed in one day; show trials Stalin's mass systemic murder of millions to instill fear and to have someone to fight against

Hitler

When: 1933 German Nazi dictator during World War II (1889-1945), Nazi leader and founder; had over 6 million Jews assassinated during the Holocaust Led a failed uprising in 1923; spent time in prison 1925: Mein Kampf ("My Struggle") was published Advocated ridding Germany of its Jews who he blamed for WWI and communists "Superior" "Aryan" (german) race 1932: Hitler demanded the chancellorship when the Nazis won plurality in parliament January 30, 1933: Hitler was nominated to the post in an effort to neutralize Nazism and keep Hitler under control February 1933: Fire in the Reichstag (German Parliament) Hitler blamed the communists and declared martial law, with the permission of the president Enabling Act: allowed Hitler to rule by emergency decree for 4 years Voted for because the leaders thought they could control Hitler The Nazis abolished the federalist structure of the Weimar Republic, purged the civil service of Jews, closed down all parties except the NSDAP, enacted censorship laws, and sent communists to newly constructed concentration camps

National Socialism

When: 1933 German worker party (right wing nationalists) the ideology and practices of the Nazi party, which included national expansion, state control of the economy, the totalitarian principle of government, and anti-Semitism. A movement and political party driven by extreme nationalism and racism, led by Adolf Hitler; its adherents ruled Germany from 1933 to 1945 and forced Europe into World War II.

The Enabling Act

When: 1933 enabled Hitler to get rid of the Reichstag parliament and pass laws without reference to parliament The amendment passed on 23 March 1933 to the Weimar Constitution[citation needed] that gave the German Cabinet — in effect, Chancellor Adolf Hitler — the power to enact laws without the involvement of the Reichstag. The Enabling Act gave Hitler plenary powers and followed on the heels of the Reichstag Fire Decree, which had abolished most civil liberties and transferred state powers to the Reich government. The combined effect of the two laws was to transform Hitler's government into a legal dictatorship. Significance: Due to the great care that Hitler took to give his dictatorship an appearance of legality, the Enabling Act was renewed twice, in 1937 and 1941. However, its renewal was practically assured since all other parties were banned. Voters were presented with a single list of Nazis and Nazi-approved "guest" candidates under far-from-secret conditions. In 1942, the Reichstag passed a law giving Hitler power of life and death over every citizen, effectively extending the provisions of the Enabling Act for the duration of the war

The Night of the Long Knives

When: 1934 a purge that took place in Nazi Germany from June 30 to July 2, 1934, when Adolf Hitler, urged on by Hermann Göring and Heinrich Himmler, carried out a series of political extrajudicial executions intended to consolidate his hold on power in Germany, as well as to alleviate the concerns of the German military about the role of Ernst Röhm and the Sturmabteilung (SA), the Nazis' own mass paramilitary organization. Nazi propaganda presented the murders as a preventive measure against an alleged imminent coup by the SA under Röhm Hitler saw the independence of the SA and the penchant of its members for street violence as a direct threat to his newly gained political power. He also wanted to conciliate leaders of the Reichswehr, the German military, who feared and despised the SA as a potential rival, in particular because of Röhm's ambition to merge the army and the SA under his own leadership. Additionally, Hitler was uncomfortable with Röhm's outspoken support for a "second revolution" to redistribute wealth

Leni Riefenstahl

When: 1935 Made documentary propaganda for Hitler. 'The Triumph of the Will'. Her film was a powerful stand of the 'Nazi Rebirth'. Filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl's controversial masterwork is an artful work of propaganda showcasing German chancellor and Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler at the 1934 Nuremberg Rally. Edited from over 60 hours' worth of raw footage shot over the course of the rally's four days, the film is visually remarkable in the way it captures the event's enormous scale.

Nuremberg Laws

When: 1935 Where: Germany Stripped Jews of their citizenships; no longer had equal rights; had to wear the star of David

Rome-Berlin Axis

When: 1936 Coalition formed in 1936 between Italy and Germany. An agreement formulated by Italy's foreign minister Galeazzo Ciano informally linking the two fascist countries was reached on October 25, 1936. It was formalized by the Pact of Steel in 1939 Benito Mussolini declared on 1 November that all other European countries would from then on rotate on the Rome-Berlin axis, thus creating the term "Axis"

Churchill

When: 1940 British Prime Minister who opposed the policy of appeasement and led Great Britain through World War II Winston Churchill (in office 1940-1945) replaced Neville Chamberlain as prime minister His unbending will during the aerial Battle of Britain proved to be a turning point in rallying the Allied cause

Goebbels

When: 1940s German propaganda minister in Nazi Germany who persecuted the Jews (1897-1945) German Nazi politician and Reich Minister of Propaganda of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. He was one of Adolf Hitler's closest and most devoted associates, and was known for his skills in public speaking and his deeply virulent antisemitism, which was evident in his publicly voiced views. He advocated progressively harsher discrimination, including the extermination of the Jews in the Holocaust.

Hot-House Capitalism

When: 1940s Where: Argentina What: High protective tariffs or lack of competition means that prices can rise but you also have to raise wages; rapid growth of industry; government controls economy

Spanish Civil War

When: 1936 In 1936 a rebellion erupted in Spain after a coalition of Republicans, Socialists, and Communists was elected. General Francisco Franco led the rebellion. The revolt quickly became a civil war. The Soviet Union provided arms and advisers to the government forces while Germany and Italy sent tanks, airplanes, and soldiers to help Franco. Due to the international political climate at the time, the war had many facets, and different views saw it as class struggle, a war of religion, a struggle between dictatorship and republican democracy, between revolution and counterrevolution, between fascism and anarchism. The Nationalists won the war in early 1939 and ruled Spain until Franco's death in November 1975. Significance: Payment for the war on both sides was very high. Monetary resources on the Republican side were completely drained from weapon acquisition. On the Nationalist side, the biggest losses came after the conflict, when they had to let Germany exploit the country's mining resources, so until the beginning of World War II they barely had the chance to make any profit.Spain was devastated in many areas, with completely destroyed towns. The Spanish economy took decades to recover. After the War, the Francoist regime initiated a repressive process against the losing side, a "cleansing" of sorts against anything or anyone associated with the Republic. This process led many to exile or death The political and emotional repercussions of the War transcended the National scale, becoming a precursor to World War II

Appeasement

When: 1938 A policy of making concessions to an aggressor in the hopes of avoiding war. Associated with Neville Chamberlain's policy of making concessions to Adolf Hitler.

Munich Conference

When: 1938 Heads of State of Britain (Neville Chamberlain) and France met with Hitler Why: Hitler wanted to annex the Sudetenland; wants to bring back the Germans What: Hitler is allowed to annex the Sudetenland and Chamberlain also reluctantly agrees to allow him to annex Czechoslovakia. In return, Hitler promises to not expand anymore Chamberlain: "we have achieved peace in our time" Historical Significance: This ends appeasement; Europe now has a hardline policy in regards to Hitler (brings us to react when Hitler goes into Poland; starts WWII) Highlights injustices of Treaty of Versailles

The Sudetenland

When: 1938 Land that Germany thought was rightfully theirs due to the large German speaking population did not come to prominence until over a decade into the century, after the First World War, when the German-dominated Austria-Hungary was dismembered and the Sudeten Germans found themselves living in the new country of Czechoslovakia. The Sudeten crisis of 1938 was provoked by the Pan-Germanist demands of Germany that the Sudetenland be annexed to Germany, which happened after the later Munich Agreement. Part of the borderland was invaded and annexed by Poland

The Anschluss

When: 1938 The union of Austria with Germany, resulting from the occupation of Austria by the German army in 1938. The idea of an Anschluss (a united Austria and Germany that would form a "Greater Germany")[a] began after the unification of Germany excluded Austria and the German Austrians from the Prussian-dominated German Empire in 1871. Following the end of World War I with the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in 1918, the newly formed Republic of German-Austria attempted to form a union with Germany, but the Treaty of Saint Germain (10 September 1919) and the Treaty of Versailles (28 June 1919) forbade both the union and the continued use of the name "German-Austria" (Deutschösterreich); and stripped Austria of some of its territories, such as the Sudetenland.

Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass)

When: 1938 Where: Germany Destruction of Jewish businesses, boycotts on Jewish businesses, attacks on synagogues

Blitzkreig

When: 1939 "Lightning Wars" type of fast-moving warfare used by German forces against Poland in 1939 method of warfare whereby an attacking force, spearheaded by a dense concentration of armoured and motorised or mechanised infantry formations with close air support, breaks through the opponent's line of defence by short, fast, powerful attacks and then dislocates the defenders, using speed and surprise to encircle them with the help of air superiority May 10, 1940: Germany attacked France Blitzkrieg ("lightning war"): turned warfare from the stagnant defensive posture of WWI into a fast, highly mobile conflict

Albert Einstein

When: 1939 German physicist who developed the theory of relativity, which states that time, space, and mass are relative to each other and not fixed. Helped to develop the atomic bombs for the US

Nazi-Soviet Pact

When: 1939 Hitler decided to begin the quest for "Lebensraum" in Eastern Europe August 23, 1939: Stalin and Hitler signed a nonaggression pact German troops invaded Poland on September 1 September 3: Poland's allies, Britain and France, declared war on Germany a declared commitment that neither government would ally itself to, or aid an enemy of the other party. In addition to stipulations of non-aggression, the treaty included a secret protocol that defined the borders of Soviet and German "spheres of influence" in the event of possible rearrangement of the territories belonging to Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and Finland Started the war

Total War

When: 1939 The Two World Wars A conflict in which the participating countries devote all their resources to the war effort Militarize the entire society; allowed the US to have an economic boom following WWII because the infrastructure was already in place to create mass consumer goods

Vichy France

When: 1940 "Puppet" government in southern France; basically run by Germany during the German occupation Southern Pro-Nazi French; govern themselves as loyal to nazis; traitors to the Free French in N. France headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II. Evacuated from Paris to Vichy in the unoccupied "Free Zone" in the southern part of metropolitan France which included French Algeria, it remained responsible for the civil administration of France as well as the French colonial empire. From 1940 to 1942, while the Vichy regime was the nominal government of all of France except for Alsace-Lorraine, the Germans and Italians militarily occupied northern and south-eastern France. It had limited and only civil authority in the northern zones under military occupation. The occupation was to be a provisional state of affairs, pending the conclusion of the war, which at the time (1940) appeared imminent. The occupation also presented certain advantages, such as keeping the French Navy and French colonial empire under French control, and avoiding full occupation of the country by Germany, thus maintaining a degree of French independence and neutrality. Despite heavy pressure, the French government at Vichy never joined the Axis alliance, and even remained formally at war with Germany.

Atlantic Charter

When: 1941 joint declaration released by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill on August 14, 1941 following a meeting of the two heads of state in Newfoundland. The Atlantic Charter provided a broad statement of U.S. and British war aims. The Charter stated the ideal goals of the war: no territorial aggrandizement; no territorial changes made against the wishes of the people (self-determination); restoration of self-government to those deprived of it; reduction of trade restrictions; global cooperation to secure better economic and social conditions for all; freedom from fear and want; freedom of the seas; and abandonment of the use of force, as well as disarmament of aggressor nations. Adherents of the Atlantic Charter signed the Declaration by United Nations on 1 January 1942, which became the basis for the modern United Nations. The Atlantic Charter set goals for the postwar world and inspired many of the international agreements that followed the war. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the postwar independence of European colonies, and much more are derived from the Atlantic Charter.

Tehran Conference

When: 1943 The three leaders coordinated their military strategy against Germany and Japan and made a number of important decisions concerning the post World War II era. The most notable achievements of the Conference focused on the next phases of the war against the Axis powers in Europe and Asia. Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin engaged in discussions concerning the terms under which the British and Americans finally committed to launching Operation Overlord, an invasion of northern France, to be executed by May of 1944. The Soviets, who had long been pushing the Allies to open a second front, agreed to launch another major offensive on the Eastern Front that would divert German troops away from the Allied campaign in northern France. Stalin also agreed in principle that the Soviet Union would declare war against Japan following an Allied victory over Germany.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

When: 1944 an international organization that acts as a lender of last resort, providing loans to troubled nations, and also works to promote trade through financial cooperation The IMF's primary purpose is to ensure the stability of the international monetary system—the system of exchange rates and international payments that enables countries (and their citizens) to transact with each other.

United Nations

When: 1945 An international organization formed after WWII to promote international peace, security, and cooperation. Successor of the League of Nations, founded in 1945 and today comprising about 200 countries, with a Secretary General, a General Assembly, meeting annually, and a standing Security Council composed of permanent members (US, China, Russia, UK, and France) as well as five rotating temporary members

Yalta Conference

When: 1945 a meeting of British prime minister Winston Churchill, Soviet premier Joseph Stalin, and President Franklin D. Roosevelt early in February 1945 as World War II was winding down. purpose of discussing Germany and Europe's postwar reorganization The aim of the conference was to shape a post-war peace that represented not just a collective security order but a plan to give self-determination to the liberated peoples of post-Nazi Europe. The meeting was intended mainly to discuss the re-establishment of the nations of war-torn Europe. However, within a few short years, with the Cold War dividing the continent, it became a subject of intense controversy.

European Union (EU)

When: 1945 the world's largest common market, composed of 28 European nations The European Union is set up with the aim of ending the frequent and bloody wars between neighbours, which culminated in the Second World War. As of 1950, the European Coal and Steel Community begins to unite European countries economically and politically in order to secure lasting peace. stop charging custom duties when they trade with each other. They also agree joint control over food production, so that everybody now has enough to eat - and soon there is even surplus agricultural produce.

Dean Acheson

When: 1946 He was Secretary of State under Harry Truman. It is said that he was more responsible for the Marshall Plan and the Truman Doctrine than those that the two were named for. Developed the Rotten Apple Theory for Europe must stop spread of communism anywhere

Rotten Apple Theory

When: 1946 Must stop spread of communism anywhere; attributed to Europe

Third World

When: 1946 Term applied to a group of "developing" or "underdeveloped" countries who professed nonalignment during the Cold War.

Juan Peron

When: 1946 Where: Argentina Behind a military coup that takes power in 1943 (mostly middle class, ardent nationalists, wanted industrialization & modernization with a large military machine) Able to build an economy; "Hot house capitalism" Peron takes over the Department of Labor and develops a relationship with the working class by giving them benefits; establishes a bureau for women Patron of the working class; large scale following; his support for women's suffrage gives them the right to vote 1952: His wife dies and his link to the poor falls away; government collapses, economic uncertainty, inflation A member of a group of officers who staged a coup in 1943 against the traditional landowners and their conservative military allies Became minister of labor: entered an alliance with labor unions and improved wages, set a minimum wage, and increased pensions 1946: elected as president Started a 5 year plan of nationalization and industrialization Economy expanded by 40% 1955: Peron's government was overthrown Costs for factory imported machinery exceeded the internal reserves from commodity exports and the revenues of Argentina; led to inflation and strikes The government was plagued by chronic deficits and unable to pay foreign debts thus causing the coup

Eva Peron

When: 1946 Where: Argentina Wife of Juan Peron; link to the poor; Patron saint of them When she dies, the Argentinian government collapses; economic uncertainty Juan Peron ends up printing more money which leads to insane inflation

Domino Theory

When: 1946 Where: Asia A theory that if one nation comes under Communist control, then neighboring nations will also come under Communist control; eventually communism would reach America

Containment

When: 1946 Where: US American policy of resisting further expansion of communism around the world "Communism is the heir to fascism" Cannot give dictators ANYTHING at anytime (idea taken from Hitler appeasement)

Marshall Plan

When: 1948-1952 A United States program of economic aid for the reconstruction of Europe; rebuild war-torn societies Afraid of socialism rising; made US most dominant economy in the world; gave money to Europe to spend in America Russia saw this as economic imperialism Financial program of $13 billion to support the reconstruction of the economies of 17 European countries during 1948-1952, with most of the aid going to France, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands Required free markets and convertible currencies which opposed communist ideology

William Faulkner

When: 1949 American writer and Nobel Prize laureate from Oxford, Mississippi. Faulkner wrote novels, short stories, screenplays, poetry, essays, and a play Faulkner was known for his experimental style with meticulous attention to diction and cadence. In contrast to the minimalist understatement of his contemporary Ernest Hemingway, Faulkner made frequent use of "stream of consciousness" in his writing, and wrote often highly emotional, subtle, cerebral, complex, and sometimes Gothic or grotesque stories of a wide variety of characters including former slaves or descendants of slaves, poor white, agrarian, or working-class Southerners, and Southern aristocrats.

National Security Council Paper 68 (NSC 68)

When: 1949 US policy to increase spending, particularly on military/defense; massive increase in spending; huge funding for sciences (NASA) Occurred after the Russians exploded their first nuclear weapon; US no longer had technological advantage

Mao Zedong

When: 1949 Where: China Commanding, dynamic personality; very keen mind Never left China despite being an intellectual; gets involved in unionism (anything that uplifts the peasants; always focused on them) 1920: In order for China to change, it needed a revolution; looks at what Lenin did in 1917 with the revolutions Mao joins the Chinese Communist Party almost immediately; Job was to expel foreign nationalsim, anti-corruption, help the poor Mao: Goal of the revolution is the peasants 1949: Mao declares the existence of People's Republic of China Concept of Continous Revolution: Cultural revolution, continually vigilant, expel class conflict

People's Republic of China

When: 1949 Where: Tianamen Square in China Social Equality: Idealism, moral incentives Decentralize: Red over Expert, role of ideology, mass mobilization Industry & Agriculture: urban and rural development, heavy and light industry

The Second Sex

When: 1949 written by Simone de Beauvior, teacher, novelist, and writer; challenged marrige, the basic unit of modern society; theorized that marriage held women back because of male-dominated societies; recognized females as the "Other" and as second-class citizens French existentialist; discusses the treatment of women throughout history

Existentialism

When: 1950s A philosophy based on the idea that people give meaning to their lives through their choices and actions A form of thought built on the premises that modern scientific-industrial society is without intrinsic meaning unless an answer to the question of what constitutes authentic existence is found

Geneva Conference

When: 1954 A conference between many countries that agreed to end hostilities and restore peace in French Indochina and Vietnam. intended to settle outstanding issues resulting from the Korean War and the First Indochina War. The part of the conference on the Korean question ended without adopting any declarations or proposals, so is generally considered less relevant. The Geneva Accords that dealt with the dismantling of French Indochina proved to have long-lasting repercussions, however. The crumbling of the French Empire in Southeast Asia would create the eventual states of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam), the State of Vietnam (the future Republic of Vietnam / South Vietnam), the Kingdom of Cambodia, and the Kingdom of Laos. After the cessation of hostilities, a large migration took place The US replaced the French as a political backup for Ngo Dinh Diem, the Prime Minister of the State of Vietnam, who asserted his power in the South. The Geneva conference had not provided any specific mechanisms for the national elections planned for 1956, and Diem refused to hold them by citing that the South had not signed and were not bound to the Geneva Accords and that it was impossible to hold free elections in the communist North. Instead, he went about attempting to crush communist opposition

National Liberation Front

When: 1954 The victorious anticolonial movement in Algeria November 1, 1954: A declaration of war for independence by the Algerian Front of National Liberation against the French France was able to largely repress the liberation war by the later 1950s 1962: Algerian Independence French colonial interests were too costly to maintain; the US took over the West's strategic interest in the world

Bandung Conference

When: 1955 The conference in which representatives from twenty-nine governments of Asian and African nations gathered in Bandung, Indonesia to discuss peace and the role of the Third World in the Cold War, economic development, and decolonization. The conference denounced colonialism in all its manifestations and said that all countries in attendance would not align with either communism (USSR) or capitalism (US)

Zhou Enlai

When: 1955 Where: China A prominent and influential member of the Chinese Communist Party during the time of Mao. He played a large role in China's reestablishing ties with the West. Premier of the PRC; spoke at the Bandung Conference 5 Principles of Peaceful coexistence

5 Principles of Peaceful Co-existence

When: 1955 Where: China and India Created by Zhou Enlai 1. Mutual respect for territory integrity and sovereignty 2. Mutual non-aggression 3. Mutual non-interference in internal affairs 4. Equality & mutual benefit 5. Peaceful coexistence

Great Leap Forward

When: 1958-1960 Where: China Great Leap Forward (1958-1961): Mobilization project led by Mao Zedong that aimed to rapidly transform China from an agrarian economy into a socialist society through rapid industrialization and collectivization The entire population was pushed into a campaign to communalize agriculture into self-sustaining units that would function like factories in the fields Men and women would work and live on collective farms Backyard steel furnace: commune members were to build this and run it for their own needs The Great Leap was the most catastrophic policy failure in the history of the People's Republic 1959: agricultural production had plummeted; worst famine in modern times 1962: ~30 million people had died So many people were forced into building the communal structures and making unuseable steel that caused this plummet Mao stepped down; Liu Shaoqi, along with Deng Xiaoping, moved to rebuild the shattered economy and political structures Impressive gains in the technical, health, and education sectors 1960: The Soviets withdrew their aid and technical personnel from China "Sino-Soviet Split"

OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries)

When: 1960 The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a permanent, intergovernmental Organization, created at the Baghdad Conference on September 10-14, 1960, by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. OPEC's objective is to co-ordinate and unify petroleum policies among Member Countries, in order to secure fair and stable prices for petroleum producers; an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consuming nations; and a fair return on capital to those investing in the industry. US powerful financial system: started in 1971 when Nixon took the dollar off the gold standard 1973: Nixon persuaded the Middle East dominated OPEC to only accept dollars payment for oil The dollar replaced gold as the international standard of exchange play a prominent role in the global oil market and international relations. The effect can be particularly strong when wars or civil disorders lead to extended interruptions in supply.

Neocolonialism

When: 1960s the practice of using capitalism, globalization and cultural imperialism to influence a developing country instead of the previous colonial methods of direct military control or indirect political control. used in the context of African countries undergoing decolonization in the 1960s

Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution

When: 1966-1969 China's Communist leader Mao Zedong launched what became known as the Cultural Revolution in order to reassert his authority over the Chinese government. Believing that current Communist leaders were taking the party, and China itself, in the wrong direction, Mao called on the nation's youth to purge the "impure" elements of Chinese society and revive the revolutionary spirit that had led to victory in the civil war 20 decades earlier and the formation of the People's Republic of China. The Cultural Revolution continued in various phases until Mao's death in 1976, and its tormented and violent legacy would resonate in Chinese politics and society for decades to come. re-impose Maoism as the dominant ideology within the Party. The Revolution marked Mao's return to a position of power after the failures of his Great Leap Forward. The movement paralyzed China politically and negatively affected both the economy and society of the country to a significant degree. China's youth responded to Mao's appeal by forming Red Guard groups around the country. The movement spread into the military, urban workers, and the Communist Party leadership itself. It resulted in widespread armed clashes between conservative and radical factions in all walks of life, as a result of Mao's open call for "all-round civil war" against the conservatives in the communist party establishment

Tiger Economies of Asia

When: 1980s the economy of a country which undergoes rapid economic growth, usually accompanied by an increase in the standard of living. The term was originally used for the Four Asian Tigers (South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore) as tigers are important in Asian symbolism, which also inspired the Tiger Cub Economies

NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement)

When: 1994 An agreement for free trade between the United States and Canada and Mexico eliminated most tariffs on products traded between the three countries. Liberalization of trade in agriculture, textiles, and automobile manufacturing was a major focus. The deal also sought to protect intellectual property, establish dispute resolution mechanisms, and, through side agreements, implement labor and environmental safeguards. Reshaped North American economic relations

World Trade Organization (WTO)

When: 1995 The WTO's creation on 1 January 1995 marked the biggest reform of international trade since the end of the Second World War. Whereas the GATT mainly dealt with trade in goods, the WTO and its agreements also cover trade in services and intellectual property. The birth of the WTO also created new procedures for the settlement of disputes. a trade organization that replaced the old General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

When: founded April 4, 1949 a group of 28 countries that has agreed to protect each other in case of attack; provide security for Western Europe in the face of Russian aggression Not needed! Provoked Russia to form the Warsaw Pact 1949: The United States formed a defensive alliance known as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 1955: The Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact among the states of the Eastern Bloc in response

Green Revolution

When: late 1960s Agricultural revolution that increased production through improved seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation; helped to support rising Asian populations. its early dramatic successes were in Mexico and the Indian subcontinent. The new varieties require large amounts of chemical fertilizers and pesticides to produce their high yields, raising concerns about cost and potentially harmful environmental effects. Poor farmers, unable to afford the fertilizers and pesticides, have often reaped even lower yields with these grains than with the older strains, which were better adapted to local conditions and had some resistance to pests and diseases