Human Anatomy Chapters 1,2,3,4

Define circadian rhythm.

A circadian rhythm is a daily pattern in body function, such as a daily drop in body temperature while sleeping.

What makes a negative feedback loop negative?

A feedback loop is "negative" when its response reverses the direction of the change (in the variable) detected by sensors.

What is the role of ATP in the body?

ATP transfers energy to cell components, which makes it possible for them to do work.

Identify the building blocks of proteins and explain what common chemical features they all share.

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. An amino acid consists of a carbon atom to which are bonded an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a side chain, or group of elements designated by the letter R.

What is the difference between an element and a compound?

An element is a substance that cannot be broken down or decomposed into two or more different substances. A compound is two or more elements joined to form chemical combinations.

What is an eponym?

An eponym is a term that is based on a person's name.

Describe an example of feed-forward a physiological control system.

Anytime the body responds to a change that has not happened, but is likely to happen, is a feed-forward response - like when the stomach becomes active and begins producing digestive juices just before a meal.

What is meant by the term base pair?

Base pair: Each nitrogen base in one chain of the DDNA molecule is joined to a nitrogen base in the other chain by means of hydrogen bonds.

What elements make up 96% of the material in the human body?

Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,and nitrogen make up 96% of the human body.

Identify the important steroid that stabilizes cellular structure.

Cholesterol is the important steroid that stabilizes cellular structure.

Define what it is meant by "complementary of structure and function".

Complementarity of structure and function refers to the fact that anatomical structures seem "designed" (size, shape, form, or placement) to efficiently perform specific functions.

Give an example of how the chemical macromolecule DNA can have an influence on body structure.

DNA "directs" the differentiation of specialized cells during development so they can effectively contribute to a specific function. For example, in the lungs, the cilia, which cover the exposed surface of cells that form the tissues lining the respiratory passageways, help trap and eliminate inhaled contaminants.

What is an electrolyte?

Electrolytes are substances that break up in a solution to form a charged particles or ions.

What are the building blocks of a triglyceride, or fat?

Fatty acids and glycerol are the building blocks of a triglyceride.

Identify the most important monosaccharide, or simple sugar.

Glucose is the most important monosaccharide in terms of body function.

Define the term anatomical position and explain its importance.

In the anatomical position, the body is in an erect, or standing , posture with the arms at the sides and palms turned forward. The head and feet are also pointing forward. This position is a reference position that gives meaning to the directional terms used to describe the body parts and regions.

Define the term metabolism as it applies to the characterizes of life.

Metabolism is the sum of all physical and chemical reactions in the body. Each characteristic of life is related to these reactions.

What is a phospholipid, and why is it an important type of molecule?

Phospholipids are fat compounds similar to triglycerides. They are modified, however, in that one of the three fatty acids attached to glycerol in a triglyceride is replaced in a phospholipids by another type of chemical structure containing phosphorus and nitrogen. Phospholipids form the backbone of the plasma membrane.

List three ways in which physiology can be subdivided as a science discipline.

Physiology can be divided into 1) the type of organism involved 2)the organizational level studied 3) a specific, or systemic, function being studied

List the 11 major organ systems.

The 11 major organ systems are integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive.

How is anatomical left different from your left?

The anatomical left is opposite of your left as you face the structure.

How are the atomic number and atomic weight of an atom defined?

The atomic number is the number of protons in the atom's nucleus. Atomic weight refers to the mass of a single atom. It equals the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the atom's nucleus.

Describe what is meant by "the body's internal environment".

The body's internal environment is watery fluid that surrounds the cells of the body.

List four major tissue types.

The four major tissue types are epithelial, connective, muscular, and nerve.

List the seven levels of organization.

The seven levels of organization are chemical, organelle, cellular, tissue, organ, system, and organism.

What does the term metabolism mean?

The term metabolism is used to describe all the chemical reactions that occur in the body's cells.

How do acids and bases react with each other when in solution?

Acid and bases are chemical opposites. Although they both dissociate in solution, both release different types of ions. Acids release hydrogen ions, and bases are electrolytes that shift the H+/ OH- balance in favor of OH-.

What is the difference between anabolism and catabolism?

Anabolism refers to the chemical reactions that join simple molecules together to form more complex bio-molecules. Catabolism refers to chemical reactions that not only break down relatively complex compounds into simpler ones but also release energy from them.

Define anatomy and physiology.

Anatomy is the study of the structure of an organism and the relationships of its parts. Physiology is the scientific study of the body functions of the living organism and its parts.

Identify three organelles.

Answers may include any of the following: mitochondria, golgi apparatus, nucleus, ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum, vacuole, and lysosome.

What single criterion might be used to define life?

Autopoiesis defines life; organisms are self-organizing or self-maintaining, and nonliving structures are not.

Describe how a bag of fluid or a fishbowl can be a model for a stable human body.

Because the human body is essentially a group of many living cells living in a bag(of skin) filled with body fluid, one can use the analogy of a fishbowl, where the cell living in the body fluid are like fish living in water. Like the fishbowl accessories that maintain a stable environment in our body.

What are some roles of nucleotides in the body?

Besides joining together to form nucleic acids, nucleotides play a role in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) structure and energy-transferring molecule (nicotinic adenine dinucleotide [NAD+] and flavin adenine dinucleotide [FAD]) structure. They are also used as a signal inside the cell.

What is biochemistry?

Biochemistry is the specialized area of chemistry that deals with living organisms and life processes.

Name two important nucleic acids.

DNA and RNA are both important nucleic acids.

Identify a carbohydrate polymer and explain how it is formed.

Disaccharides and polysaccharides are carbohydrate compounds, or polymers, made of two or more simple sugars that are bonded together through a synthesis reaction. Monomers of glucose are joined together in a synthesis reaction that also involves the removal of water.

What is an energy level?

Energy levels are the shells or concentric circles with electrons surrounding each atom.

Under what circumstances could the set point for a variable change normally?

Examples of such circumstances include bacterial infection, when a higher temperature benefits the fight against infection, and when variables need to be higher or lower than average during particular times of the day in order to maintain normal function of the body.

Define the term homeostasis.

Homeostasis is the relatively constant state maintained by the body.

What type of bonds attracts one molecule to another?

Hydrogen bonds attract one molecule to another.

Summarizes the concept of a set point.

In physiology, a set point value for a physiological variable is the value at which the body's control systems have "set" as the normal value.

Contrast intracellular, intrinsic, and extrinsic levels of control.

Intracellular control mechanisms operate at the cell level. These mechanisms regulate functions within the cells. Intrinsic control mechanisms operate at the tissue and organ levels. They often make use of chemical signals. Extrinsic control mechanisms operate at the system and organism levels. These usually involve nervous and endocrine regulation.

What is an isotope?

Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons, but differing numbers of neutrons. Isotopes have the same basic chemical properties as any other atom of the same element, and they also have the same atomic number. However, because they have a different number of neutrons, they differ in mass number.

How does a positive feedback loop differ from a negative feedback loop?

Negative feedback control systems are inhibitory. They produce an action that is opposite to the change that activated the system. Negative feedback control systems stabilize physiological variables. Positive feedback control systems are stimulatory. Positive feedback tends to amplify or reinforce the change that is occurring. Typically, such responses result in instability and disrupt homeostasis.

What element is present in all proteins but not in carbohydrates?

Nitrogen is present in all proteins but not in carbohydrates.

What is a nucleotide?

Nucleotides are small molecules of phosphates, sugar, and nitrogen bases that make up nucleic acids.

Discuss the properties of water that make it so important in living organisms.

Polar water molecules attract other polar compounds, which makes it possible for them to dissociate. Hydrogen bonds absorb heat when they break and release heat when they form, minimizing temperature changes. Many hydrogen bonds must be broken before water can evaporate. Hydrogen bonds hold molecules of water together. the critical role that water plays as a solvent permits the transportation of many essential materials within the body. Water has a high specific heat property. This means that water can lose and gain large amounts of heat with little change in temperature. Finally, water has a high heat of vaporization. This characteristic requires the absorption of significant amount of heat to change water from liquid to a gas.

Define how science develops new principles.

Science develops new principles by using detailed observations and vigorous, or experiments, to analyze each idea or hypothesis until a reasonable conclusion can be made. As more testing is done, eliminating outside influences or biases and ensuring consistent results, scientists begin to have more confidence in the principle and then call it a theory or law

Define and contrast each term in these pairs: superior/ inferior, anterior/ posterior, medial/ lateral, dorsal/ ventral.

Superior is towards the head or upper or above; inferior is towards the feet or lower or below. Anterior is front or "in front of"; posterior is back or "in back of". Medial is towards the midline of the body; lateral is toward the side of the body. Dorsal is toward the back; and ventral is toward the belly.

Explain the four levels of protein structure.

The four levels of protein structure are as follows: primary refers to the number, kind, and sequence of amino acids that make up the polypeptide chain; secondary are polypeptide chains that are coiled or bent into pleated sheets; tertiary is a polypeptide chain that undergoes contortions and twisting to form a globular shape; quarternary is protein that contains clusters of more than one polypeptide chain, all linked together into one giant molecule.

List the four major groups of organic substances.

The four major groups of organic substances are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.

List the nine abdominopelvic regions and four abdominal quadrants.

The nine abdominopelvic regions are right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac, right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar, right iliac, hypogastric, and left iliac. The four abdominal quadrants are right upper, left upper, right lower, and left lower.

Explain how an anatomical rosette is used in anatomical illustrations.

The rosette is used as a compass similar to those used on geographical maps. Rather than being labeled, N,S,E, and W, the anatomical rosette is labeled with abbreviated anatomical directions.

What name is used to describe the study of the body that focuses on groups of organs that have a common function?

The study of the common functions of a group of body organs is called systemic anatomy.

Explain what is meant by the octet rule.

The tendency of atoms with fewer or more than eight electrons in the outer energy level to attempt to lose, gain, or share electrons with other atoms is called the octet rule.

What is pH?

The term pH is a symbol used to mean the H+ ion concentration of a solution; pH stands for the negative logarithm of the H+ ion concentration.

Diagram the three basic types of chemical reactions.

The three basic types of chemical reactions are as follows: Synthesis: A + B -> AB Decomposition: AB -> A + B + energy Exchange: AB + CD -> AD + CB

List and define the three most important types of subatomic particles.

The three most important types of subatomic particles are proton is a subatomic particle with a positive charge located in the nucleus. An electron is a subatomic particle with negative charge located outside the nucleus.

Identify the two major body cavities and the subdivisions of each.

The two major body cavities and their subdivisions are: 1) ventral cavity (thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities) 2) dorsal cavity (cranial and spinal cavities)

Name the two major subdivisions of the body as a whole.

The two major subdivisions of the bod as a whole are axial and appendicular.

List the two types of chemical bonds between atoms and explain how they are formed.

The two types of chemical bonds between atoms are iconic and covalent bonds. Ionic bonds are formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another. Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share electrons.

Describe how a thermostat-controlled heating system is a feedback loop.

Room temperature (Variable) is kept stable by a thermostat (sensor-integrator) that feeds back information about room temperature to a controller that turns on the furnace (effector) if the room temperature dips below the value set on the thermostat (set point value).

List the basic components of every feedback control system.

The basic components of every feedback control system are the sensor mechanism, the integrator or control center, the effector mechanism, and the feedback. The variable is the physiology characteristic being controlled by the feedback loop and the set point value is the "normal" value for the variable.

List and define the three major planes that are used to divide the body into parts.

The three major body planes used to divide the body into parts are the sagittal, frontal, and transverse.