Human Development Test 3

Gender identity

One's awareness of one's gender and implications of gender Even as infants, start learning about gender Learn there are categories, which category they belong to By age 1 can reliably distinguish between males and females By 2 years old can label self

Self Esteem

By age of 4, typically have several self-judgements Usually overestimate in ability, underestimate task difficulty (have very high self-esteem) partly because they are not yet good at social comparison high self-esteem = initiative to try new things

Fast mapping

connecting a new word with its meaning after only a brief encounter

Gender Typing

cquisition of information concerning sex based characteristics that culture states for male and females: Gender stereotypes: overgeneralization or beliefs about differences between males and females Men: instrumental: acting upon the world Women: expressive: having characteristics associated with emotions or relationships Describe gender stereotype boys vs. girls 2 ½ - 3 years: boys and girls prefer gender typing activities 4 years: stereotype about activities, occupation, toys 5 years: stereotype about personality traits Become more rigid about gender By age 5 believe it morally wrong to break gender norms

Explain

difference in play style girls: enabling, supportive, and cooperative boys: constricting, restrictive, aggressive age 3 boys: use demand, imperative girls use request, questions kids who follow gender segregation often are more popular and more socially skilled kids who don't = less popular, less well adjusted boys are more pushed to conform to gender based roles boys quicker to have gender-typed toy preferences, more rigid girls more likely to play with boy toys, say they were "tomboys" (½ of college women), wish they were boys

Errors Lack of conservation

don't understand that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement of the objects' physical appearance Ex: Pouring the same amount of liquid in a glass that is tall and glass that is short and toddler does not realize each glass has the same amount of liquid.

Developmentally Appropriate Educational Practice

education based on both typical development and the unique characteristics of a given child provide an environment where learning is encouraged, but not pushed Head start: Pros: Child more ready for school, better adjustment to school Cons: No long term IQ increase

Piaget Moral Development Stages

1. heteronomous morality (4-7): rules are invariant and unchangeable, don't take intention into account, only ONE way to play a game and every other way is wrong. 2. incipient cooperation stage (7-10): formal rules are learned but they are still unchangeable, the "right" way to play the game 3. autonomous cooperation stage (start at age 10): formal rules can be modified if people who play them agree, awareness that rules made by people and subject to change according to will of people

Initiative vs guilt

3-6 years Need to initiate, carry out tasks successfully or will feel guilty because of their dependence Key to success: careful balance between giving independence and controlling behavior

3 stages

Basic gender identity (labeling): children label their own gender Ages 2-3 Do not understand that gender is not fluid Gender stability: understanding that gender is stable over time By age 4 Gender constancy: understanding that gender is stable across situations (e.g. stays same despite changes to outward appearance, activities) by age 5-7

Biological Perspective on Gender

Biological differences between sexes and that cause gender difference. prenatal hormonal differences Androgenized females more likely to be tom-boys, have male interests, male friends ex: David Reiner:

Errors Appearance/ reality distinction

Children concrete in thinking, assume if appearance changes, so do underlying qualities

Information Processing Theories

Children develop at a gradual improvement With practice and age, information is processed more efficiently Pros: Looks at sequential detail on how information is perceived Cons: Ignores the bigger picture

Errors Can't decenter

Decentration: ability to focus on two aspects of reality or dimensions of a problem simultaneously Instead display centration: focus on single aspect of reality/problem

Kohlberg's Cognitive Development Theory

Gender role development depends on cognitive development Children actively socialize themselves 3 stages:

Perspectives on Gender Schema Theory

Gender role development occurs as children create gender schemas Organized set of beliefs and expectations about males and females Gender schemas influence what they pay attention to and remember Next form in-group/out-group schema: Label some things as for own group (gender) and some things as for other group (gender) Things labeled as for "out-group" seen more negative Unfamiliar toys will be liked if told it is for that child's gender Create own sex-schema More detailed knowledge about activities and behaviors of own sex that allow one person to perform those behaviors

Social Learning Persepective on Gender

Gender roles develop through reinforcement, punishment, and observational learning/imitation

Poverty and Language Development

Hear fewer words Are spoken to and interacted with less often Less likely to be read to Are more likely to hear simpler sentences and prohibitions Have smaller vocabulary Differences begin early: slower verbal processing at 18 months old; learn fewer words between 18 and 24 months old Lower IQs by age 5, less ready for school

Pretend play allows kids to practice

Language Adult roles Dealing with emotions and conflicts Social skills

Are children as egocentric as Piaget thought?

No! Mountain task too complicated On simpler tasks children appear less egocentric Ex: dog/cat card experiment What about psychological egocentrism? Gradual reduction over toddler, preschool, and early childhood 14 months give researcher food child prefers By 18 months give researcher food researcher prefers

Erikson's psychological stages Autonomy vs shame and self doubt

Need to exercise will, develop abilities to do things independently or doubt abilities

Gender Typed Behavior

Preferring activities, toys, clothes and interests associated with your gender 14-22 months old: boys prefer cars and trucks, girls prefer soft toys and dolls 18-24 months old: refuse opposite-gender toy

Early education family care centers

Pros: care provided is in a familiar/home-like place (?) Cons:usually run in unlicensed, private homes, uneven care

Schoold child care

Pros: funded by state for disadvantaged children, better than child care centers b/c of trained teachers Cons:

Early education Child care centers

Pros: provide care for children all day (parents working all the time), focused on social/emotional development Cons: less cognitive stimulation Preschoolers enrolled in child care centers more verbally fluent, show memory and comprehension advantages, and even achieve higher IQ scores than at home children children in programs more self-confident, independent, and knowledgeable about social world but can be less polite, less compliant, less respectful of adults, and sometimes more competitive/aggressive Save money from bad decision of children later if not enrolled in programs; programs help save money in long run

Preschools

Pros: provides lots of intellectual and social experiences Cons: rigid schedules (3-5 hours a day), mainly for kids in high SES

Cons of Piaget's theories

Psychological egocentrism:` Ex: The Gropnik broccoli and crackers experiment: think someone will like the same snack as them

Pragmatics

Speaking louder to someone far away and softer when the person is close By age 4 they can adjust how they talk depending on the person they are speaking too (age; societal rank; etc.)

Intuitive Thought

Thinking that reflects preschoolers' use of primitive reasoning and their avid acquisition of knowledge about the world Children constantly seeking out "why" about nearly everything Intuitive thought leads them to believe they know answers to all kinds of questions Egocentric thought: thinking that does not take the viewpoints of others into account

Overregulation

applying rules of grammar to exceptions where rules don't apply Ex = saying "daddy goed" instead of "daddy went"; gooses instead of geese Relatively rare, more likely when the word is used less often

Characteristics of high quality child care

are providers well trained child care center has an appropriate overall size and ratio of providers to children single groups: no more than 14-20 children no more than 5-10 3 year olds per caregiver, or 7-10 4 or 5 year olds per caregiver curriculum not left to chance, but is carefully planned out and coordinated among the teachers language environment is rich; a lot of conversation caregivers sensitive to children's emotional and social needs, and they know when and when not to intervene materials and activities age appropriate basic health and safety standards are followed

Gender

behavioral, psychological and social characteristics of males or females We begin labeling, treating children differently according to gender at birth Infants talked about and treated differently Girls spoken to more often overall, also more often about emotion Boys more likely to hear direct speech

Gender Development Sex

biological aspect of being male or female

Vygotsky view

cognitive development as a result of social interactions in which children learn through guided participation, working with mentors to solve problem. Focused on the social and cultural world as the source of cognitive development children as apprentices, learning from adults and peer mentors who not only present new ways of doing things, but also provide assistance, instruction, and motivation development dependent on interaction with others Pros: useful for education and evidence supports the impact of social interaction on learning Cons:well defined processes that can be tested The zone of proximal development: the level at which a child can almost, but not fully, perform a task independently, but can do so with the assistance of someone more competent

Syntactical Bootstrapping

figure out meaning of words by observing how they're used in structure of sentence

Forensic developmental psychology

focuses on the reliability of children's autobiographical memories in the context of the legal system The mouse trap experiment: asking boy if he ever went to hospital bc finger got caught in mousetrap; first said no but by second week said yes and then by 11th week, came up with elaborate story that wasn't true the embellishment of a completely false incident is characteristic of the fragility, impressionability, and inaccuracy of memory in young children error rate increases when same question is asked repeatedly false memories more persistent than actual memories

Piaget's pre-operational stage (2-7 years): Symbolic function

improves and language becomes more complex Pretend (symbolic) play becomes more complex Children with imaginary companions more social, creative

Info processing approach to development Preschoolers and number counting

preschoolers are able to count and do so consistently can carry out simple addition and subtraction problems by counting

more info about moral development stages

intention: children in heteronomous stage do not take intention into account. imminent justices: rules broken earn immediate punishment (even if no one saw you carrying out the misdeed) pros: cons: children under three understand intentionality (piaget underestimates kids)

Aggression

intentional injury or harm to another person emotional self-regulation: capability to adjust ones emotions to a desired state instrumental aggression: motivated by desire to obtain a concrete goal (seen in males more than females) relational aggression: nonphysical aggression intended to hurt another person (seen in females more than males) violence and television: correlated with aggression because an actual experiment would not be possible

Theory of Mind

knowledge and beliefs about how the mind works and influences behaviors. Children are able to come up with explanations for how others think and reasons for why they behave the way they do Meta thinking: At age 3, rudimentary Theory of Mind, but don't understand that actions are based on individual perceptions of reality that can differ Gradual increase in understanding from infancy to preschool: False belief task: 2 years-3 years: fail 4 years: pass By age 4 start understanding that beliefs may not match reality, but still can influence actions Attempts at deception increase, become more complex 4 year old theory of mind still incomplete Don't understand that people are thinking even when it is not obvious EX: Maxi doll

Supports of IPT

looks at contribution of skills such as memory and attention to children's thinking → thus, information processing provides a clear, logical, and full account of cognitive development

Autobiographical memories Scripts

memory of particular events from one's own life, achieves little accuracy until after 3 years of age Scripts: broad representations in memory of events and the order in which they occur more repetitive events get molded into scripts

Criticisms

pays little attention to social and cultural factors; pays so much attention to detailed, individual sequence of processes that compose cognitive development that they never adequately paint a whole, comprehensive picture of cognitive development

Moral Development

people's sense of justice, of what is right and wrong, and their behavior in connection with moral issues

Self Concept

person's identity on set of belief about what one is like as an individual: Categorized self concept: classifying oneself into social categories Starts very simply: boy or girl, age, good boy/good girl Caregivers help it develop by talking about past Becomes more complex by 3-5 but stays concrete Ex: physical attributes, possessions, physical activities May include some basic attitudes or emotions Rarely use psychological terms to describe selves or others May be due to lack of verbal skills When asked forced choice questions, capable of categorizing selves on psychological dimensions

Errors Haven't mastered reversibility

process of mental undoing or reversing an action

Social learning approach

prosocial behaviors: helping behavior that benefits others children learn moral behavior more indirectly by observing the behavior of others → models abstract modeling: the process in which modeling paves the way for the development of more general rules and principles

Direct Tuition

reinforcing appropriate behaviors and punishing gender congruent behaviors even before 2 years old, parents reinforce children for gender congruent behavior parents who do this most = kids who label own gender earlier, have stronger gender-related preferences, have greater understanding of gender stereotypes Fathers do this more than mothers Starting in preschool, parent reduce direct tuition and peers take over 2 year olds critical of kids Kids also learn about gender by watching and imitating people Observe models of both sexes to figure out gender-role stereotypes Evidence: Kids more likely to play with toy if same sex model played with it Parents who are less traditional have kids less aware of stereotypes Children with opposite sex siblings often less gender stereotyped The media still very gender-stereotyped Children who watch more TV are more likely to have rigid gender role ideas and prefer same sex activities and toys

Affects TOM Language Development

strongly predicts preschooler's ToM; the more complex the sentences and words, the better they are Vocabulary: continues to grow rapidly 10-15,000 words by age 6 About 10 words are learned per day during this period Sentences slowly become more complex and less holographic Around 3, use grammatical modifiers

Gender segregation

tendency to play with one's own sex and think the opposites sex as the "outgroup" 2 years: girls prefer girls 3 years: boys prefer boys 6 years: 10 times as much time playing with children of the same sex Possibly have different play styles

Egocentrism

tendency to view the world solely from one's own perspective Ex: 3 mountain task: children assume everyone sees what they see from their perspective Egocentric psychologically: think everyone has same thoughts, feelings, desires as they do

Empathy

the understanding of what another individual feels development of empathy oedipal conflict: