Intro to Sociology Exam 2

Face-work

Face is defined by Goffman as an image of the self which depends on both the rules and values of a particular society and the situation the social interaction is embedded in. It hence mirrors the way a person wants to be perceived by others in his surrounding space. Face work is the efforts people make to maintain the proper image and avoid public embarrassment

Annette Laureau theory of stratification

Relates social class to how someone was raised: Middle class families instill kids with: -More activities -Learn time management -Learn other life skills (that can be used as a social advantage) -More assertive Working class families instill kids with: -Free time, less activities to no activities -Not taught to be assertive -End up with less skills (disadvantage)

Can we change our social class?

It's possible but it is extremely hard Video: "People Like Us: Social Class in America" -Tammy is still walking to work, she still works at Burger King -She grew up poor and her family is poor -we see some examples of the pride the working class takes ("I don't ask for hand-outs, I don't ask for help because I know how hard it is") -14 year old son still looks down on his family and is embarrassed, has dreams to go to college and get out -oldest son dropped out of high school to take care of his daughter ("I could have kept going to school or I could have stepped up and be a man and take care of my family..I could probably have done both, but I picked one") Example of how poverty impacts your resources and downward opportunities (children and drugs)

Costume

what people are wearing is probably the quickest way to form an impression of them and their social status. Before a word is uttered in a play, we can size up characters on stage: the one wearing tattered rags is probably much poorer than the one wearing a fine suit, and so on. In precisely the same way, an individual's wardrobe is vital to presenting to the audience his or her particular role in the drama being played out at the moment.

Working class

•20% of American households •Blue-collar (manual) occupations •Factory workers, mechanics, clerical aides, sales clerks, restaurant and hotel workers)

Intersectionality

•Gender, class, and race jointly affect the experiences of women and men •There is no single, unified gender identity and experience shared by everyone •Instead, many different standpoints are equally valid. Women—rich and poor, black and white, immigrant and native-born—may share similar biological characteristics, yet their social experiences are vastly different

Upper middle class

•Highly educated professionals •Doctors, lawyers, engineers, professors, mid-level corporate managers, small business owners

What is social stratification

•Inequalities among individuals and groups in modern societies •Differences in wealth and power Forms of stratifications: class, gender, race, ethnicity, age

Gender socialization

•Learning of gender roles through family, schools, peers, media, and everyday life. During socialization children internalize social norms and expectations corresponding to their sex. •Children are guided by positive and negative sanctions to reward or restrain certain behaviors •For example: Positive sanctions for complying with masculinity: "What a brave boy you are!") Negative sanctions for violating these expectations: "Boys don't play with dolls. What are you, a sissy?" -Boys toys and girls toys

explanation for men's earlier and higher mortality compared to women

•Men more likely than women to adopt beliefs and behaviors that increase their risks, and are less likely to engage in behaviors that promote health and longevity

Working poor

•People who work but whose earnings are not high enough to lift them above poverty •The minimum wage is $7.25 per hour •About 25% of those living in poverty are working

Structural functionalism

•Socializing agents help maintain the continuation of the existing social order by overseeing gender socialization of new generations •Families operate most efficiently with a clear-cut division of labor, springing from biological sex differences: *Women carry out expressive roles (providing comfort, care, and emotional support for children and husbands) *Men carry out instrumental roles (most importantly, breadwinning) -division of labor ensures solidarity and stability of the family

lower middle class

•Trained office workers (secretaries, bookkeepers), nurses, school teachers, salespeople, police officers, firefighters, etc. *40% of American households

Social Mobility

•Upward or downward movement of people between social classes as a result of changing education, occupation, or income

Lower class

•Work part-time or do not work •15% of American households

Occupation

a job or profession Ranked in order by prestige/salary

In 2018, the poverty threshold for a family of four with 2 children under 18 equaled which annual income?

$25,465

Social and Psychological theories of gender

*Biological factors are not sufficient to explain behavior because physiological processes are inextricable from social contexts and norms Gender differences in behavior reflect social and cultural forces more than biological. 1. Gender socialization 2. Structural functionalism 3. Social construction 4. Gender stratification 5. Intersectionality

Gender stratification theory

*Gender Inequality: •Inequality between men and women in terms of power, wealth, income, status, and other socially valued resources -Women are employed in less prestigious, lower-paying jobs than men -Women are more likely to experience poverty and economic hardship than men -Women have higher total workload combining paid work with housework and childcare responsibilities -gender stereotypes impair women's careers in science

Poverty patterns in the US, i.e. who is more likely to be poor

*Older women, especially unmarried and minority women Race and Poverty: Black people and Hispanics -Because of racial discrimination, African Americans have always experienced higher rates of unemployment than Whites, more sporadic employment, and lower wages. Racial discrimination also impeded the accumulation of wealth by African Americans. Part of racial disparity in wealth is due to differences in home ownership.

Davis and Moore theory of stratification

*functionalist explanation of stratification They claimed that certain positions in society, such as brain surgeons, are functionally more important than others, and these positions require special skills. However, only a few individuals have the talents or experience appropriate to these positions. To attract the most qualified people, rewards need to be offered, such as money, power, and prestige. Determined that because the benefits of different positions in any society must be unequal, all societies must be stratified. They concluded that social stratification and social inequality are functional because they ensure that the most qualified people, attracted by the rewards society bestows, fill the roles that are most important to a smoothly functioning society.

How does social class shape our lives?

-Debt which means we are always paying it off -The clothes you wear -How we think of ourselves -Beliefs -Everything! -How we present ourselves and the food we eat; For a short answer example, use Tammy's oldest son, how his social class affected him dropping out of high school and the resources he had

Impression management (Erving Goffman)

-Strategies to compel others to react to us in the way we wish -We usually engage in this without conscious attention, although sometimes it is a calculated action -Every person possesses a self that is fragile and vulnerable to embarrassment. People are attuned to what others think of them and how they are being viewed. In social interaction, people collaborate with each other to make sure that the encounter ends without embarrassment for anyone Ex: If you go to a club and someone with whom you don't want to talk approaches you, you will likely try to end the interaction in a way that spares the other person embarrassment. If you were simply to tell the person, "Get lost!" rather than help him or her save face, that would be highly unusual. This is because there is a norm of collaboration by which human beings try to move through life without embarrassing or humiliating others. When this collaboration does not occur, the interaction stands out

patterns of social mobility

-Upward mobility is a relatively common phenomenon, especially given recent increases in education -Downward social mobility is less common. -About 20% of U.S. men are downwardly mobile inter-generationally *Downward intra-generational mobility is often associated with psychological problems -during the recession and corporate restructuring (1980s, early 1990s, and again in the late 2000s), downward mobility was common for middle aged men in corporate america

Poverty among older Americans; Reasons for persistent poverty among older women

-Women's lower earnings and intermittent labor force participation -Because Social Security benefits are based on life-time earnings, women's own Social Security benefits are lower than those of men -Women's lower likelihood of receiving private pensions -High end-of-life medical expenses and funeral bills that can overwhelm their already low income and savings

Weber theory of stratification

-class divisions derive not only from control of the means of production but also from economic differences that have nothing to do with property (people's skills and credentials) -defined status (refers to differences among groups in the social prestige, that others accord them) -defined pariah groups (negatively privileged status groups subject to discrimination that prevents them from taking advantage of opportunities open to others) Ex: jews in medieval europe -defined power, ability to enact change, command resources, or make decisions. Power is distinct from status and class, but **these three dimensions often overlap.

"construction of masculinity"

-men's risky behaviors are resources for "doing" masculinity in everyday life Health related beliefs and behaviors used to demonstrate masculinity: -denial of weakness/vulnerability -emotional/physical control -appearance of being strong -dismissal of any need for help -display of aggressive behavior and physical dominance Examples of men constructing masculinity: -refuse to take sick leave from work -insist that they need little sleep -say that drinking does not impair their driving -engage in risky behaviors, such as driving dangerously or performing risky sports -choose certain foods, clothing, etc.

Examples of gender bias

-stereotypes and women's careers in science (study found that employers more likely to hire a man than a woman even if they perform equally on an arithmetic task; men tend to boast more about their performance, and women tend to underreport it) -blind auditions (top orchestras had an overwhelming majority of men, so to eliminate this gender bias they started using blind auditions) -teaching evaluations (online students give instructors higher marks if they think instructors are men)

Trends in class inequality in US. How did it change over time?

1. Inequality peaked before World War II 2. Declined through the 1950s, reached the lowest level in the 1960s and early 1970s -Economic prosperity -GI Bill -Government health insurance, welfare 3. Remained roughly stable in early 1970s 4. **The gap between the rich and poor has been growing since the mid-1970s -•The income share of the richest 20% of the population is now 50% of the total country income 5. Slightly declined or stabilized in late 2000s

Theories of stratification

1. Marx: means of production and class 2. Weber: class and status 3. Davis and Moore: the functions of stratification 4. Erik Olin Wright: contradictory class locations 5. Annette Laurea

Types of social mobility

1. Upward mobility: improving one's social standing compared to one's parents 2. Downward mobility: worsening social standing compared to one's parents or to one's earlier career 3. Intergenerational mobility 4. Intragenerational mobility 5. Meritocracy

What was the percentage of children under 18 living in poverty in the US in 2017?

17.7% females 17.3% males

The income share of the poorest 20% of the population is which percent of the US total income?

3.1%

What is the percentage of female-headed families with children under 18 living in poverty?

40.8%

The income share of the richest 20% of the population is which percent of the US total income?

52%

Frontstage Behavior

According to Goffman, people engage in "front stage" behavior when they know that others are watching. Front stage behavior reflects internalized norms and expectations for behavior shaped partly by the setting, the particular role one plays in it, and by one's physical appearance. How people participate in a front stage performance can be highly intentional and purposeful, or it can be habitual or subconscious. Either way, front stage behavior typically follows a routinized and learned social script shaped by cultural norms. Waiting in line for something, boarding a bus and flashing a transit pass, and exchanging pleasantries about the weekend with colleagues are all examples of highly routinized and scripted front-stage performances. The routines of people's daily lives—traveling to and from work, shopping, dining out, or going to a cultural exhibit or performance—all fall into the category of front stage behavior. The "performances" people put on with those around them follow familiar rules and expectations for what they should do and talk about with one another in each setting. People also engage in front stage behavior in less public places such as among colleagues at work and as students in classrooms

The corrective process

Acknowledging and correcting a threat to a line; Communicative behaviors that serve to repair face‐related damage after it has occurred. Such behaviors may be offered defensively by the person who generated the face threat, or protectively by the person who has lost face, of even by others who witnessed the loss of face. Balancing the face needs of both participants is again important during corrective facework, yet sometimes one person's face needs may be privileged over the other. Ex: you mess up enough to feel the need to apologize, other person accepts apology and equilibrium is restored

Wealth

All assets individuals own: cash, savings and checking accounts, investments in stocks and bonds, real estate, etc.

Video: "Codes of Gender"

Be familiar with the main arguments of Jhally's lecture: -There is nothing natural about gender identity. We learn to take on gender, it's not something natural We analyze how society decides the signals we are supposed to give. Sex refers to biological characteristics, but gender refers to how we see ourselves or are portrayed by others. 2 sex, 2 gender distinction is a social construct. There are not only more than one sex, but there could be more than one gender Why does Goffman use gender advertisements in his analysis? Advertising has a huge impact on how we view gender roles in society. Females often portrayed as powerless and submissive Males as powerful and in control What is he trying to show? That gender is a social construct

Relative poverty

Being poor as compared to the standards of living of the majority

Define sex

Biological differences distinguishing males and females

Gender and adulthood

Boys have to "push their way into adulthood" but girls never leave girlhood, they just "unfold" into womanhood

Scripts

Goffman claims that scripts are vital to interpersonal interaction as well. Of course, most interpersonal communication is relatively improvisational—we make it up as we go along. In everyday life, however, some elements of conversation are pretty well scripted. If a person asks a casual acquaintance how he or she is doing, the acquaintance is likely to reply with a simple "Fine, yourself?" rather than a sincere, well-thought-out description of what he or she is really thinking or feeling at the moment. This is a fragment of conversation we are so used to employing that it feels automatic. Thus, scripts can allow us a great deal of convenience; they constitute a taken-for-granted quality in which, rather than creating our lines out of whole cloth, we borrow from a stock of well-worn scripts

When can audience segregation not be maintained?

Goffman studied "total institutions," in which all aspects of life ( sleep, play, and work) are conducted in the same place, includes mental hospitals, prisons, monasteries, and army boot camps.

Definition and components of social class in US

Income Wealth Education Occupation

Feminization of poverty

Increasing proportion of the poor are women. Women are disadvantaged economically by the growing rates of divorce and single parenthood. Difficult for low-income poorly educated women to raise children by themselves while also holding a job that would raise them out of poverty

"doing gender" Video

Norah Vincent pretends to be a man for 18 months, wrote a book called Self-Made Men -found potential for men to be intimate but they avoided it -for women, sexuality is mental, for men, it's a bodily function, a necessity -women don't have to make the first move or the pressure when it comes to navigating the dating scene/bar scene "doing gender" as a man is talking to a woman -men have to prove the "ideal, manly man" to women -found differences in everyday life from shopping for a car (flirtatious vs. all-business)

Absolute poverty

Not having enough to eat, undernourishment and malnutrition -a lack of resources that is life-threatening

Income

Payment from wages and salaries

audience segregation

People have different roles in which they act somewhat differently, and they try to keep what they do in each role distinct from what they do in their other roles. This means that they can have multiple selves. Examples: we may have two friends who do not like each other. Rather than choose between them, we will spend time with both friends but never mention to either friend that we are close with the other. Or some people live very different lives at home and at work. For example, due to discrimination against gays and lesbians, someone who appears "straight" at work may live happily with a same sex partner at home. Like all people who engage in audience segregation, they show a different face to different people.

Middle class

Primarily white-collar (non-manual) jobs includes Upper middle class and Lower middle class

Erik Olin Wright theory of stratification

Says there are three ways to control economic resources and distinguish class: 1. Control over money/investments 2. Control over physical means of production 3. Control over labor power -The capitalist level has all these -Working-class has none of these -Contradictory class (middle class) has some but not others Contradictory class and working can be differentiated further based on: -Possession of skills (in order to earn more money or become more marketable) -Relationship to authority (being a leader versus a follower)

Props

Similar to costumes Props for business agent: fancy watch Props for students: backpack, laptop

Define gender

Social norms and expectations that define behaviors as appropriate for men and women •Socially formed traits of masculinity and femininity

Why do people get so upset when apparently minor conventions of talk are not followed?

The answer is that the stability and meaningfulness of our daily social lives depend on the sharing of unstated cultural assumptions about what is said and why. If we weren't able to take these for granted, meaningful communication would be impossible. Any question or contribution to a conversation would have to be followed by a massive "search procedure" of the sort Garfinkel's subjects were told to initiate, and interaction would simply break down.

Kinds of Face Work

The avoidance process Studied nonobservance The corrective process

Wrong Face vs. Out of Face

o Not knowing rules/no clear norms= out of face o Acting out of norm/Perform a role for the wrong audience= wrong face -Being out of face can easily lead to being in wrong face -wrong face aka losing face

Microsociology

The study of human behavior in contexts of face-to-face interaction. The study of social interaction -Seemingly trivial aspects of everyday social behavior are important to sociologists -We can learn a great deal about ourselves as social beings and larger social institutions by studying ordinary routines -All large-scale social systems depends on social interaction we engage in daily Ex: how we eat, what we say to friends and family, how we express ourselves

Upper Class

The very wealthiest Americans (about 5%). Households earning more than 300K

backstage behavior

What We Do When No One's Looking. When people engage in back stage behavior, they are free of the expectations and norms that dictate front stage behavior. Given this, people are often more relaxed and comfortable when back stage; they let their guard down and behave in ways that reflect their uninhibited or "true" selves. They cast off elements of their appearance required for a front stage performance, such as swapping work clothes for casual clothes and loungewear. They may even change how they speak and comport their bodies or carry themselves. When people are back stage, they often rehearse certain behaviors or interactions and otherwise prepare for upcoming front stage performances. They might practice their smile or handshake, rehearse a presentation or conversation, or prep themselves to look a certain way once in public again. So even back stage, people are aware of norms and expectations, which influence what they think about and do. In private, people behave in ways that they would never in public

Inter-generational mobility

a change (increase or decrease) in social class between parents and children of a family (e.g. Trenton's grandparents were immigrants from a foreign country who spent most of their lifetimes working factory jobs so that Trenton's parents could go to school. As adults, Trenton's parents were able to get college degrees and both became teachers. Trenton's mother later retired to be a stay-at-home mom. Trenton was able to develop his skills as a guitar player and become an international star and multi-millionaire.)

Marx Theory of stratification

class is determined by person's relationship to means of production, specifically the owners vs. the workers. the two main classes are the bourgeoisie and proleteriat. The bourgeoisie, or capitalists,nown the means of production. Members of the proletariat, or proletarians, by contrast, earn their living by selling their labor to the capitalists. The relationship between classes, according to Marx, is exploitative.

Article: "Experimental evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks"

example of ethnomethodology and an example of Goffman's impression management (the way people present their face influences how others show face) They showed, via a massive (N = 689,003) experiment on Facebook, that emotional states can be transferred to others via emotional contagion, leading people to experience the same emotions without their awareness. When positive expressions were reduced, people produced fewer positive posts and more negative posts; when negative expressions were reduced, the opposite pattern occurred

Ethnomethodology (Harold Garfinkel)

literally "the methods of the people"; this approach to studying human interaction focuses on how people make sense of what others say and do in everyday interaction Examples: •A: "Have a nice day!" •Garfinkel's student: "Nice day in what sense exactly? Which part of the day do you mean?" •A: "How are you?" •Garfinkel's student: "How am I in regard to what? My health, my finances, my school, my work?" •A: "Look! I was just trying to be polite. Frankly, I don't give damn how you are."

intra-generational mobility

movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy within the course of a personal career

Studied Non-Observance (Polite Behavior)

one player ignores the flaws in the other's performance to avoid embarrassment for everyone

Avoidance strategies

stay away from a topic or interaction to avoid embarrassment or just leave the scene Ex: Students who are missing assignments avoid the interaction of visiting a professor in office hours out of fear of rejection or embarassment

background expectancies Ethnomethodology (Harold Garfinkel)

taken for granted rules that govern our ordinary conversations -We apply them automatically and become aware of them only when they are disrupted

Underclass

the long-term poor who lack training and skills •"Beneath" the class system •Grown rapidly over the past 25 years •Unskilled and unemployed men, young single mothers and their children on welfare, homeless •Extremely poor neighborhoods with drugs, gangs, and violence •Very difficult lives with little realistic hope of ever making it out of poverty

Poverty line

the official measure of poverty; calculated to include incomes that are less than three times a low-cost food budget -Income equal to the cost of a nutritionally adequate diet x 3 -In 2017, there were 39.7 million people in poverty

Social Interaction

the process by which people act and react in relation to others Ex: greeting people, acknowledging someone's existence, saving face

Saving face

the process of attempting to maintain a positive self-image in a relational situation -the rules of cooperation and politeness in impression management

Education

the social institution through which society provides its members with important knowledge, including basic facts, job skills, and cultural norms and values. *Importance of education increased in the past 20 years •Growing demand for educated workers in technology- and information-based economy •College graduates earn on average 20K more a year than people who did not graduate from college •Inequality among college graduates: -Undergraduate degrees that require numerical competencies (engineering and computers) earn more than education and liberal arts

social construction ("Doing gender")

this perspective to gender suggests that gender is not what people are, but what they do. We all "do gender" in our daily interactions with others (Recall impression management) •In every interaction, we present ourselves as male or female through behaviors, fashion, hairstyle, tone of voice, and countless other means •This process of "doing gender" underscores how gender is "socially constructed" in interaction

US Class Structure

upper class, middle class, working class, lower class, underclass