Introduction to Psychology: Unit 3 Exam

( Chapter 10 )

( Chapter 10 )

( Chapter 9 )

( Chapter 9 )

How do we acquire and lose fat cells?

(ASKED TEACHER) Teacher: - Once you acquire a fat cell it is your for life - Genetics - Early childhood eatting patterns - Adult overeating

Body weight and genes

(CLASS) NOTE: - Genes explain about 2/3rds of varied body mass - Adopted twins, who are not biologically related, weight tends not to correlate with their adoptive family's weight even if they eat the same things. - We eat more or less than past generations. - Google: The strength of the genetic influence on weight disorders varies quite a bit from person to person. Research suggests that for some people, genes account for just 25% of the predisposition to be overweight, while for others the genetic influence is as high as 70% to 80%.

Concrete Operational Stage

- 6/7 to adolescence - Gradually develop conservation - Can think concretely but not abstractly; understand tree but not freedom - Can use simple logic and mental operations - Develop a sense of humor, know not everything is as it appears - Understand reversibility; the idea that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original condition NOTE: - In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. -

Trust versus Mistrust

- According to Erikson (1963), trust is the basis of our development during infancy (birth to 12 months). - Therefore, the primary task of this stage is trust versus mistrust. - Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant's needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. - Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby's needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable NOTE: - Cornerstone of all social development is the first stage; trust versus mistrust

Formal Operational Stage

- Adolescence and up - Children are able to think abstractly and use systematic reasoning, as well as formulate hypothetical situations. - If this then.... - Potential for mature moral reasoning; Kohlberg base his theory of moral development off of Piaget's cognitive development - Newer research suggests the ability to think abstractly is a result of educational level, not age; when we are in a new situation, first think concretely and then make move to abstract

What are the three parenting styles we discussed in class; list the characteristics of each parenting style

1. Authoritative 2. Authoritarian 3. Permissive (4. Uninvolved)

Stages of Masters and Johnson's sexual response cycle

1. Excitement 2. Plateau 3. Orgasm 4. Resolution.

What are the different theories of motivation?

1. Instinct Theory 2. Drive Reduction theory 3. Arousal Theory

Situational influences of food consumption

1. Learned incentives: • The presence of food can influence people to eat. 2. Flavor: • The blending of smell and taste affects eating, we prefer a variety of flavors and will eat more from multi course mean that from a meal with one type of food. 3. Taste preferences: Biology or Culture • Affected by culture • We do not like unfamiliar food, especially meat. • Universal preference for salty and sweet, other preferences conditioned. • Taste preferences are also shaped by what we ate as a child.

5 stages of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

1. Physiological (needs) 2. Safety 3. Love & Belonging 4. Esteem 5. Self-actualization

Three Stages of Kohlberg's Moral Development

1. Pre-conventional: The first stage of moral development, and lasts until approximately age 9. At the pre-conventional level children don't have a personal code of morality, and instead moral decisions are shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules. 2. Conventional: The second stage of moral development, and is characterized by an acceptance of social rules concerning right and wrong, and how others will perceive you based on what you do. (Adolescents and Adults) 3. Post-conventional: The third stage of moral development, and is characterized by an individuals' understanding of universal ethical principles.

List the 4 types of attachment? Give the characteristics associated with each. What would be some long lasting affects?

1. Secure Attachment 2. Anxious-ambivalent Attachment 3. Disorganized Attachment 4. Avoidant Attachment

Settling point

A grade range, interaction of biology and environment, we have an abundance of food which makes it easier to exceed set point, the settling point is where you hang out if you just do your thing

Narcissism

A mental condition in which people have an inflated sense of their own importance, a deep need for excessive attention and admiration, troubled relationships, and a lack of empathy for others. NOTE: - Self-importance, self-focused, self-promoting - Those who post frequently often focus on self - More likely to retaliate against negative comments - Active on networking sites - Have more "Friends" - Staged photos - People that post a lot tend to post a lot about themselves (they are important, their thoughts are great, themselves, themselves, themselves). - They post their feelings and emotions (their private and personal information) - "Y'all are like my family" (I hope nothing bad happens to you, but you're not family. They are just trying to draw you in)

Lateral Hypothalamus; what would happen if each one were destroyed

A part of the hypothalamus gland and is the portion that controls hunger. Research has shown that damage to this area can cause reduced food intake (even if they are starving), presumably through loss of appetite, and that stimulation of this area can increase appetite.

Define homeostasis:

A psychological state that motivates a person to satisfy a need. It creates an aroused state that drives us to reduce that need aim of drive reduction. NOTE: - The goal is internal stability. - Ex) You set your furnace to a particular temperature, and if it drops below that, your furnace will kicks on an bring it back up to the set temperature. - Ex) If the water level in your cells drop, we have sensors that detect that, and gives us a need for water (feeling thirty), driving us to drink. Then after that we have stability (homeostasis).

Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH); what would happen if each one were destroyed

A region of the hypothalamus is primarily associated with feelings of satiety (feeling full). In studies in which the VMH is damaged (or is lesioned), animals overeat to the point of extreme obesity, and that stimulation of the area can cause the animal to have no interest in eating.

Definition of developmental psychology

A scientific approach which aims to explain growth, change and consistency though the lifespan.

Preoperational Stage

- Around 2-6/7 - Dominated by what child sees and touches - Development of language - Lack logical reasoning - To young to perform mental operations according to Piaget - Lack conservation; understanding the quantity stays the same despite changes in appearance - Egocentric: cannot perceive things from another's point of view; nod head when talking on the phone - Draw symbolically and due to language can play pretend; can be difficult to differentiate between real and pretend - Gradual development of theory of mind, - Do not understand reversibility NOTE: - Children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play - They may start to use lanague, but they cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information - Children's logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge. - A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do.

J. Haidt What is moral intuition?

Haidt asserts that moral judgment is primarily given rise to by intuition, with reasoning playing a smaller role in most of our moral decision-making. Conscious thought-processes serve as a kind of post hoc justification of our decisions. NOTE: - Morals are an automatic, gut feeling; not based on reason - Automatic emotional reactions - Act first and then reason why

Drive c theory

A theory of learning in which the goal of motivating behavior is a reduction of a drive state. It is assumed that all motivated behavior arises from drives, stemming from a disruption in homeostasis and that responses that lead to a reduction of those drives tend to be reinforced or strengthened. NOTE: - Replaced instinct theory - It says that when we have a psychological need, it is going to create an aroused psychological state that drives us to reduce or satisfy that need. - When you have a psychological need our body sends a signal to take corrective action. - Drive: a psychological state that motivates a person to satisfy a need; a need creates an aroused state that drives us to reduce that need aim of drive reduction is homeostasis; internal stability - Drive reduction motivates survival behaviors such as eating and drinking - When a physiological need increases so does a psychological drive - The physiological need sends our body a message to take corrective action - A need leads to a drive

What is the set-point theory of weight?; Settling point

Asserts that each individual has an ideal body weight, or set point, which is resistant to change. This set-point is genetically predetermined and efforts to move our weight significantly from the set-point are resisted by compensatory changes in energy intake and/or expenditure NOTE: - Setpoint is an individual's regulated weight level - Assertion that each individual has an ideal body weight or setpoint, that is resistant to change

Avoidant Attachment

Characterized by child's unresponsiveness to parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if parent leaves ; indifference NOTE: - The child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves. - The toddler reacts to the parent the same way she reacts to a stranger. - When the parent does return, the child is slow to show a positive reaction. Ainsworth theorized that these children were most likely to have a caregiver who was insensitive and inattentive to their needs

Secure Attachment

Characterized by the child using the parent as a secure base from which to explore NOTE: -Toddler prefers his parent over a stranger. - The attachment figure is used as a secure base to explore the environment and is sought out in times of stress. - Securely attached children were distressed when their caregivers left the room in the Strange Situation experiment, but when their caregivers returned, the securely attached children were happy to see them. Securely attached children have caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to their needs.

Disorganized Attachment

Characterized by the child's odd behavior when faced with the parent; shows signs of all three, inconsistent, disturbed, and disturbing; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused NOTE: - They behaved oddly in the Strange Situation. - They freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returns. - This type of attachment is seen most often in kids who have been abused. - Research has shown that abuse disrupts a child's ability to regulate their emotions.

Anxious-ambivalent Attachment (Resistant Attachment)

Characterized by the child's tendency to show clingy behavior and rejection of the parent when she attempts to interact with the child; upset when parents leaves but rejects when returns; desires closeness, yet express anger and resentment NOTE: - Also known as - Children tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure's attempts to interact with them. - These children do not explore the toys in the room, as they are too fearful. - During separation in the Strange Situation, they became extremely disturbed and angry with the parent. When the parent returns, the children are difficult to comfort. - Resistant attachment is the result of the caregivers' inconsistent level of response to their child.

Developmental changes in adults hearing, vision, cognitive changes, when would we see a decline in each, is it a rapid or gradual decline

Early Adulthood: • Reaction time, physical strength, sensory keenness, and cardiac output all peak by mid-twenties • Physical growth continues early but then is complete (for females it is done sooner) • By mid-thirties almost all have some hearing loss Middle Adulthood: • Gradual loss, senses lose acuity, farsighted (need reading glasses by mid-40s) • Women experience menopause around 50; complete cessation of reproductive capability; irritability comes from lack of sleep, • Men do not have a single event like menopause, but gradual decline in sperm count, testosterone levels lower, ejaculation speed Late Adulthood: • Bones mass swindles may get shorted; muscle strength diminishes • Sight smell hearing decline, skin loses elasticity • Brain begins to shrink but the effect is gradual, quick drop in cognitive capabilities sign something else is occurring, even those with Alzheimer's do not have quick, sudden drop, not all will see diminished cognitive capabilities, dementia is not inevitable • Capacity to learn and remember skills and meaningful material shows less decline; may just need more time • Wide variation • More susceptible to life-threatening illness, yet since exposed to many illnesses over course of lifetime have built up immunities so fewer short term illnesses • Brain begins to shrink; changes in frontal lobes may prevent normal inhibitions (often will say things that others find embarrassing, blurt things out) • Physical exercise helps to prevent atrophy, use it or lose it; helps with memory and preserves neural connections and telomeres (tip of chromosome) • Decline less likely if in stimulating environment, social interaction, healthy, educated and higher socioeconomic class NOTE: - In young adulthood, our physical abilities are at their peak, including muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac functioning. Most professional athletes are at the top of their game during this stage. - Many women have children in the young adulthood years, so they may see additional weight gain and breast changes. - Middle adulthood extends from the 40s to the 60s. Physical decline is gradual. The skin loses some elasticity, and wrinkles are among the first signs of aging. Visual acuity decreases during this time. Women experience a gradual decline in fertility as they approach the onset of menopause, the end of the menstrual cycle, around 50 years old. Both men and women tend to gain weight: in the abdominal area for men and in the hips and thighs for women. Hair begins to thin and turn gray. - Late adulthood is considered to extend from the 60s on. This is the last stage of physical change. The skin continues to lose elasticity, reaction time slows further, and muscle strength diminishes. Smell, taste, hearing, and vision, so sharp in our twenties, decline significantly. The brain may also no longer at optimal levels, leading to problems like memory loss, dementia, and Alzheimer's disease in later years.

How is sexual orientation thought to be determined? (nature versus nurture)

Scientists do not know the exact cause of sexual orientation, but they theorize that it is the result of a complex interplay of genetic, hormonal, and environmental influences. They do not view sexual orientation as a choice. NOTE: - It has to do with the brain in utero. Their a hormonal brain bath (4 - 5th month after conception), and this possibility has an impact on their sexual ordination. - No evidence homosexuality is caused by an overbearing mother and submissive father or vice versa. - No evidence that was molested as a child. - It is not believed that parents affect the child's sexual orientation; most homosexual couples have heterosexual children. - Homosexual conversion therapies do more harm than good and there is no empirical research they work on; may suppress sexual activity with a person of same-sex but do not change sexual orientation. - Because sexual orientation is not willfully chosen it cannot willfully be changed.

Arousal Theory

States that motivation is dictated by specific levels of "arousal", which in psychology represents mental alertness. People have different levels of optimal arousal and are motivated to take actions that help them achieve their optimum NOTE: - Humans are curious animals. We explore and manipulate our environment. Where is the drive? - Why would a person bungee jump or skydive? - Everyone has their own (optional) arousal level. - We have different arousal levels. Arousal is physiological tension. We all need some arousal, but people differ on the amount. Need optimal level of arousal. Too much is overwhelming too causes boredom. Do you prefer calmer activities or prefer more exciting activities?

Adolescence is there turmoil?

TEACHER: There is NO TURMOIL in adolescence. Conflict may increase, but it is not major. NOTE - (IGNORE): -There are also high levels of emotional distress and turmoil, with some 15% of adolescents suffering from mental health problems or psychiatric problems at any one time. Further, compared with childhood, there are increasing rates of depression with more suicides and parasuicides among younger people. - Turmoil in developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as "Who am I?" and "What do I want to do with my life?" - Also, turmoil in trying to fit in. Most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit.

Is temperament as an indicator of personality?

Temperament is an indicator of personality (and what it will be).

Germinal Stage (Weeks 1-2)

In the discussion of biopsychology earlier in the book, you learned about genetics and DNA. A mother and father's DNA is passed on to the child at the moment of conception. Conception occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote. A zygote begins as a one-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge. The genetic makeup and sex of the baby are set at this point. During the first week after conception, the zygote divides and multiplies, going from a one-cell structure to two cells, then four cells, then eight cells, and so on. This process of cell division is called mitosis. Mitosis is a fragile process, and fewer than one-half of all zygotes survive beyond the first two weeks. After 5 days of mitosis there are 100 cells, and after 9 months there are billions of cells. As the cells divide, they become more specialized, forming different organs and body parts. In the germinal stage, the mass of cells has yet to attach itself to the lining of the mother's uterus. Once it does, the next stage begins.

Progesterone

Increases in progesterone can reduce sexual desire. NOTE: Females - Progesterone is a hormone released by the ovaries. Changing progesterone levels can contribute to abnormal menstrual periods and menopausal symptoms. - Progesterone is also necessary for implantation of the fertilized egg in the uterus and for maintaining pregnancy. Men - Men need progesterone to produce testosterone. - The adrenal glands and testes in males produce progesterone.

Testosterone

Increases sexual desire in both men and women, however, while both sexes have it men produce more testosterone than females. NOTE: - It is the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty - NOTE: Large hormonal shifts with testosterone have more of an effect on sexual desire than sudden quick ones.

Instinct Theory

It is a view that explains human behavior as a species-specific pattern of behavior that is not learned. In other words, motivation by automatic, involuntary, and unlearned response. NOTE: - WE DO NOT BELIEVE that behavior is controlled by biological factors like instincts. - Influenced by Darwin - Behaviors are controlled by instincts • Instinct is complexed behavior rigidly pattern throughout the species • unlearned • Spider spinning web, bird building a nest, salmon swimming upstream to lay eggs and die - People were just naming not explaining the various behaviors - Meaningless and collapsed - Failed to explain human motives

Infants' hearing

Newborn babies' hearing is very well developed, but not perfect. The middle ear of a newborn is full of fluid and this impairs hearing to a small extent. Additionally, the entire hearing apparatus is somewhat immature. That's why newborn babies respond best to high-pitched, exaggerated sounds and voices. NOTE: - They prefer high pitched sounds (and voices they are familiar with) - By 3 weeks they respond to the recording of mother's voice, in utero learning. - Babies develop hearing in utero, and start to hear sounds from the outside world when they're about 23 weeks pregnant. By 35 weeks of pregnancy, your baby's ears are fully formed and she can likely distinguish your voice from others.

Uninvolved parenting style

Parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful; they don't respond to the child's needs and make relatively few demands; low control, low warmth/acceptance NOTE: - These parents may provide for the child's basic needs, but little else. - The children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at an increased risk of substance abuse - More likely to drop out of school - More likely to get involved with drugs and alcohol - Poor emotion regulation - gangs

Authoritative parenting style

Parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child's point of view; high warmth/acceptance, high control NOTE: - The parent gives reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and affection, and listens to the child's point of view. - Parents set rules and explain the reasons behind them. - They are also flexible and willing to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases. - Of the four parenting styles, the authoritative style is the one that is most encouraged in modern American society. - American children raised by authoritative parents tend to have high self-esteem and social skills. - In US associated typically with best outcomes - Better problem solvers - Do well in school - Socially competent, self-reliant; friendly, cooperative - Self-confidence, higher self-esteem - Less rigid about gender-typed traits

Permissive parenting style

Parents make few demands and rarely use punishment; high warmth/acceptance, low control NOTE: - The kids run the show and anything goes. - These parents tend to be very nurturing and loving, and may play the role of friend rather than parent. - Children raised by permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, and the permissive parenting style is negatively associated with grades - Risky behaviors (substance abuse and sexual behavior) - Increased display of disruptive behaviors by male children - Poor emotion regulated - Immature - Poor school performance, more likely to use drugs - However, they also tend to have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and report lower levels of depression

Authoritarian parenting style

Parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express little warmth to the child; high control, low warmth/acceptance NOTE: - This style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy kids. - However, it is important to point out that authoritarian parenting is as beneficial as the authoritative style in some ethnic groups (Chinese American children) - Anxious, withdrawn, unhappy - Do well in school - Less likely to engage in antisocial activities - When frustrated boys liked to become hostile, girls give up

Secondary Sexual Characteristics

Physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs Females • Breasts • Body hair (both arm and pubic) • Broader hips • Waist definition Males • Facial hair • Deepening voice • Angular jaw • Body hair (including public, arm, and chest) • Increased muscle mass NOTE: - Secondary that are necessary for reproduction, but it is associated with puberty.

What is the difference between Piaget and Vygotsky's theories on how children develop cognitively?

Piaget proposed that children progress through the stages of cognitive development through maturation, discovery methods, and some social transmissions through assimilation and accommodation. Vygotsky's theory stressed the importance of culture and language on one's cognitive development. NOTE: - Piaget - Believed that children were little scientists and found out about their world through exploration and trial and error. - Vygotsky - Children are not just individual explorers; children learn through social interaction, social mentoring

What is usually the most critical (sensitive) period for a baby and why?

The Embryotic stage. It is the time during fetal growth when specific parts or organs develop. During this time period, the developing child can formulate major defects of the body and internal organs are more likely to occur between 3 to 12 embryo / fetal weeks (the first trimester). This is the same as 5 to 14 gestational weeks (weeks since the first day of your last period). This is also referred to as the first trimester. NOTE: - ANSWER: THE EMBRYOTIC STAGE - Research suggests that alcohol exposure that is limited to day 19 or 20 of gestation can lead to significant facial abnormalities in the offspring. - Given regions of the brain also show sensitive periods during which they are most susceptible to the teratogenic effects of alcohol - It is the most critical stage of premarital development is the Embryotic Stage because it is during this stage that every single organ is forming and functioning, if something interferes with it, it will interfere with the child.

What requires the most adjustment in the social lives of older adults?

The death of a spouse require most adjustment in social life of older adults

Stranger Anxiety, when do they occur

The fear of strangers, around same time begin to crawl; now can form schemas and do not have schema for the unfamiliar face. It develops shortly after object development stranger anxiety develops followed by separation anxiety NOTE: - Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from a stranger, by clinging to a caregiver, or by attempting to reach their arms toward familiar faces such as parents. - Separation anxiety: become distress when parents/caregivers leave ; peaks around 13 months of age - Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; therefore, she can't predict what her experience with that stranger will be like, which results in a fear response - Object Permanence / Schemas → Strange Anxiety → Separation Anxiety

Orgasm

The peak phase of the sexual response cycle is associated with rhythmic muscle contractions (and ejaculation) NOTE: - Marked in women by rhythmic contractions of the pelvis and uterus along with increased muscle tension. - In men, pelvic contractions are accompanied by a buildup of seminal fluid near the urethra that is ultimately forced out by contractions of genital muscles, (i.e., ejaculation). - Involuntary muscle reactions - Breathing rate increases - NOTE: The pleasurable sensation is the same for males and females

Resolution

The phase of the sexual response cycle following orgasm during which the body returns to its unaroused state. NOTE: - is the relatively rapid return to an unaroused state accompanied by a decrease in blood pressure and muscular relaxation. - While many women can quickly repeat the sexual response cycle, men must pass through a longer refractory period as part of the resolution. - Refractory period - The time immediately following an orgasm during which an individual is incapable of experiencing another orgasm, occurs in men, women are capable of multiple orgasms and do not have a refractory period - This is the only stage in which males and females differ. - Brief resting period, during this time a male would be unable an erection, depending on the health and age of the male a few minutes to several days. Females can peak right back into the orgasmic phase (because they are capable of multiple orgasms)

Plateau

The phase of the sexual response cycle that falls between excitement and orgasm NOTE: - During plateau, women experience further swelling of the vagina and increased blood flow to the labia minora, and men experience full erection and often exhibit pre-ejaculatory fluid. - Both men and women experience increases in muscle tone during this time. - Blood pressure raises - Blood will flow to the gentiles - Vaginal lubrication

Excitement

The phase of the sexual response cycle that involves sexual arousal NOTE: - Phase is the arousal phase of the sexual response cycle, and it is marked by the erection of the penis or clitoris and lubrication and expansion of the vaginal canal. - Kissing and touching

Metabolism

The physical and chemical processes within a living cell or organism are necessary to maintain life. It includes catabolism, the breaking down of complex molecules into simpler ones, often with the release of energy; and anabolism, the synthesis of complex molecules from simple ones. NOTE: - A person's metabolic rate is the amount of energy that is expended in a given period of time, and there is tremendous individual variability in our metabolic rates. - People with high rates of metabolism are able to burn off calories more easily than those with lower rates of metabolism.

Social Facilitation

We eat more when we eat with others. NOTE: - By definition however, social facilitation is the tendency to perform simple or well-practiced tasks better in the presence of others than alone.

What does smoking do to a baby?

When the mother smokes, the developing baby experiences a reduction in blood oxygen levels. This can result in premature birth, low-birth-weight infants, stillbirth, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).

Fetal Stage (Weeks 9 -40)

When the organism is about nine weeks old, the embryo is called a fetus. At this stage, the fetus is about the size of a kidney bean and begins to take on the recognizable form of a human being as the "tail" begins to disappear. From 9-12 weeks, the sex organs begin to differentiate. At about 16 weeks, the fetus is approximately 4.5 inches long. Fingers and toes are fully developed, and fingerprints are visible. By the time the fetus reaches the sixth month of development (24 weeks), it weighs up to 1.4 pounds. Hearing has developed, so the fetus can respond to sounds. The internal organs, such as the lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, have formed enough that a fetus born prematurely at this point has a chance to survive outside of the mother's womb. Throughout the fetal stage the brain continues to grow and develop, nearly doubling in size from weeks 16 to 28. Around 36 weeks, the fetus is almost ready for birth. It weighs about 6 pounds and is about 18.5 inches long, and by week 37 all of the fetus's organ systems are developed enough that it could survive outside the mother's uterus without many of the risks associated with premature birth. The fetus continues to gain weight and grow in length until approximately 40 weeks. By then, the fetus has very little room to move around and birth becomes imminent. The progression through the stages is shown in

What occurs during menopause?

Women experience a gradual decline in fertility as they approach the onset of menopause, the end of the menstrual cycle, around 50 years old NOTE: - Menopause occurs when you have gone 12 consecutive months without a menstrual period. - Changing levels of estrogen and progesterone, two female hormones made in the ovaries, lead to symptoms like hot flashes and vaginal dryness. - Menopause is a natural part of aging and marks the end of the female reproductive years. - Reproductive capability ends - Ovaries cease to function - Hormone levels fall - Usually occurs between 47 and 55 years of age

What is a motive?

a reason or purpose for the behavior

Piaget developed the

four stages of cognitive development.

Object Permanence, when do they occur

idea that even if something is out of sight, it still exists NOTE: - Develops around age of 8-9 months; realization that something still exists even if out of sight - According to Piaget, young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from sight. Piaget studied infants' reactions when a toy was first shown to an infant and then hidden under a blanket. Infants who had already developed object permanence would reach for the hidden toy, indicating that they knew it still existed, whereas infants who had not developed object permanence would appear confused. - Shortly after object development stranger anxiety develops followed by separation anxiety - Object Permanence / Schemas → Strange Anxiety → Separation Anxiety

What is conservation?

idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size, volume, or number as long as nothing is added or removed NOTE: - Lack conservation; understanding the quantity stays the same despite changes in appearance

Scaffolding

temporary supports during learning; after complete can remove scaffolding NOTE: - a theory that focuses on a student's ability to learn information through the help of a more informed individual. - When used effectively, scaffolding can help a student learn content they wouldn't have been able to process on their own.

Kohlberg developed the

theory of moral development

Define motivation

wants or needs that direct behavior toward some goal

1. Physiological

These are biological requirements for human survival, e.g. air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep. If these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot function optimally. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met.

Sensorimotor Stage

- Birth-2 years - Learn about the world through basic reflexes and increasing motor development - Cannot form mental schemas - Think in the here and now; out of sight out of mind - Object permanence: develops around age of 8-9 months; realization that something still exists even if out of sight - Peek-a-boo is fun because the person is there and then not NOTE: - According to Piaget, young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from sight - In Piaget's view, around the same time children develop object permanence, they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a fear of unfamiliar people. Afterwhich, separation anxiety. - NOTE: Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from a stranger, by clinging to a caregiver, or by attempting to reach their arms toward familiar faces such as parents. Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; therefore, they can't predict what their experience with that stranger will be like, which results in a fear response.

Integrity versus Despair

- Erikson said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. - People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. - However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. - They focus on what "would have," "should have," and "could have" been. - They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair. NOTE: - From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood.

Vygotsky's theory

- He suggested that human development is rooted in one's culture. - A child's social world, for example, forms the basis for the formation of language and thought. - The language one speaks and the ways a person thinks about things is dependent on one's cultural background. - Vygotsky also considered historical influences as key to one's development. - He was interested in the process of development and the individual's interactions with their environment NOTE: - Though Piaget underestimated the importance of social and cultural experience - Children are not just individual explorers; children learn through social interaction, social mentoring - Learn through interacting with adults and older peers - Two levels of developmental: their current level of cognitive development and their potential level - Reach potential level through interacting with other's who mentor and support them - Need capable mentor - Zone of proximal development Space between two levels - This is the things the child is unable to do independently, but with assistance is able to - Can do a 10 piece puzzle of his own, but with little help can do 25 piece, 50 piece would be outside the zone

Identity versus role confusion

- In adolescence (ages 12-18), children face the task of identity versus role confusion. - According to Erikson, an adolescent's main task is developing a sense of self. - Adolescents struggle with questions such as "Who am I?" and "What do I want to do with my life?" - Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit. - Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people's perspectives. - What happens to apathetic adolescents, who do not make a conscious search for identity, or those who are pressured to conform to their parents' ideas for the future? -These teens will have a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They are unsure of their identity and confused about the future. NOTE: - Erikson: one of the most important stages in his psychosocial theory - Who am I? - Must test and integrate various role on road to establishing own identity apart from parents and friends yet at the same time need social identity - Explore different social roles which may mean try out various activities, dress, etc. - To develop own identity often break away from childhood beliefs by challenging parental and societal ideas. - How do I fit into the world

Generativity versus Stagnation

- When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. - The social task of middle adulthood is generativity versus stagnation. - Generativity involves finding your life's work and contributing to the development of others, through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. - Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation, having little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement. NOTE: - They want to produce something that will outlive them, usually change is for the good - Reappraise and modify life and relationships - very few people actually have mid life crisis, more a result of life events rather than age

Piaget's Cognitive Theory of Development: stages and what occurs in each

1. Sensorimotor. Birth through ages 18-24 months. 2. Preoperational. Toddlerhood (18-24 months) through early childhood (age 7) 3. Concrete operational. Ages 7 to 11. 4. Formal operational. Adolescence through adulthood. NOTE: - Children are independent learners; little scientist exploring the world around them - Piaget believed that thinking is a central aspect of development and that children are naturally inquisitive. - Do not think like adults - Process world in unique way according to age - Stage theory - Our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages, which exemplifies the discontinuity approach to development. As we progress to a new stage, there is a distinct shift in how we think and reason. - Schema: mental representation that helps to organize past experiences and provide framework for understand new experiences - Learn through assimilation and accommodation - Assimilation: try to process new experience in existing schema - Accommodation: change schema to better fit the new experience; allows to incorporate new information and/or experiences

5. Self-actualization

Are the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy, and refer to the realization of a person's potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth, and peak experiences. Maslow (1943) describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be. Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very specifically. For example, one individual may have a strong desire to become an ideal parent. In another, the desire may be expressed economically, academically, or athletically. For others, it may be expressed creatively, in painting, pictures, or inventions.

What is obesity

Adults with a BMI of 30 or higher NOTE: - Overweight: adult with BMI between 25 and 29.9 - Morbid obesity: adult with a BMI over 40

3. Love & Belonging

After physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness. Belongingness, refers to a human emotional need for interpersonal relationships, affiliating, connectedness, and being part of a group. Examples of belongingness needs include friendship, intimacy, trust and acceptance, receiving and giving affection, and love.

Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3-8)

After the zygote divides for about 7-10 days and has 150 cells, it travels down the fallopian tubes and implants itself in the lining of the uterus. Upon implantation, this multi-cellular organism is called an embryo. Now blood vessels grow, forming the placenta. The placenta is a structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord. Basic structures of the embryo start to develop into areas that will become the head, chest, and abdomen. During the embryonic stage, the heart begins to beat and organs form and begin to function. The neural tube forms along the back of the embryo, developing into the spinal cord and brain. NOTE: - This is the most critical stage of premarital development is the Embryotic Stage because it is during this stage that every single organ is forming and functioning, if something interferes with it, it will interfere with the child.

What does alcohol do to a baby?

Alcohol use during pregnancy has been found to be the leading preventable cause of mental retardation in children in the United States. Excessive maternal drinking while pregnant can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders with life-long consequences for the child ranging in severity from minor to major. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are a collection of birth defects associated with heavy consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. Physically, children with FASD may have a small head size and abnormal facial features. Cognitively, these children may have poor judgment, poor impulse control, higher rates of ADHD, learning issues, and lower IQ scores. These developmental problems and delays persist into adulthood. Based on studies conducted on animals, it also has been suggested that a mother's alcohol consumption during pregnancy may predispose her child to like alcohol.

4. Esteem

Are the fourth level in Maslow's hierarchy and include self-worth, accomplishment, and respect. Maslow classified esteem needs into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect form others (e.g., status, prestige). Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity.

How do exercise and sleep contribute to the settling point?

Exercise and sleep are necessary to lose weight because it boosts your metabolism NOTE: - We all experience fluctuations in our weight from time to time, but generally, most people's weights fluctuate within a narrow margin, in the absence of extreme changes in diet and/or physical activity - Exercise is helpful for weight loss and maintaining weight loss. Exercise can increase metabolism, or how many calories you burn in a day. It can also help you maintain and increase lean body mass, which also helps increase the number of calories you burn each day. - Research suggests that poor sleep makes the body's metabolism work less effectively, leaving more unexpended energy to be stored in the body as fat. Poor and insufficient sleep makes the body inclined to store calories as fat. Research indicates that poor sleep can trigger the body to make more insulin and cortisol. - In adults, sleeping four hours a night, compared with 10 hours a night, appears to increase hunger and appetite — in particular for calorie-dense foods high in carbohydrates. Observational studies also suggest a link between sleep restriction and obesity.

Sex hormones, effect on sexual desire; which sex has which hormones (or do both sex have all?)

Females: - Estrogen: A group of hormones that play an important role in the normal sexual and reproductive development in women. They are also sex hormones. The woman's ovaries make most estrogen hormones, although the adrenal glands and fat cells also make small amounts of the hormones. - Progesterone: The ovaries produce the female sex hormone progesterone after ovulation. During pregnancy, the placenta also produces some. The role of progesterone is to: prepare the lining of the uterus for a fertilized egg. - Testosterone: The female sex hormone, testosterone helps with the growth, maintenance, and repair of a woman's reproductive tissues, bone mass, and human behaviors. Males: - Testosterone is a sex hormone that plays important role in the body. In men, it's thought to regulate sex drive (libido), and the production of sperm. - Estrogen: A small amount of circulating testosterone is converted to estradiol, a form of estrogen. It has a primary role in controlling and synchronizing male sexual desire and arousal, acting at multiple levels. - Progesterone: Males need progesterone to produce testosterone. The adrenal glands and testes in males produce progesterone. NOTE: - Both sexes produce all hormones but males have a greater proportion of androgens and females produce a greater portion of estrogen and progesterone - Estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone all affect sexual desire and arousal. Having higher levels of estrogen in the body promotes vaginal lubrication and increases sexual desire. Increases in progesterone can reduce sexual desire.

What are the 3 stages of prenatal development?

Germinal Stage (Weeks 1-2) • Conception - when a sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote • Zygote- structure created when a sperm and egg merge at conception; begins as a single cell and rapidly divides to form the embryo and placenta • Mitosis- process of cell division Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3-8) • Embryo- multi-cellular organism • Placenta- structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen to the developing baby Fetal Stage (Weeks 9 -40)

Explain what we learned about attachment from Harlow's monkey studies?

Harlow's work also showed that infant monkeys looked for comfort in the fluffy surrogate mother, even if that surrogate mother never provided food. From this research, we can conclude that infants feel an attachment toward their caregiver. That attachment is experienced as what we know to be 'love. NOTE: - Harry Harlow found that attachment was based on body contact; the need for cuddling, soft warm touch, secure base from which to explore one's world - Our attachment to nourishment is NOT based on nutrition. - Impaired socially, emotionally, and physically - Lacked appropriate maternal behavior and sexual behavior - Orphanages: if neglected by workers have problems forming an attachment - Reactive Attachment Disorder: do not form healthy attachment usually before age of 5 - Contact comfort completely overwhelms/overshadows all other variables (including nursing). - They can not form emotional attachment when they are older - This study changed how many orphanages treated the children - Experiment: Based on this observation, Harlow designed his now-famous surrogate mother experiment. In this study, Harlow took infant monkeys from their biological mothers and gave them two inanimate surrogate mothers: one was a simple construction of wire and wood, and the second was covered in foam rubber and soft terry cloth.

Estrogen

Having higher levels of estrogen in the body promotes vaginal lubrication and increases sexual desire. Increases in progesterone can reduce sexual desire. NOTE: - A sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males.

What signals hunger?

Hunger is partly controlled by a part of your brain called the hypothalamus, your blood sugar (glucose) level, how empty your stomach and intestines are, and certain hormone levels in your body (ghrelin). Fullness is a feeling of being satisfied. Your stomach tells your brain that it is full. NOTE: - When our stomachs are empty, they contract. - Typically, a person then experiences hunger pangs. - Chemical messages travel to the brain and serve as a signal to initiate feeding behavior. - When our blood glucose levels drop, the pancreas and liver generate a number of chemical signals that induce hunger and thus initiate feeding behavior. - Receptors in the bloodstream monitor the level of nutrients. For example, blood glucose levels are monitored. If glucose level drops your body sends a signal to take corrective action. - Leptin: hormone secreted by fat cells that decrease hunger. - Ghrelin: hormone secreted by the empty stomach that increases hunger

What were the general findings of Chicago's National Health and Social Life Survey

In 1992, researchers at the University of Chicago fielded the National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS), a national probability survey documenting how individual sexual expression, attitudes, and behaviors varied systematically across major social categories (gender, age, religion, education, marital status, race/ethnicity) of American society. NOTE: - Subjects not volunteers, 3,432 people between ages 18-59 selected at random to represent current U.S. sociocultural diversity - Face to face interviews - Encouraged honesty by allowing subjects to write and seal responses - Challenged media and cultural images of sexuality in U.S. - People appear to be less sexually active and have fewer partners than the media portrays, more conservative in sexual attitudes. - CDC study (2007) similar results. - Meant to represent adults in the US - Males had 6 sexual partners, females had 2 - Time of sex per week, was once a week - Those in a monogamous relationship were having the most sex

Does eating just one meal a day help us lose weight? Why or why not?

No, because if you eat too little the metabolism will slow down and store the extra fat and you will be tired, cold, and have low blood sugar.

Do most people have a midlife crisis?

No. Not everyone experiences a midlife crisis. In fact, studies show a midlife crisis isn't an issue for people in many parts of the world. In fact, some researchers believe the notion of the midlife crisis is a social construct. NOTE: - A midlife crisis is more event-related than action-related.

2. Safety

Once an individual's physiological needs are satisfied, the needs for security and safety become salient. People want to experience order, predictability, and control in their lives. These needs can be fulfilled by the family and society (e.g. police, schools, business, and medical care). For example, emotional security, financial security (e.g. employment, social welfare), law and order, freedom from fear, social stability, property, health, and wellbeing (e.g. safety against accidents and injury).

Primary Sexual Characteristics

Organs specifically needed for reproduction Females • Uterus • Vagina • Ovaries including eggs Males • Penis • Testes • Development of sperm NOTE: - Primary is anything necessary for reproduction

How is the sex of a baby determine?

Out of the 46 chromosomes that make up a baby's genetic material, only two — one from the sperm and one from the egg — determine the baby's sex. These are known as the sex chromosomes. Every egg has an X sex chromosome; a sperm can have either an X or a Y sex chromosome. NOTE: - XY: Boy - XX: Girl - In the United States, we have tended to classify an individual as either male or female. - Intersex is a broad term referring to people whose bodies are not strictly biologically male or female - Sometimes a child may be born with components of male and female genitals, and other times XY chromosomal differences are present - Body defines sex, mind determines gender

How does the timing of puberty affect the adolescent?

Overall, we hypothesize that early pubertal timing (peer-relative timing, in particular) will be associated with poor mental, behavioral, and physical health for girls, both in adolescence and young adulthood, while off-time puberty (either early or late timing) may increase health risk for boys. NOTE: - Females generally go through puberty before males - Sequence of physical changes more predictable than timing - Because rates of physical development vary so widely among teenagers, puberty can be a source of pride or embarrassment. - Summary: Early Girls: Females go through puberty during a time period when most people their age do not. Females do not feel like they have anyone they can talk to about this and may become very conscious of their bodies. This might lead to mental health and eating disorders. They may get teased by other peers their age (especially with other girls). They also may begin to date, as they look older, exposing them to various substances (alcohol and drugs), and sexual behavior at an early age. They tend to have low self-esteem. Early Boys: Very little negative. They have an advantage socially and athletically. THey end to being leaders and popular. They do, however, tend to get exposed to alcohol and drugs a lot earlier. But they do not have a poor body image. And they go through puberty at the same time as most of their female peers. On-time Girls: They are going to have the support that early females do not. They have others to talk to. On-time Boys: They got through at the same time as late females. They have no problem. Late Females: They are going to have a lot of males their same age to interact with and date. They have no problem. Late Males: Late maturing males is problematic. They are the last group to go through. They are at a disadvantage socially and athletically. They may become a self-fulfilling prophecy, if they look younger than they are and people treat them that way then they will act very immaturely. Or sometimes, try to stand up for themselves, they may become aggressive.

How does social networking effect relationships and self-disclosure?

The quantity of self-disclosure via posts was negatively associated with advantageous decision making and positively with tendencies toward a problematic social-networks-use. The findings indicate that high self-disclosure via posts is associated with a general tendency to neglect long-term risks. SLIDE/TEXTBOOK NOTES: - If you share something with your friend, they can upload it to social media. And once it's out there it's out there. - 96% of American adults have a cell phone - 89% of teenagers own cell phone - Less likely to talk on phone, replaced by texting and emailing - Majority of college students connected to social networking site - 71% of teens are on at least one social networking platform - Allows people to stay in touch - Less fact to face interactions; yet face to face interactions increase life satisfaction - Time consuming - Find support when facing challenges - Find romantic partner, matchmaking - Do not know neighbors - Negative effects on relationships of those we live with, spend more time looking at phone rather than actually conversations with those around us - Can deepen friendships, self-disclosure - Allow us to share feelings but sometimes share too much - Online socializing and gaming correlated with lower grades, increase anxiety and depression - Interferes with sleep - Not doing a good job balancing Compare with others, may result in an increase in depression - We can stay in contact with people. - It's face-to-face interactions that increase our satisfaction, but when you are online you are missing out on these. - You've become more observers than friends. TEACHER NOTES: - Having social support is good, but once we put it out there it's - We are more comfortable expressing emotions on the phone or emotion, but we are not actually seeing facial expressions. - We will say things through text and email that we would never say. - Interfering with grades, activities, and sleep. - People only post the great parts of their life, leading to depression and anxiety. - Limit your phone only to an hour a day.

Conventional Morality (early adolescence)

The second stage of moral development, and is characterized by an acceptance of social rules concerning right and wrong. At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models. NOTE: - Characterized by an acceptance of social rules concerning right and wrong. - At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models. - Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the person belongs. - A social system that stresses the responsibilities of relationships as well as social order is seen as desirable and must, therefore, influence our view of what is right and wrong. - Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others. - Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.

Unit Bias

The tendency for people to eat more when the portion size is larger. NOTE: - We eat more from a buffet than from just one thing - The larger the serving size, the more you are going to eat. You are going to eat whatever we are given. - The tendency for people to want to complete a unit of a given item or task.

Post-conventional Morality (once formal operational thought is attained)

The third stage of moral development, and is characterized by an individuals' understanding of universal ethical principles. These are abstract and ill-defined, but might include: the preservation of life at all costs, and the importance of human dignity. NOTE: - Postconventional morality is the third stage of moral development, and is characterized by an individuals' understanding of universal ethical principles. - These are abstract and ill-defined, but might include: the preservation of life at all costs, and the importance of human dignity. - Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. - According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get. - Most people take their moral views from those around them and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves. - Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals. • The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz's dilemma, the protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing. - Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. • E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment (such as Civil Rights leaders). Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage.

What is assimilation? (know what schemas have to do with each), give an example of each

adjustment of a schema by adding information similar to what is already known NOTE: - Assimilation = simular - try to process new experience in existing schema - For example, 2-year-old Abdul learned the schema for dogs because his family has a Labrador retriever. When Abdul sees other dogs in his picture books, he says, "Look mommy, dog!" Thus, he has assimilated them into his schema for dogs. One day, Abdul sees a sheep for the first time and says, "Look mommy, dog!" Having a basic schema that a dog is an animal with four legs and fur, Abdul thinks all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. When Abdul's mom tells him that the animal he sees is a sheep, not a dog, Abdul must accommodate his schema for dogs to include more information based on his new experiences. Abdul's schema for dog was too broad, since not all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. He now modifies his schema for dogs and forms a new one for sheep. - Schema → Assimilation → Accommodate

What is accommodation?

adjustment of a schema by changing a scheme to accommodate new information different from what was already known NOTE: - change schema to better fit the new experience; allows to incorporate new information and/or experiences - For example, 2-year-old Abdul learned the schema for dogs because his family has a Labrador retriever. When Abdul sees other dogs in his picture books, he says, "Look mommy, dog!" Thus, he has assimilated them into his schema for dogs. One day, Abdul sees a sheep for the first time and says, "Look mommy, dog!" Having a basic schema that a dog is an animal with four legs and fur, Abdul thinks all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. When Abdul's mom tells him that the animal he sees is a sheep, not a dog, Abdul must accommodate his schema for dogs to include more information based on his new experiences. Abdul's schema for dog was too broad, since not all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. He now modifies his schema for dogs and forms a new one for sheep. - Schema → Assimilation → Accommodate

Infants' vision

are very poor at this age can only focus on shapes that are close by, but see distant objects as blurry because they are nearsighted. As babies grow, eyesight improves. By the end of 3 months, they can follow a moving object, are more interested in shapes and patterns, and can spot familiar faces, even at a distance. NOTE: - They can focus best at objects between 8 and 10 (teacher said 12) inches away from their face. - Enough distance to see their mother's face.

What is a teratogen?

biological, chemical, or physical environmental agent that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus NOTE: - There are different types of teratogens. - Alcohol and most drugs cross the placenta and affect the fetus.

Preconventional (before age 9)

in Kohlberg's theory of moral development, the first level of moral reasoning, characterized by the child's evaluation of actions in terms of material consequences. NOTE: - Preconventional morality is the first stage of moral development, and lasts until approximately age 9. - At the preconventional level children don't have a personal code of morality, and instead moral decisions are shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules. - For example, if an action leads to punishment is must be bad, and if it leads to a reward is must be good. Authority is outside the individual and children often make moral decisions based on the physical consequences of actions. - Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong. - Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.

Who developed a stage theory of moral development?

psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg

Erikson developed the

psychosocial development.