Introduction to Psychology: Unit Exam 4

(Chapter 11)

(Chapter 11)

(Chapter 15)

(Chapter 15)

Dissociative Amnesia

- Dissociative disorder characterized by an inability to recall important personal information, usually following an extremely stressful or traumatic experience (such as combat, natural disasters, or being the victim of violence). - The memory impairments are not caused by ordinary forgetting. - . Some individuals with dissociative amnesia will also experience dissociative fugue, whereby they suddenly wander away from their home, experience confusion about their identity, and sometimes even adopt a new identity for a few hours or days, or even longer. NOTE: - Dissociative amnesia with Fugue symptom • lose autobiographical memory - Dissociative amnesia • Sudden memory loss, loss of memory for an event(s)

Dissociative disorders?

- Dissociative disorders- group of DSM-5 disorders in which the primary feature is that a person becomes separated (dissociated or split off) from own core sense of self, resulting in disturbances in identity and previous memories, thoughts feelings, beliefs - Controversial, some question if exists - Rare NOTE: - Dissociative disorders are characterized by an individual becoming split off, or dissociated, from her core sense of self. - Memory and identity become disturbed; these disturbances have a psychological rather than physical cause. - Dissociative disorders listed in the DSM-5 include dissociative amnesia, depersonalization/derealization disorder, and dissociative identity disorder.

Basic assumptions of Karen Horney's theory

- First Feminist Personality Theorist - Women do not have penis envy, men have womb envy; men and women often envy what the other has - In order to be psychological health must overcome the need for perfection - The basic human need for security, not sex - Personality develops over a lifetime - Culture and environment play a role in later personality development NOTE: - Horney also disagreed with the Freudian idea that girls have penis envy and are jealous of male biological features. - According to Horney, any jealousy is most likely culturally based, due to the greater privileges that males often have, meaning that the differences between men's and women's personalities are culturally based, not biologically based. She further suggested that men have womb envy because they cannot give birth.

Specific Phobias

- Person feels irrationally afraid of object or situation - Specific phobia: • Involves particular object of situation • 1 out of 8 suffer from specific phobia • Not same thing as fear, • fears are more common than phobias • Most common - fear of snakes & spiders NOTE: - A person experiences (an irrational) excessive, distressing, and persistent fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation - Typically, the fear and anxiety a phobic stimulus elicits is disruptive to the person's life. - Specific phobias are common; in the United States, around 12.5% of the population will meet the criteria for a specific phobia at some point in their lifetime

Personal Unconscious

Anything not currently conscious but can be NOTE: - (CLASS) - The personal unconscious is a structure in the upper layer of the unconscious made up of both repressed contents and other material which has been simply laid aside like memories. - Since it is the gateway to the deeper collective unconscious, its contents must be accessed for personal growth and development.

What is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)?

Authoritative index of mental disorders and the criteria for their diagnosis; published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) NOTE: - Published by the American Psychiatric Association - It is the most recent edition of the DSM

Superego

The aspect of the personality that serves as one's moral compass, or conscience. Principle: The morality principle, which provides moral standards by which the ego operates. Age: Develops around the age of 3 - 5 years during the phallic stage of psychosexual development NOTE: - Develops as a child interacts with others, learning the social rules for right and wrong. - The superego acts as our conscience; it is our moral compass that tells us how we should behave. - It strives for perfection and judges our behavior, leading to feelings of pride or—when we fall short of the ideal—feelings of guilt.

Projective test vs. objective tests; why would you use one over the other; how easy is a projective test to administer?

The objective test requires the respondent to make a particular response to a structured set of instructions (e.g., true/false, yes/no, or the correct answer). The projective test is given in an ambiguous context in order to afford the respondent an opportunity to impose his or her own interpretation in answering.

What does the Individual Psychology theory emphasize?

The theory emphasizes the individual's life-style, connectedness with others (belonging), meeting the life tasks (work, love, and social relationships), and contributions to society (social interest) are considered the hallmarks of mental health. NOTE: - (CLASS)

How easy is a projective test to administer?

They are very difficult to administer. You have to have one proctor watching over you (and only you). Thus, it is time-consuming and costly.

Dysfunction

This includes disturbances in a person's thinking, emotional regulation, or behavior that reflects significant dysfunction in psychological, biological, or developmental processes underlying mental functioning. In other words, dysfunction refers to a breakdown in cognition, emotion, and/or behavior. NOTE: • Does it interfere with person's life • Can be normal behavior taken to an extreme • Example) Normal to wash hands, but not normal to have to wash hands so much little time left for other activities

What is the Diathesis-Stress Model?

This model suggests that people with a predisposition for a disorder (a diathesis) are more likely to develop the disorder when faced with stress; model of psychopathology NOTE: - It integrates biological, physical, environmental, and psychological factors to describe abnormalities and predict the likelihood of a disorder - The key assumption of the diathesis-stress model is that both factors, diathesis, and stress, are necessary for the development of a disorder. - Diathesis: disposition or vulnerability • Have biological- genetic predisposition - or • Environmental- childhood experiences, like abuse or trauma - Stress • Acts as trigger, is stress is too much for the person to cope with may starting showing signs of disorder

When is the risk of suicide the greatest?

Those who are coming out of a depressive episode. NOTE: - (ASK TEACHER)

Who uses the DSM-5?

Trained mental health professionals; psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, social workers, and licensed professional counselors most commonly use this resource.

Why are phobias maintained over time?

From a behavioral perspective, specific phobias are maintained because of avoidance of the phobic stimuli so that the individual does not have the opportunity to learn that they can tolerate the fear, that the fear will come down on its own without avoiding or escaping, and that their feared outcomes often do not come true or are not as terrible as they imagine. NOTE: - Avoidance can occur either by not entering a situation at all or by entering the situation but not experiencing it fully. - (ASK TEACHER)

Openness

Imaginative, Feelings, Actions, Ideas Low Score: Practical conventional prefers routine High Score: Curious, wide range of interests, independent NOTE: - High: You are someone who has a lot of interest, you think outside the box, you are imaginative, you like variety, you are curious, and have a lot of intellectual pursuit. - Low: You like routine, you are comfortable in the things that you know.

What is Alfred Adler's theory called?

Individual psychology

Distress

It can take the form of psychological or physical pain, or both at the same time. Simply put, distress refers to suffering. Alone though, distress is not sufficient enough to describe behavior as abnormal NOTE: • Is it distressful for the person and/or others (previously was just considered for self) • Sometimes something is distressful but is not a disorder

What information does the DSM-5 provide?

It includes many categories of disorders (e.g., anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, and dissociative disorders). Each disorder is described in detail, including an overview of the disorder (diagnostic features), specific symptoms required for diagnosis (diagnostic criteria), prevalence information (what percent of the population is thought to be afflicted with the disorder), and risk factors associated with the disorder. NOTE: - Also provides information about comorbidity; the co-occurrence of two disorders.

Rorschach inkblot test

It is a series of symmetrical inkblot cards that are presented to a client by a psychologist. Upon presentation of each card, the psychologist asks the client, "What might this be?" What the test-taker sees reveals unconscious feelings and struggles. NOTE: • It has been standardized using the Exner system and is effective in measuring depression, psychosis, and anxiety. • Subject says what they associate with series or inkblots • Scorers pay attention to what part of the blot person attends to • Universal agreement in the scientific community that it is not very good • No one accepted a system for scoring and interpreting • No inter-rater reliability • Does not predict behavior or discriminate between groups • Likely to find normal adults and children to have a psychological disorder

How reliable is the Rorschach Inkblot Test?

It is not very reliable NOTE: - (ASK TEACHER)

What personality test was developed based on Jung's theory?

Jung's view of extroverted and introverted types serves as a basis of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). This questionnaire describes a person's degree of introversion versus extroversion, thinking versus feeling, intuition versus sensation, and judging versus perceiving.

What is personality?

Long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways NOTE: • The typical thoughts, behaviors, emotional responses of an individual • Individual's characteristic way of thinking, feeling, behavior • Relatively stable across time and situations • It is distinct, no one has the exact same personality as someone else • Your individuality, it was in part what makes you you

Who is most likely to complete?

Males are more likely to complete suicide than women, however, women are more likely to attempt suicide.

Growth vs. Deficiency Orientation

Problem is people have deficiency orientation - look for things to make them happy which makes life meaningless and boring Growth orientation - focus on what have and what can do; happier

Why would you either, projective test or objective test, over the other one

Projective Test: - Projective tests are less subject to intentional distortion; it is hard to fake "good" because it is not obvious what a "good" answer is. - Projective tests are more time-consuming for the evaluator than self-report inventories. - If an evaluator scores the Rorschach using the Exner scoring system, the test is considered a valid and reliable measure. However, the validity of the other projective tests is questionable, and the results are often not usable for court cases Objective Test: - Both reliable and valid - Asks clear, direct questions about a person's thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviors - Cheaper and more efficient than projective personality tests, can be administered in large groups and objectively score - Can compare to norm - Self-report and be true false or multiple choice

What is an anxiety disorder?

Psychological disorders are characterized by excessive and persistent fear and anxiety, and by related disturbances in behavior (APA, 2013). Excessive fear in the absence of true danger. NOTE: - They cause considerable distress. - Most common of all disorders (25% - 30% of the U.S. population matters the criteria for at least one anxiety disorder during their lifetime) - They are more common in women than they are in men. - They are often comorbid with other mental disorders. - Major Anxiety disorders: • Specific Phobias • Social Anxiety Disorders • Panic Disorder • Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

Latency Period

Psychosexual stage in which sexual feelings are dormant NOTE: - Following the phallic stage of psychosexual development is a period known as the latency period (6 years to puberty). - This period is not considered a stage, because sexual feelings are dormant as children focus on other pursuits, such as school, friendships, hobbies, and sports. - Children generally engage in activities with peers of the same sex, which serves to consolidate a child's gender-role identity.

Genital Stage

Psychosexual stage in which the focus is on mature sexual interests NOTE: - The final stage is the genital stage (from puberty on). In this stage, there is a sexual reawakening as the incestuous urges resurface. - The young person redirects these urges to other, more socially acceptable partners (who often resemble the other-sex parent). - People in this stage have mature sexual interests, which for Freud meant a strong desire for the opposite sex. - Individuals who successfully completed the previous stages, reaching the genital stage with no fixations, are said to be well-balanced, healthy adults.

Individual psychology

School of psychology proposed by Adler that focuses on our drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority NOTE: - Did not believe in separate components of personality at war. - It focuses on our drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority.

Id

The aspect of our personality that consists of our most primitive drives or urges, including impulses for hunger, thirst, and sex Principle: The pleasure principle, which demands immediate gratification of need Age: It is present from birth NOTE: - It contains our most primitive drives or urges, and is present from birth. - It directs impulses for hunger, thirst, and sex. - It seeks immediate gratification. - Principle: Pleasure. Every wishful impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences

Ego

The aspect of personality that represents the self, or the part of one's personality that is visible to others Principle: The reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways. Age: During the first three years of a child's life NOTE: - In contrast to the instinctual id and the rule-based superego. - It is the rational part of our personality. - "The self" - It is the part of our personality that is seen by others. - Its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego in the context of reality; thus, it operates on the "reality principle." The ego helps the id satisfy its desires in a realistic way.

Growth Orientation

people focus on deriving satisfaction from what they have. ( see Prominent Humanistic Theories) Example: Pedro is a developmental psychologist. He does not get paid as much as some people, but he loves his research.

What is free association?

say word or anything that comes to mind no matter how trivial, triggers a chain of thought that leads to the unconscious, can randomly go from one thought or emotion to another, free association reveals associations and connections that might not be discovered any other way; allows patient to retrieve and release memories that may be causing them pain NOTE: -

Maslow's self actualizing theory,

- Abraham Maslow, studied people whom he considered to be healthy, creative, and productive, he found that such people share similar characteristics, such as being open, creative, loving, spontaneous, compassionate, concerned for others, and accepting of themselves. - When you studied motivation, you learned about one of the best known humanistic theories, Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, in which Maslow proposes that human beings have certain needs in common and that these needs must be met in a certain order. - The highest need is the need for self-actualization, which is the achievement of our fullest potential. - Maslow differentiated between needs that motivate us to fulfill something that is missing and needs that inspire us to grow. - He believed that many emotional and behavioral concerns arise as a result of failing to meet these hierarchical needs. NOTE: - Positive mental health - Hierarchy of needs - Self-actualization was need, not just capacity; allows us pursue the greater good - Want peaks experiences; joy over fact alive and utilizing potential, at harmony with oneself feels more whole and alive - Problem is people have deficiency orientation- look for things to make them happy which makes life meaningless and boring - Growth orientation- focus on what have and what can do; happier - Google To Maslow, self-actualization is the ability to become the best version of oneself. Maslow stated, "This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming." Of course, we all hold different values, desires, and capacities. - Are the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy, and refer to the realization of a person's potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth, and peak experiences. Maslow (1943) describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be. - Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very specifically. For example, one individual may have a strong desire to become an ideal parent. In another, the desire may be expressed economically, academically, or athletically. For others, it may be expressed creatively, in painting, pictures, or inventions. - (CLASS)

Roger's condition of unconditional positive regard

- Accepting and valuing others regardless of the person's behaviors or beliefs, be positive towards the person - Often others provide love and support that is conditional; instead need others to accept us for who we are NOTE: - Parents can help their children achieve this by giving them unconditional positive regard, or unconditional love. - According to Rogers (1980), "As persons are accepted and prized, they tend to develop a more caring attitude towards themselves" (p. 116). - Conversely, when there is a great discrepancy between our ideal and actual selves, we experience a state Rogers called incongruence, which can lead to maladjustment. - Both Rogers's and Maslow's theories focus on individual choices and do not believe that biology is deterministic.

Anal

- After passing through the oral stage, children enter what Freud termed the anal stage (1-3 years). - In this stage, children experience pleasure in their bowel and bladder movements, so it makes sense that the conflict in this stage is over toilet training. - During this stage of development, children work to master control of themselves. - Freud suggested that success at the anal stage depended on how parents handled toilet training. - Parents who offer praise and rewards encourage positive results and can help children feel competent. - Parents who are harsh in toilet training can cause a child to become so fearful of soiling that they over-control and become fixated at the anal stage, leading to the development of an anal-retentive personality. - The anal-retentive personality is stingy and stubborn, has a compulsive need for order and neatness, and might be considered a perfectionist. - If parents are too lenient in toilet training, the child may fail to develop sufficient self-control, become fixated at this stage, and develop an anal-expulsive personality. - The anal-expulsive personality is messy, careless, disorganized, and prone to emotional outbursts

What is bi-polar (manic depression)?

- Alternate between depression and mania - Manic episode • Grandiose idea, pumped up self esteem • Lack of self-control • Urgent desire to talk • Little need for sleep • Racing thoughts and distractibility • Increased activity that may be directed to accomplishing a goal or expressed as agitation • A pleasure-seeking urge that might get expressed in overspending, sexual promiscuity or other schemes, most often with disastrous consequences • In bipolar 1 disorder may have hallucinations as well as severe thoughts disturbances • May require hospitalization during manic episode • Bipolar II disorder has less extreme mood elevations, depression might cause significant impairment NOTE: - Often experiences mood states that vacillate between depression and mania; that is, the person's mood is said to alternate from one emotional extreme to the other (in contrast to unipolar, which indicates a persistently sad mood. - To be diagnosed with bipolar disorder, a person must have experienced a manic episode at least once in his life; although major depressive episodes are common in bipolar disorder, they are not required for a diagnosis. - A manic episode is characterized as a "distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and abnormally and persistently increased activity or energy lasting at least one week," that lasts most of the time each day. - The person may talk loudly and rapidly, exhibiting flight of ideas, abruptly switching from one topic to another. These individuals are easily distracted, which can make a conversation very difficult. - During a manic episode, individuals usually feel as though they are not ill and do not need treatment. However, the reckless behaviors that often accompany these episodes—which can be antisocial, illegal, or physically threatening to others—may require involuntary hospitalization - More men more severe and strikes earlier than women - No gender differences in numbers - Onset late teens early adulthood - Highly comorbid with substance abuse and anxiety, around 66% smoke - High suicide rate, 36% attempt, 15-19% complete - Some argue that over diagnosed in adolescents; 1994- 20,000 cases, 2003 800,000 cases - DSM 5 added disruptive mood dysregulation disorder in order to reduce number of those diagnosed as teens (verbal or behavior temper outbursts)

Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder

- Characterized by recurring episodes of depersonalization, derealization, or both. - Depersonalization is defined as feelings of "unreality or detachment from, or unfamiliarity with, one's whole self or from aspects of the self." - Individuals who experience depersonalization might believe their thoughts and feelings are not their own; they may feel robotic as though they lack control over their movements and speech; they may experience a distorted sense of time and, in extreme cases, they may sense an "out-of-body" experience in which they see themselves from the vantage point of another person. - Derealization is conceptualized as a sense of "unreality or detachment from, or unfamiliarity with, the world, be it individuals, inanimate objects, or all surroundings." - A person who experiences derealization might feel as though he is in a fog or a dream, or that the surrounding world is somehow artificial and unreal. - Individuals with depersonalization/derealization disorder often have difficulty describing their symptoms and may think they are going crazy.

Mood disorders: What is depression?

- Depression is a vague term that, in everyday language, refers to an intense and persistent sadness. - Depression is a heterogeneous mood state—it consists of a broad spectrum of symptoms that range in severity. - Depressed people feel sad, discouraged, and hopeless. - These individuals lose interest in activities once enjoyed, often experience a decrease in drives such as hunger and sex, and frequently doubt personal worth. - Depressive disorders vary by degree.

Projective Test

- How does one measure the unconscious? - Projective tests are unstructured stimuli, such as a picture, that can be perceived in different ways, how one interprets supposedly reflects person's unconscious needs, desires, fantasies - NOT VALID OR RELIABLE; the only good thing is the person cannot guess the correct answer NOTE - This kind of test relies on one of the defense mechanisms proposed by Freud—projection—as a way to assess unconscious processes. - During this type of testing, a series of ambiguous cards is shown to the person being tested, who then is encouraged to project his feelings, impulses, and desires onto the cards—by telling a story, interpreting an image, or completing a sentence. - Many projective tests have undergone standardization procedures and can be used to access whether someone has unusual thoughts or a high level of anxiety, or is likely to become volatile. - Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB)- projective test that is similar to a word association test in which a person completes sentences in order to reveal their unconscious desires, fears, and struggles - Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks Test (C-TCB)- projective test designed to be culturally relevant to African Americans, using images that relate to African-American culture - TEMAS Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test- projective test designed to be culturally relevant to minority groups, especially Hispanic youths, using images and storytelling that relate to minority culture - Projective tests are less subject to intentional distortion; it is hard to fake "good" because it is not obvious what a "good" answer is. - Projective tests are more time-consuming for the evaluator than self-report inventories. - If an evaluator scores the Rorschach using the Exner scoring system, the test is considered a valid and reliable measure. However, the validity of the other projective tests is questionable, and the results are often not usable for court cases

Roger's condition of worth

- If parent does not approve of child's behavior may withhold true love and acceptance which makes the child adjust/abandon their true feelings, beliefs, desire so that parent will accept them, this creates a condition of worth, "I am only worthy of your love if I behave as you wish"; lose touch with true self - Parents should accept child no matter how child behaves in order to not create a condition of worth, when parent says "I love you when...." And the child does not do that, the child may believe must adjust behavior in order to be loved and accepted. NOTE: - One of Rogers's main ideas about personality regards self-concept, our thoughts and feelings about ourselves. - How would you respond to the question, "Who am I?" Your answer can show how you see yourself. ▪ If your response is primarily positive, then you tend to feel good about who you are, and you see the world as a safe and positive place. ▪ If your response is mainly negative, then you may feel unhappy with who you are. - Rogers further divided the self into two categories: the ideal self and the real self. The ideal self is the person that you would like to be; the real self is the person you actually are. - Rogers focused on the idea that we need to achieve consistency between these two selves. - We experience congruence when our thoughts about our real self and ideal self are very similar—in other words, when our self-concept is accurate. - High congruence leads to a greater sense of self-worth and a healthy, productive life. - Parents can help their children achieve this by giving them unconditional positive regard, or unconditional love.

Oral

- In the oral stage (birth to 1 year), pleasure is focused on the mouth. - Eating and the pleasure derived from sucking (nipples, pacifiers, and thumbs) play a large part in a baby's first year of life. - At around 1 year of age, babies are weaned from the bottle or breast, and this process can create conflict if not handled properly by caregivers. - According to Freud, an adult who smokes, drinks, overeats, or bites her nails is fixated in the oral stage of her psychosexual development; she may have been weaned too early or too late, resulting in these fixation tendencies, all of which seek to ease anxiety.

Somatic disorders

- Involves physical symptoms without physical cause - Conversion Disorder • Freud • Person has neurological symptoms that cannot be explained though medical cause - Illness Anxiety Disorder • Preoccupied with acquiring serious illness, excessive thoughts about illness - Somatic Symptom Disorder • May believe minor physical symptoms are serious medical condition, headache - brain cancer • Presence of symptoms with prominent pain or fatigue • Symptoms preoccupy and worry them - Factitious Disorder • Individual presents self of other (proxy) as being ill, impaired or injured NOTE: - Somatic Delusion - Belief that something highly unusual is happening to one's body or internal organs

Schizophrenia

- Means "split mind" - Do not confuse with dissociative identity disorder - Person struggle to know what is real and not real - Better premorbid adjustment better the ultimate prognosis - Severely disturbed thoughts, emotions, perceptions and beliefs - Cultural general disorder - Men and women equally - Usually begins late adolescents and early adulthood NOTE: - Schizophrenia is a devastating psychological disorder that is characterized by major disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior. - About 1% of the population experiences schizophrenia in their lifetime, and usually the disorder is first diagnosed during early adulthood (early to mid-20s). - Most people with schizophrenia experience significant difficulties in many day-to-day activities. - Frequent hospitalizations are more often the rule rather than the exception with schizophrenia. - First, schizophrenia is not a condition involving a split personality; that is, schizophrenia is not the same thing as dissociative identity disorder. - Schizophrenia is considered a psychotic disorder, or one in which the person's thoughts, perceptions, and behaviors are impaired to the point where they are not able to function normally in life. - The main symptoms of schizophrenia include hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, disorganized or abnormal motor behavior, and negative symptoms. - Tends to run in families - Have not identified a single gene, probably many genes - Identical twins are more likely than fraternal twins

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

- People with dissociative identity disorder exhibit two or more separate personalities or identities, each well-defined and distinct from one another. - They also experience memory gaps for the time during which another identity is in charge (e.g., one might find unfamiliar items in her shopping bags or among her possessions), and in some cases may report hearing voices, such as a child's voice or the sound of somebody crying - Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is highly controversial. Some believe that people fake symptoms to avoid the consequences of illegal actions. (Some do, but DID is a legitimate and serious disorder, and although some people may fake symptoms, others suffer their entire lives with it). - A second reason DID is controversial is because rates of the disorder suddenly skyrocketed in the 1980s. - About 95% of people with DID were physically and/or sexually abused as children - There is strong evidence that traumatic experiences can cause people to experience states of dissociation, suggesting that dissociative states —may serve as a psychologically important coping mechanism for threat and danger. NOTE: - Dissociative Identity Disorder - dissociative disorder (formerly known as multiple personality disorder) in which a person exhibits two or more distinct, well-defined personalities or identities and experiences memory gaps for the time during which another identity emerged - Each identity has own memories , wishes, and impulses - Can be different ages, genders, sexual orientation, interest and patterns of brain activity - Do not confuse with schizophrenia - Usually not violent - Sudden increase in diagnosis after movies Three Faces of Eve and Sybil - Most are women who report being severely abused as children - Individuals with DID do have common characteristics • Have experienced an event they would like to forget • Skilled users of self-hypnosis to induce trance like state • Escape trauma and stress by creating new personalities

Know the changes in DSM 5 as it relates to anxiety disorders and the new categories.

- Social phobia was renamed social anxiety disorder - Got rid of axis - Change classifications - OCD is no longer anxiety disorder - obsessive compulsive and related disorders - PTSD no longer anxiety disorder - trauma and related disorder - Added hoarding and binge eating - Mental Retardation now Intellectual Disability - Autism and Asperger's combined - Autism Spectrum Disorder - Criticism: • By definition, more people will qualify for label of disorder; over-diagnose or mid-diagnose; taking normal behavior and pathologizing it; grief-related depression • Labels can be stigmatizing NOTE: - A revised DSM comes out every 15 to 20 years. (It is still a work in progress as we do more research we have a better understanding of things better). - The problem is once you discover something you can't change it right away, you have to wait to form them to update the DSM. Changes: - OCD is now under obsessive-compulsive-related disorders. - PTSD is now under trauma and related disorders. - Anorexia's former criteria is the "loss of three menstrual cycles," yet they have removed this and added binge eating. - Changed terminology if it's being used in a negative way, such as "mental retardation" "hypochondriac" - The DSM-5 made it easier to diagnose someone with a disorder because they wanted them to be able to receive help as quickly as possible (even if the symptoms were minor) and have their insurance pay it for them. - But by doing this they took normal behavior and made it maladaptive. - Ex) Greif-related depression has been reduced to two months of depression of six months (although we know grief does not peek until six months). - Ex) Adolescents are being overly diagnosed with bipolar disorders. Yet, this is one of the few disorders that require life-long medication. As a result, young teenagers who take this have inferences with their cognitive development.

What are the major difference between the personality disorder clusters? (NOTE: you do not need to know which ones go in which cluster)

1. Cluster A 2. Cluster B 3. Cluster C NOTE: • Personality disorders exhibit a personality style that differs markedly from the expectations of their culture, is pervasive and inflexible, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment. • Generally, individuals with these disorders exhibit enduring personality styles that are extremely troubling and often create problems for them and those with whom they come into contact. • Inflexible and enduring pattern of behavior that impair social functioning, differ markedly form expectation from one's culture, cause distress to others; often interferes with ability to develop and maintain social relationships • Enduring and maladaptive personality trains • Controversial in that they appear to be extreme or exaggerated version of normal behavior • A lot of comorbidity; if have one likely to have another • Over 9% of the U.S. population suffers from a personality disorder,

What is the difference between the different types of dissociative amnesia, characteristics of those with dissociative identity disorder?

1. Dissociative Amnesia 2. Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder 3. Dissociative Identity Disorder

What criteria would psychologists use to label behavior as a disorder? - The Three "D"s

1. Dysfunction 2. Distress 3. Deviance

Big 5 Factors, what are they

1. Openness 2. Conscientiousness 3. Extroversion 4. Agreeableness 5. Neuroticism

What are the stages of Freud's psychosexual development? What happens in each? What happens if a person does not resolve?

1. Oral 2. Anal 3. Phallic 4. Latency 5. Genital

Which (of the personality disorder clusters) is the biggest problem from a public safety point of view?

Antisocial Personality Disorder

Deficiency Orientation

A deficiency orientation occurs when people are preoccupied with meeting needs for what they do not have. In other words, people focus on what is missing from their lives instead of what they have.

What is agoraphobia?

Anxiety disorder characterized by intense fear, anxiety, and avoidance of situations in which it might be difficult to escape if one experiences symptoms of a panic attack. NOTE: - A form of separation anxiety disorder. - These situations include public transportation, open spaces (parking lots), enclosed spaces (stores), crowds, or being outside the home alone. - Many people with panic disorder develop agoraphobia. - About 1.4% of Americans experience agoraphobia during their lifetime.

What are the major differences between Freud and neo-Freudians? What do they agree on and disagree on?

Accepted many of Freud's idea - Different parts of the personality; id, ego, and superego - Unconscious - Development of shaping of personality in childhood - Use of defense mechanisms Differed - Placed emphasis on role on conscious mind as well - Importance of social interactions; did not believe motivated mainly by sex and aggression NOTE: - neo-Freudians generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but deemphasized sex, focusing more on the social environment and effects of culture on personality. - Summary: The neo-Freudians were psychologists whose work followed from Freud's. They generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but they decreased the emphasis on sex and focused more on the social environment and effects of culture on personality. Some of the notable neo-Freudians are Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney. The neo-Freudian approaches have been criticized, because they tend to be philosophical rather than based on sound scientific research. For example, Jung's conclusions about the existence of the collective unconscious are based on myths, legends, dreams, and art. In addition, as with Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the neo-Freudians based much of their theories of personality on information from their patients.

Collective Unconscious

Common psychological tendencies have been passed down from one generation to the next. NOTE: - A universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory traces, which are common to all of us - (CLASS) NOTE: - Collective unconscious, a term introduced by psychiatrist Carl Jung to represent a form of the unconscious (that part of the mind containing memories and impulses of which the individual is not aware) common to mankind as a whole and originating in the inherited structure of the brain. -

Conscientiousness

Competence, self-discipline, thoughtfulness, goal-driven Low Score: Impulsive, careless, disorganized High Score: Hardworking, dependable, organized NOTE: - HIgh: Depnetbale, ethical, people can rely on you, you are hard-working, organized, and efficient. - Low: You are very impulsive.

Agreeableness

Cooperative, trustworthy, good-natured Low Score: Critical, uncooperative, suspicious High Score: Helpful, trusting, empathetic NOTE: - High: Soft-hearted, very cooperative, forgiving, warm, and compassionate. - Low: A little more ruthless, a little suspicious (sussy baka), and "you call it like you see it" (you aren't going to go out of your way to make someone feel good about themselves, you are very straight forward).

Cultural general disorders and cultural specific, know which two are found in every culture and the ones that are only found in specific cultures

Cultural General Disorders: see in all cultures • Depression • Schizophrenia Cultural Specific Disorders • Ataque de nervosa; Puerto Rico • Dissociative identity disorder; US - • taijin-kyofusho: Japan - NOTE: - Cultural General Disorders: a combination of psychiatric (brain) and somatic (body) symptoms that are considered to be a recognizable disease within all societies or cultures. - Cultural Specific Disorders: a combination of psychiatric (brain) and somatic (body) symptoms that are considered to be a recognizable disease only within a specific society or culture. - Ataque de nervosa - Uncontrollable screaming or shouting, crying, trembling, sensations of heat rising in the chest and head, dissociative experiences, and verbal or physical aggression. The reaction is usually associated with a stressful event relating to the family, although it is not specifically defined as arising from such occurrences. - Dissociative identity disorder - a mental health condition. Someone with DID has multiple, distinct personalities. The various identities control a person's behavior at different times. The condition can cause memory loss, delusions, or depression. DID is usually caused by past trauma. - taijin-kyofusho - an intense fear that one's body parts or functions displease, embarrass or are offensive to others.

Does the DSM 5 classify OCD as an anxiety disorder. If not how is it classified?

DSM-5 moved OCD out from under the Anxiety Disorder section, into a new category: Obsessive Compulsive and Related Disorders. Here, obsession's are defined by (1) and (2): Recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges, or images that are experienced, at some time during the disturbance, as intrusive and unwanted, and that in most individuals cause marked anxiety or distress.

What is the difference between cyclothymic and dysthymic?

Dysthymia often co-occurs with other mental disorders. A "double depression" is the occurrence of episodes of major depression in addition to dysthymia. While the switching between periods of dysthymic moods and periods of hypomanic moods is indicative of cyclothymia, which is a mild variant of bipolar disorder. NOTE: - Google: Dysthymia is a mild, chronic form of depression, while cyclothymia is a mild case of bipolar disorder and involves cycling between mild depression and mild mania. - (ASK TEACHER)

Are projective test or objective tests easier to compare the scores to other people?

Objective personality tests are super easy to administer, and way easier than projective tests which are very time consuming, not reliable or valid. NOTE: - A lot of the time you can take them online! - You can do a lot of people at the same time. - You can take a persons score and compare it for the norm of that job, people that age, etc,. - It can tell you a lot of information.

Archetype(s)

Patterns that exists in our collective unconscious across cultures and societies NOTE: - Ancestral Memories - Are represented by universal themes in various cultures, as expressed through literature, art, and dreams (Jung). - Jung said that these themes reflect common experiences of people the world over, such as facing death, becoming independent, and striving for mastery. - Jung believed that through biology, each person is handed down the same themes and that the same types of symbols—such as the hero, the maiden, the sage, and the trickster—are present in the folklore and fairy tales of every culture. - In Jung's view, the task of integrating these unconscious archetypal aspects of the self is part of the self-realization process in the second half of life. - With this orientation toward self-realization, Jung parted ways with Freud's belief that personality is determined solely by past events and anticipated the humanistic movement with its emphasis on self-actualization and orientation toward the future. NOTE: - In Jungian psychology, the archetypes represent universal patterns and images that are part of the collective unconscious. - Jung believed that we inherit these archetypes much in the way we inherit instinctive patterns of behavior.

Phallic Stage

Psychosexual stage in which the focus is on the genitals NOTE: ◾ Freud's third stage of psychosexual development is the phallic stage (3-6 years), corresponding to the age when children become aware of their bodies and recognize the differences between boys and girls. ◾ The erogenous zone in this stage is the genitals. ◾ Conflict arises when the child feels a desire for the opposite-sex parent, and jealousy and hatred toward the same-sex parent. ◾ Oedipus complex - For boys, this is called the Oedipus complex, involving a boy's desire for his mother and his urge to replace his father who is seen as a rival for the mother's attention. - At the same time, the boy is afraid his father will punish him for his feelings, so he experiences castration anxiety. T - The Oedipus complex is successfully resolved when the boy begins to identify with his father as an indirect way to have the mother. - Failure to resolve the Oedipus complex may result in fixation and development of a personality that might be described as vain and overly ambitious. ◾ Phallic Stage - Girls experience a comparable conflict in the phallic stage—the Electra complex. - The Electra complex, while often attributed to Freud, was actually proposed by Freud's protégé, Carl Jung (Jung & Kerenyi, 1963). - A girl desires the attention of her father and wishes to take her mother's place. - Jung also said that girls are angry with the mother for not providing them with a penis—hence the term penis envy. - While Freud initially embraced the Electra complex as a parallel to the Oedipus complex, he later rejected it, yet it remains as a cornerstone of Freudian theory, thanks in part to academics in the field.

How reliable and valid are projective tests?

RELIABILITY: Projective tests are unreliable for two reasons. 1. First, it is unclear whether what people say actually reflects anything meaningful about their psyche. Sometimes it might, often it doesn't, and it is often impossible to tell the difference. 2. Second, even if someone's responses do reflect something meaningful, the results are subject to the interpretation of the examiner. And thus these tests yield different results depending on who is interpreting them. VALIDITY: Validity is further compromised since it isn't clear what subjects' reports actually even reveal about their psyche

What is an inferiority complex?

Refers to a person's feelings that they lack worth and don't measure up to others' or to society's standards NOTE: - Refers to a person's feelings that they lack worth and don't measure up to others or to society's standards. - An inferiority complex refers to a person's feelings that they lack worth and don't measure up to the standards of others or of society. - Adler's ideas about inferiority represent a major difference between his thinking and Freud's. - Freud believed that we are motivated by sexual and aggressive urges, but Adler believed that feelings of inferiority in childhood are what drive people to attempt to gain superiority and that this striving is the force behind all of our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

Deviance

Refers to behavior that violates social norms or cultural expectations because culture determines what is normal. When a person is said to be deviant when he or she fails to follow the stated and unstated rules of society, called social norms. As you might expect there is a lot of cultural variation in acceptable behavior. NOTE: Statistically infrequent • Does it deviate from what the average person does • Problem with just using this is top athlete or genius would be considered abnormal Norm Violation Criterion • Break current rules or cultural behaviors • Standards of how should and should not behave • Acceptable behavior as defined by one's culture • Vary over time and generational differences

What is the difference between Schizophrenia and Dissociative Identity Disorder?

Schizophrenia is a condition marked by disturbances in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Dissociative disorders are characterized by problems with the continuity of memories, thoughts, identity, and actions that result in a disconnection from reality. NOTE: - (ASK TEACHER)

Extroversion

Sociability, assertiveness, emotional expression Low Score: Quite, Reserved, withdrawn High Score: Outgoing, warm, seeks adventure NOTE: - High: Very talkative, outgoing, gesturally expressive, and very active (do not like to sit still). - Low: More reserved, more tiring, quiet, and self-reflective.

Social Anxiety Disorders

Social Anxiety disorder • Intense fear of being evaluated negatively by others • Will avid social situations • Often begins in teen years • Shyness taken to an extreme • Can lead to agoraphobia; Fear of being separated from safe place or safe person Safety behaviors • mental and behavior acts designed to reduce anxiety in social situations by reducing the chance of negative social outcomes; common in social anxiety disorder • Examples of Safety Behavior • assuming roles in social situations that minimize interaction with others (e.g., taking pictures, setting up equipment, or helping prepare food) • asking people many questions to keep the focus off of oneself • selecting a position to avoid scrutiny or contact with others (sitting in the back of the room) • wearing bland, neutral clothes to avoid drawing attention to oneself NOTE: - It is characterized by extreme and persistent fear or anxiety and avoidance of social situations in which the person could potentially be evaluated negatively by others. - Social anxiety disorder is common in the United States; a little over 12% of all Americans experience social anxiety disorder during their lifetime. - The person with this disorder is concerned that they may act in a humiliating or embarrassing way, such as appearing foolish, showing symptoms of anxiety (blushing), or doing or saying something that might lead to rejection (such as offending others). - The kinds of social situations in which individuals with social anxiety disorder usually have problems include public speaking, having a conversation, meeting strangers, eating in restaurants, and, in some cases, using public restrooms. - Adults with this disorder are more likely to experience lower educational attainment and lower earnings, perform more poorly at work and are more likely to be unemployed, and report greater dissatisfaction with their family lives, friends, leisure activities, and income. - When people with social anxiety disorder are unable to avoid situations that provoke anxiety, they typically perform safety behaviors. - Safety behaviors include avoiding eye contact; rehearsing sentences before speaking; talking only briefly; not talking about oneself; assuming roles in social situations that minimize interactions with others, asking people many questions to keep the focus off of oneself; selecting a position to avoid scrutiny or contact with others; wearing bland neutral clothes to avoid drawing attention to oneself; avoiding substances or activities that might cause anxiety symptoms. - Although these behaviors are intended to prevent the person with social anxiety disorder from doing something awkward that might draw criticism, these actions usually exacerbate the problem because they do not allow the individual to disconfirm his negative beliefs, often eliciting rejection and other negative reactions from others.

Neuroticism

Tendency toward unstable emotions Low Score: Calm, even-tempered, secure High Score: Anxious, unhappy, prone to negative emotions NOTE: - High: Emotionally unstable, insecure, and anxious, you worry a lot, you get your feelings hurt a lot, you need people to treasure you, and overall, you are "very touchy." - Low: Very emotionally stable, very calm, very secure, and not very self-focused (but you do not worry a lot).

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2), why is it used?

The MMPI is a well-researched and respected test designed to help mental health professionals diagnose mental health disorders and conditions. It's a self-reporting inventory that evaluates where you fall on 10 scales related to different mental health disorders. NOTE: • 1 - 2 hours to complete • Most widely used objective personality inventory for diagnosing psychological disorders • 566 True False Questions • 10 clinical scales: hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviance (social deviance), masculinity versus femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia (obsessive/compulsive qualities), schizophrenia, hypomania, and social introversion. • 4 validity scales: "Cannot Say" Scale, Lie Scale, Infrequency Scale, Defefensiveness Scale • Use norms to represent culture, age, gender, etc. • It was originally developed to assist in the clinical diagnosis of psychological disorders, it is now also used for occupational screening, such as in law enforcement, and in college, career, and marital counseling

Assumptions of trait approach

Trait theorists believe personality can be understood via the approach that all people have certain traits, or characteristic ways of behaving NOTE: - Defines personality in terms of identifiable behavior patterns - Does not explain personality; only describes; people can be described by the way that they behave - Focus on the present; not in the why - 3 basic assumptions 1. Personality remain stable and predictable over time 2. Personality remains stable across situations 3. Each person is unique in terms of their personality - Gordon Allport (1936) 4500 words that could describe people (three kinds: cardinal, central and secondary traits). - Cardinal traits are not very common: Few people have personalities dominated by a single trait. Instead, our personalities typically are composed of multiple traits. - Central traits are those that make up our personalities (such as loyal, kind, agreeable, friendly, sneaky, wild, and grouchy). - Secondary traits are those that are not quite as obvious or as consistent as central traits. They are present under specific circumstances and include preferences and attitudes. - Raymond Cattell (1946, 1957) narrowed down the list to 171 (16 factors or dimensions) - 16 factors or dimensions of personality: warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, dominance, liveliness, rule-consciousness, social boldness, sensitivity, vigilance, abstractedness, privateness, apprehension, openness to change, selfreliance, perfectionism, and tension - He developed a personality assessment based on these 16 factors, called the 16PF. Instead of a trait being present or absent, each dimension is scored over a continuum, from high to low. - Hans and Sybil Eysenck (1963) two personality dimensions: extroversion/introversion and neuroticism/stability - They focused on temperament, the inborn, genetically based personality differences - pPeople high on the trait of extroversion are sociable and outgoing, and readily connect with others, whereas people high on the trait of introversion have a higher need to be alone, engage in solitary behaviors, and limit their interactions with others. - In the neuroticism/stability dimension, people high on neuroticism tend to be anxious; they tend to have an overactive sympathetic nervous system and, even with low stress, their bodies and emotional state tend to go into a flight-or-fight reaction. In contrast, people high on stability tend to need more stimulation to activate their flight-or-fight reaction and are considered more emotionally stable. - Based on these two dimensions, the Eysencks' theory divides people into four quadrants. - Psychoticism versus superego control. In this dimension, people who are high on psychoticism tend to be independent thinkers, cold, nonconformists, impulsive, antisocial, and hostile, whereas people who are high on superego control tend to have high impulse control—they are more altruistic, empathetic, cooperative, and conventional.

What is a defense mechanism, why do they develop?

Unconscious protective behaviors designed to reduce ego anxiety NOTE: - It is the way the ego attempts to reduce anxiety, unconsciously distorts reality, today viewed as a way to protect self-esteem - Unconscious protective behaviors that aim to reduce anxiety - The ego, usually conscious, resorts to unconscious strivings to protect the ego from being overwhelmed by anxiety. - When we use defense mechanisms, we are unaware that we are using them. - Further, they operate in various ways that distort reality. - According to Freud, we all use ego defense mechanisms. - Overuse of them may be problematic. - Repression - ego defense mechanism in which anxiety-related thoughts and memories are kept in the unconscious - Reaction Formation - ego defense mechanism in which a person confronted with anxiety swaps unacceptable urges or behaviors for their opposites - Regression - ego defense mechanism in which a person confronted with anxiety returns to a more immature behavioral state - Projection - ego defense mechanism in which a person confronted with anxiety disguises their unacceptable urges or behaviors by attributing them to other people - Rationalization - ego defense mechanism in which a person confronted with anxiety makes excuses to justify behavior - Displacement - ego defense mechanism in which a person transfers inappropriate urges or behaviors toward a more acceptable or less threatening target - Sublimation - ego defense mechanism in which unacceptable urges are channeled into more appropriate activities

Which group is the mostly likely to commit suicide?

White males are more likely to commit suicide. NOTE: - Caucasians

Has there been an increase in the last 20 years with adolescents being diagnosed with bi-polar?

YES. Some argue that over-diagnosed in adolescents; 1994- 20,000 cases, 2003 800,000 cases NOTE: - (ASK TEACHER)

Mood disorders: Is it ever ok to be depressed? When is it considered abnormal?

Yes, it is okay to be depressed, however, it is considered abnormal once it becomes more-severer. The defining symptoms of major depressive disorder include "depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day" (feeling sad, empty, hopeless, or appearing tearful to others), and loss of interest and pleasure in usual activities. In addition to feeling overwhelmingly sad most of each day, people with depression will no longer show interest or enjoyment in activities that previously were gratifying. To receive a diagnosis of major depressive disorder, one must experience a total of five symptoms for at least a two-week period (significant weight loss; difficulty falling asleep or sleeping too much; psychomotor agitation; fatigue or loss of energy; feeling of worthlessness or guilt; difficulty concentrating and indecisiveness; suicidal ideation); these symptoms must cause significant distress or impair normal functioning, and they must not be caused by substances or a medical condition.

What does the DSM-5 Not do?

does not suggest specific causes of any disorder unless a cause can be definitely established

Who is most likely to attempt suicide?

• 5 times greater risk for attempting suicide if have been depressed • Rates differ by gender, age, ethnicity • Suicide is top three causes of death for those 15-24 • Women attempt 3x more and men commit more; different methods • People who talk about suicide at greater risk • Older, white males group most likely to commit suicide; support NOTE: • Also, individuals with alcohol dependence are at a 10x greater risk for suicide than the general population. • The risk of suicidal behavior is especially high among those who have made a prior suicide attempt. (Among those who attempt suicide, 16% make another attempt within a year and over 21% make another attempt within four years) • Those who withdrawal from social relationships, feeling as though one is a burden to others, engaging in reckless and risk-taking behaviors. • Those who are being cyberbullied. • Those who witness (or hear about) another person committing suicided. (Media coverage of celebrity suicides is more than 14 times more likely to trigger copycat suicides than is coverage of non-celebrity suicides). • People with lower levels of serotonin present in the brain are more likely to engage in suicidal behaviors, aggression, and impulsivity. (Serotonin dysfunction).

Cluster B- dramatic/overly emotional thinking or behavior

• Antisocial Personality Disorder - Continuously violates the rights of others; history of antisocial tendencies prior to age 15; often lies, fights, and has problems with the law; impulsive and fails to think ahead; can be deceitful and manipulative in order to gain profit or pleasure; irresponsible and often fails to hold down a job or pay financial debts; lacks feelings for others and remorse over misdeeds • Borderline Personality Disorder - Unstable in self-image, mood, and behavior; cannot tolerate being alone and experiences chronic feelings of emptiness; unstable and intense relationships with others; behavior is impulsive, unpredictable, and sometimes self-damaging; shows inappropriate and intense anger; makes suicidal gestures • Narcissistic Personality Disorder - Overinflated and unjustified sense of self-importance and preoccupied with fantasies of success; believes he is entitled to special treatment from others; shows arrogant attitudes and behaviors; takes advantage of others; lacks empathy • Histrionic Personality Disorder - Excessively overdramatic, emotional, and theatrical; feels uncomfortable when not the center of others' attention; behavior is often inappropriately seductive or provocative; speech is highly emotional but often vague and diffuse; emotions are shallow and often shift rapidly; may alienate friends with demands for constant attention

Panic Disorder

• Anxiety suddenly escalates into terrifying panic attacks; usually peaks around 10 minutes, can last 20-30 minutes, rarely last longer than an hour • Symptoms are both physiological and psychological • Heart palpitations, dizziness, chest pains, shortness of breath, abdominal distress or nausea; feels like dying • Can lead to agoraphobia • Fear of having an attack can trigger an attack • May misinterpret bodily symptoms NOTE: - People with panic disorder experience recurrent (more than one) and unexpected panic attacks, along with at least one month of persistent concern about additional panic attacks, worry over the consequences of the attacks, or self-defeating changes in behavior related to the attacks (e.g., avoidance of exercise or unfamiliar situations). - A panic attack is defined as a period of extreme fear or discomfort that develops abruptly and reaches a peak within 10 minutes. Its symptoms include accelerated heart rate, sweating, trembling, choking sensations, hot flashes or chills, dizziness or lightheadedness, fears of losing control or going crazy, and fears of dying. - Sometimes panic attacks are expected, occurring in response to specific environmental triggers; other times, these episodes are unexpected and emerge randomly. - According to the DSM-5, the person must experience unexpected panic attacks to qualify for a diagnosis of panic disorder. - Experiencing a panic attack is often terrifying. - Rather than recognizing the symptoms of a panic attack merely as signs of intense anxiety, individuals with panic disorder often misinterpret them as a sign that something is intensely wrong internally (thinking, for example, that the pounding heart represents an impending heart attack). - Unsurprisingly, those with panic disorder fear future attacks and may become preoccupied with modifying their behavior in an effort to avoid future panic attacks. - NOTE: Panic attacks themselves are not mental disorders.

Cluster C- anxious/fearful thinking or behavior

• Avoidant Personality Disorder - Socially inhibited and oversensitive to negative evaluation; avoids occupations that involve interpersonal contact because of fears of criticism or rejection; avoids relationships with others unless guaranteed to be accepted unconditionally; feels inadequate and views self as socially inept and unappealing; unwilling to take risks or engage in new activities if they may prove embarrassing • Dependent Personality Disorder - Allows others to take over and run her life; is submissive, clingy, and fears separation; cannot make decisions without advice and reassurance from others; lacks self-confidence; cannot do things on her own; feels uncomfortable or helpless when alone • Obsessive-compulsive Personality Disorder - Pervasive need for perfectionism that interferes with the ability to complete tasks; preoccupied with details, rules, order, and schedules; excessively devoted to work at the expense of leisure and friendships; rigid, inflexible, and stubborn; insists things be done his way; miserly with money

Different treatments for disorders in the past.

• Belief in demonic possessions • Trephination • Bloodletting and purging • Drugs- used to sedate not treat • Henry Cotton - infections, removed teeth, tonsils, gall bladder, parts of stomach, colon • Julius Wagner-Jauregg - induced fevers by injecting with malaria infected blood; 15% died, won Nobel prize 1927 • Insulin shock therapies • Lobotomies • Supernatural- describes a force beyond scientific understanding • Supernatural Perspective- for centuries this is what people thought about mental illness. That the person was afflicted were thought to be practitioners of black magic or possessed by spirits. • In The Extraction of the Stone of Madness, a 15th century painting by Hieronymus Bosch, a practitioner is using a tool to extract an object (the supposed "stone of madness") from the head of an afflicted person. • Asylums were the first institutions created for the specific purpose of housing people with psychological disorders, but the focus was ostracizing them from society rather than treating their disorders. - Philippe Pinel argued for more human treatment of the mentally ill. • Deinstitutionalization the closing of large asylums, by providing for people to stay in their communities and be treated locally - Dorothea Dix lead reform efforts for mental health care in the U.S.

What is the norm violation criterion?

• Break current rules or cultural behaviors • Standards of how should and should not behave • Acceptable behavior as defined by one's culture • Vary over time and generational difference

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

• Excessive and long lasting anxiety that is not focused on any particular object or situation • Freud called it free floating anxiety • Always on edged • If worry less likely to occur • Less common after 50 • The presence of excessive anxiety and worry about a variety of topics, events, or activities. Worry occurs more often than not for at least 6 months and is clearly excessive. • The worry is experienced as very challenging to control. The worry in both adults and children may easily shift from one topic to another. • The anxiety and worry are accompanied with at least three of the following physical or cognitive symptoms (In children, only one symptom is necessary for a diagnosis of GAD): • Edginess or restlessness • Tiring easily; more fatigued than usual • Impaired concentration or feeling as though the mind goes blank • Irritability (which may or may not be observable to others) • Increased muscle aches or soreness • Difficulty sleeping (due to trouble falling asleep or staying asleep, restlessness at night, or unsatisfying sleep) NOTE: - Generalized anxiety disorder: a relatively continuous state of excessive, uncontrollable, and pointless worry and apprehension. - People with generalized anxiety disorder often worry about routine, everyday things, even though their concerns are unjustified. - A diagnosis of generalized anxiety disorder requires that the diffuse worrying and apprehension characteristic of this disorder (free-floating) is not part of another disorder, occurs more days than not for at least six months, and is accompanied by any three of the following symptoms: restlessness, difficulty concentrating, being easily fatigued, muscle tension, irritability, and sleep difficulties. - About 5.7% of the U.S. population will develop symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder during their lifetime. - Females are 2 times more likely as males to experience the disorder. - Generalized anxiety disorder is highly comorbid with mood disorders and other anxiety disorders, and it tends to be chronic. - Also, generalized anxiety disorder appears to increase the risk for heart attacks and strokes, especially in people with preexisting heart conditions.

What is Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)?

• Individual experiences or witnesses terrifying event • Symptoms may appear within month after event but in some cases it is years later • Females 2 times more likely to experience • Frequent recurrent, involuntary, and intrusive distressing memories of the traumatic event • Recurrent distressing dreams in which the content and/or affect of the dream are related to the traumatic event; may lead to insomnia • Dissociative reactions (e.g., flashbacks) in which the individual feels or acts as if the traumatic event(s) were recurring. (rare) • Social withdrawal, hypervigilance • Self-medicating • Avoidance of trauma-related stimuli Risk Factors for PTSD • trauma experience (greater trauma severity) • lack of immediate social support • more subsequent life stress • Traumatic events that involve harm by others vs. ones that do not. • female gender, low socioeconomic status, low intelligence, personal history of mental disorders, history of childhood adversity Support for Sufferers of PTSD- • Social Support (Comfort, advice, and assistance from others) Learning and the development of PTSD • Classical Conditioning • Two key processes are crucial: disturbances in memory for the event, and negative appraisals of the trauma and its aftermath NOTE: - Listed among a group called Trauma-and-Stressor-Related Disorders in the DSM-5. - Symptoms of PTSD include intrusive and distressing memories of the event, flashbacks (states that can last from a few seconds to several days, during which the individual relives the event and behaves as if the event were occurring at that moment), avoidance of stimuli connected to the event, persistently negative emotional states (e.g., fear, anger, guilt, and shame), feelings of detachment from others, irritability, proneness toward outbursts, and an exaggerated startle response (jumpiness). - For PTSD to be diagnosed, these symptoms must occur for at least one month. - Roughly 7% of adults in the United States, including 9.7% of women and 3.6% of men, experience PTSD in their lifetime, with higher rates among people exposed to mass trauma and people whose jobs involve duty-related trauma exposure e (e.g., police officers, firefighters, and emergency medical personnel).

Objective test

• Need to be both reliable and valid • Ask clear, direct questions about person's thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviors • Cheaper and more efficient than projective personality tests, can be administered in large groups and objectively score •Can compare to norm Self-report and be true false or multiple choice NOTE: - Self-report inventories are a kind of objective test used to assess personality. - They typically use multiplechoice items or numbered scales, which represent a range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). They often are called Likert scales after their developer, Rensis Likert (1932) (Figure 11.16). Self-report inventories are generally easy to administer and cost effective. There is also an increased likelihood of test takers being inclined to answer in ways that are intentionally or unintentionally more socially desirable, exaggerated, biased, or misleading. For example, someone applying for a job will likely try to present themselves in a positive light, perhaps as an even better candidate than they actually are.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder OCD (know the difference between obsessions and compulsions) How does each contribute to anxiety (increase or decrease)

• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) -characterized by the tendency to experience intrusive and unwanted thoughts and urges (obsession) and/or the need to engage in repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions) in response to the unwanted thoughts and urges • Obsession increase anxiety compulsions decrease anxiety; get into cycle that is difficult to stop Common obsessions • Cleaning • Counting; symmetry • Fear of something terrible happening • Religious obsessions • Concern about germs and contamination • Order and symmetry • Urges that are aggressive or lustfully Common Compulsions • Washing; Excessive grooming, hand washing, bathing, etc. • Checking; doors, window, locks, stove, • Repeated rituals; knocking, twisting door know, getting up from chair • Repeated and extensive hand washing, cleaning and checking • Ordering • Counting, praying, or reciting something to oneself. Other OCD-related disorders • Trichotillomania - A compulsive desire to pull out one's hair. • Excoriation disorder - It is characterized by repeated picking at one's own skin which results in skin lesions and causes significant disruption in one's life. • Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders - Group of overlapping disorders listed in the DSM-5 that involves intrusive, unpleasant thoughts and/or repetitive behaviors • Body Dysmorphic Disorder - Involves excessive preoccupation with an imagined defect in physical appearance • Hoarding disorder - characterized by persistent difficulty in parting with possessions, regardless of their actual value or usefulness NOTE: - OCD is no longer anxiety disorder - obsessive compulsive and related disorders - Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders are a group of overlapping disorders that generally involve intrusive, unpleasant thoughts and repetitive behaviors. - Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders elevate the unwanted thoughts and repetitive behaviors to a status so intense that these cognitions and activities disrupt daily life. - Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) - experience thoughts and urges that are intrusive and unwanted (obsessions) and/or the need to engage in repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions). A person with this disorder might, for example, spend hours each day washing his hands or constantly checking and rechecking to make sure that a stove, faucet, or light has been turned off. - Body dysmorphic disorder is preoccupied with a perceived flaw in physical appearance that is either nonexistent or barely noticeable to other people. These perceived physical defects cause people to think they are unattractive, ugly, hideous, or deformed. These preoccupations can focus on any bodily area, but they typically involve the skin, face, or hair. The preoccupation with imagined physical flaws drives the person to engage in repetitive and ritualistic behavioral and mental acts, such as constantly looking in the mirror, trying to hide the offending body part, comparisons with others, and, in some extreme cases, cosmetic surgery. - Hoarding disorder cannot bear to part with personal possessions, regardless of how valueless or useless these possessions are. As a result, these individuals accumulate excessive amounts of usually worthless items that clutter their living areas. Often, the quantity of cluttered items is so excessive that the person is unable use his kitchen, or sleep in his bed. People who suffer from this disorder have great difficulty parting with items because they believe the items might be of some later use, or because they form a sentimental attachment to the items.

What are the characteristics of anti-social personality disorder?

• Once called psychopath or sociopath • Cannot diagnose until 18 but in order to diagnose must show could have been diagnosed with conduct disorder • Lack of remorse, conscious evident before age of 15 • Feel little and fear little • Most who are diagnosed with antisocial are not con-artist are serial killers, but many killers and con-artists could be diagnosed with ASPD • Make terrible spouses and workers NOTE: - Antisocial personality disorder shows no regard at all for other people's rights or feelings. - This lack of regard is exhibited a number of ways and can include repeatedly performing illegal acts, lying to or conning others, impulsivity and recklessness, irritability and aggressiveness toward others, and failure to act in a responsible way (e.g., leaving debts unpaid). - The worst part about antisocial personality disorder, however, is that people with this disorder have no remorse over their misdeeds; these people will hurt, manipulate, exploit, and abuse others and not feel any guilt. - People with antisocial personality disorder seem to view the world as self-serving and unkind. - They seem to think that they should use whatever means necessary to get by in life. - They tend to view others not as living, thinking, feeling beings, but rather as pawns to be used or abused for a specific purpose. - They often have an over-inflated sense of themselves and can appear extremely arrogant. - They frequently display superficial charm; - They lack empathy: they are incapable of understanding the emotional point-of view of others. - People with this disorder may become involved in illegal enterprises, show cruelty toward others, leave their jobs with no plans to obtain another job, have multiple sexual partners, repeatedly get into fights with others, and show reckless disregard for themselves and others. - Antisocial personality disorder is observed in about 3.6% of the population; the disorder is much more common among males, with a 3 to 1 ratio of men to women, and it is more likely to occur in men who are younger, widowed, separated, divorced, of lower socioeconomic status, who live in urban areas, and who live in the western United States. - Family, twin, and adoption studies suggest that both genetic and environmental factors influence the development of antisocial personality disorder, as well as general antisocial behavior (criminality, violence, aggressiveness). - Development of antisocial behavior is determined by the interaction of genetic factors and adverse environmental circumstances. - Antisocial tendencies do not seem to experience emotions the way most other people do (fail to show fear in response to environment cues that signal punishment, pain, or noxious stimulation).

Cluster A- odd eccentric thinking or behavior

• Paranoid Personality Disorder - Harbors a pervasive and unjustifiable suspiciousness and mistrust of others; reluctant to confide in or become close to others; reads hidden demeaning or threatening meaning into benign remarks or events; takes offense easily and bears grudges; not due to schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders • Schizoid Personality Disorder - Lacks interest and desire to form relationships with others; aloof and shows emotional coldness and detachment; indifferent to approval or criticism of others; lacks close friends or confidants; not due to schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders, not an autism spectrum disorder • Schizoptypal Personality Disorder - Exhibits eccentricities in thought, perception, emotion, speech, and behavior; shows suspiciousness or paranoia; has unusual perceptual experiences; speech is often idiosyncratic; displays inappropriate emotions; lacks friends or confidants; not due to schizophrenia or other psychotic disorder, or to autism spectrum disorder

Types of anxiety disorders (know what happens in each):

• Specific Phobias • Social Anxiety Disorders • Panic Disorder • Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)