Islamic History Exam #2

Four Sources of Law

1. The Qur'an, 2. The Hadith 3. Analogy 4. Consensus When determining the implementation of a new law or punishment of a crime, the Qur'an and Hadith would be referenced for any direct precedent or example matching the situation. If there was no direct parallel, an analogy would be created using the Hadith and Qur'an. Anything within the Qur'an or Hadith that had strong parallels with the modern case would be compared in order to find the most similar crime and institute a similar punishment. Finally, the Madhabs would debate the validity of the proposed analogy and come to a consensus approving or rejecting the proposed change or addition to the law. The use of these four sources of law would become the basis of Islamic Jurisprudence and Sharia Law.

Sunni

A branch of Islam whose members acknowledge the first four caliphs as the rightful successors of Muhammad. According to Sunni traditions, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and the Muslim community acted according to his sunnah in electing his father-in-law Abu Bakr as the first caliph. Sunni Muslims constituted 87-90% of the world's Muslim population.

Sunna of the Prophet

"the custom of the prophet"; the actions and teachings of Muhammad. These customs are examples on how Muslims should live their life by. The Sunna is a part of the Hadith; which is one of the four sources of Islamic law, next to the Qur'an, Analogy, and Consensus. The earlier jurists had sought guidance from the sunna of the first generation of Muslims, assuming that it ultimately derived from the example of the Prophet Muhammad. Now, their successors explicitly sought only the Prophet's words and deeds. Those who followed the Sunna and sough guidance from it where known as ahl al-sunna wa al-jama'a, which translates to "People of the Sunna and of the Community." They collected reports and traditions of the Prophet's declarations and urged that the Qur'an and the Sunna be the sole standards for legal practice.

Pillars of Iman

1. Belief in the Oneness of God 2. Belief in the Angels of God 3. Belief in the Divine Revelations (Books) 4. Belief in the Prophets of God 5. Belief in Resurrection after Death and the Day of Judgment and 6. Belief in Preordainment (Qadar)

Five Pillars of Islam

1. Declaration of faith (Shahada) 2. Ritual Prayer (Salat) 3. Almsgiving (Zakat) 4. Fasting (Sawm) 5. Pilgrimage (Hajj)

Abbasid Revolution

A civil war that took place in 750; this revolution ousted the Umayyads and raised the Abbasid to the caliphate; the Abbasids found support in the Sh'ites and non-Arabs that had been excluded from Umayyad government and the center of the Islamic state shifted from Damascus to Baghdad. The overthrow of the Umayyad dynasty as the split between the Islamic world divided into two secs, the Sunnis (Umayyads) and the Shia. The Shia believed that relatives of the prophet, Muhammad, should take the place of caliph over the Umma (Islamic community) and opposed the Umayyad rule. The Umayyads also faced criticisms as there rising of social issues within the Arab and non-Arab within the community. The Abbasid (shia) claimed to be descendants of Muhhamad and planned to use propaganda to overthrow the Umayyads. Others secs favored Abbasid ruling and supported the removal of the Umayyads. The Abbasids and the Umayyads fought in 750 after multiple revolt attacks in the 740s . The Abbasid army killed almost the entire Umayyad royal family and resumed power over the Muslim world.

Battle of Siffin

A clash between the supporters of Ali and Mu'awiya. This would have been the first main battle of this conflict, with only skirmishes between the two sides occurring in the months preceding the battle. before both of their armies clashed however, Mu'awiya's army asked Ali for arbitration of the issues that divided the two men. Ali agreed to the arbitration because the majority of soldiers on both sides of the conflict did not want to shed the blood of fellow Muslims. This was an important event because if both armies clashed, it would have been a decisive victory for the winning side. There was a group in Ali's army that viewed Ali's concession as uncharacteristic of a true caliph, choosing to defect from Ali's army and become the Kharijites, becoming one of the most feared and hated sects of Islam

Dhikr

A devotional practice or the ritual recollection or remembering of the name of God utilize by Sufis. Many worshipers simply chanted "Allah" repetitively , others chanted the formula "There is no god but God", and some would also recite the ninety-nine names of God perhaps aided by a rosary. Others also utilize more complex invocation that was accompanied by movements of the body, rhythmic breathing, or even music. The purpose of the dhikr was to provide a focus for the soul to fix its gaze upon God and to free itself from the distraction of the world. The prayer reflected the idea that the name of God is scared and that the act of invoking it in so,e sense entails contact with the divine.

Idrisids

A dynasty of Muslim rulers in modern day Morocco that brought about great change and development in the region before the Fatimids. It all started with the arrival of Idris ibn 'Abdullah in the 780s. An Alid originally from Mecca and a Zaydi Shi'ite, it is uncertain whether or not he was a refugee fleeing Abbasid persecution or a missionary working in in the area. Idris was able to secure a sizable amount of Berber support and took the city of Tlemcen in 790. He controlled most of the interior of northern Morocco the following year but died. His son Idris II, who was born a few months after the death of his father and was accepted as ruler at the age of eleven, ruled for two decades over lands stretching from Tlemcen to the Sous River in southern Morocco. From his new capital of Fez, Idris II welcomed a surge of Shi'ite Arabs from Iberia and Qayrawan after their unsuccessful revolts against Sunni rulers. When Idris II died in 828, his capital was largely Arabized and became not only the dominant city of the region but also challenged Qayrawan as the center of Islamic learning in North Africa with the construction of two mosques. However, towns recognized the authority of Idris II would be split between his sons and Morocco would become a collection of feuding principalities in the years to follow.

Mu'tazilites

A group of Muslim scholars from one of the many existing schools of law (madhhab) who believed that the human mind was capable of distinguishing good acts from bad acts with reasoning, rather than revelation. This school of thought, like many others, had been influenced by its local customs and values, drawing on Greek philosophy which had been popular within the area. The Caliph al-Ma'mun supported the Mu'tazilite way of thinking and ordered all government officials and workers to adhere to their teachings. However, many people, such as Ahmad ibn Hanbal, refused to adhere to this schools practices, for it placed more emphasis on the logical reasoning of humans rather than the Qur'an. As a result, Hanbal's followers became known as Hanbalis, who argued that acts are determined to be good or bad by God's decree.

Waliba ibn al-Hubab

A master poet who died in 786. The first person to teach Abu Nuwas. Abu Nuwas was born in Persia in 757 and memorized the Qur'an at an early age. Abu Nuwas then went to Kufa, where he was taught by Waliba. Waliba is said to be the one who taught Abu Nuwas about two men in a relationship, and it is thought that Waliba and Abu Nuwas were in a relationship themselves. Abu Nuwas would use what he learned from Waliba and integrate it into his own poetry. For example, a major part of Abu Nuwas' poetry was his affections for young, beardless men, also known as Ghulam. After being taught by Waliba in Kufa, Abu Nuwas returned to Basra. There, Abu Nuwas would continue to study under Khalaf al- Ahmar.

Mahdi

A messiah figure that would reveal himself to the world on judgment day in order to bring justice and eliminate the wickedness and oppression that exists. The literal translation is "guided one" but in a religious context this word roughly translates to "guided by God". By the first few decades of Islamic history, informal practices were created promoting the notion that the end of history would be brought forward by a Muslim Mahdi and Jesus. Yet there were variations to this idea. Some claimed that Jesus would appear before the Mahdi while others supported the thought that the Mahdi would come before Jesus. There were even claims that the Mahdi was Jesus himself. Several Muslims throughout history believed that the Mahdi was present in their lifetime; the Umayyad caliph Sulayman (reigned 715-717) supported the view that he was the Mahdi while numerous religious scholars believed that his successor, 'Umar II (r. 717-720), was the Mahdi and Mukhtar claimed that Ibn al-Hanafiya was the Mahdi in his rebellion against the Umayyad in Kufa (685-687). The belief in the Mahdi would become an important part of Shi'ism however it would only be a rather small feature of Sunni doctrine.

Rawi

A professional reciter of poetry. Preserved Islamic poetry orally until it was written down. They would memorize and learn the poems by heart. Then they would recite and explain the poems in front of an audience. Known for having great memories, and they were sought after in order to preserve the language and style of poetry of that time. But using their memory was not the best method and sometimes the poems would be changed and would have differences when compared later on. A famous rawi was Khalaf al-Ahmar, who worked with Abu Nuwas an important poet from that time.

Zanj Rebellion

A series of revolts by slaves working on sugar plantations in Mesopotamia, led by Ali bin Muhammad. Occurred in southern Iraq during the late ninth century. Driven by the horrible conditions which slaves worked harvesting in the region's extensive and virtually impenetrable marches.

Dar al-Islam

A term used by Muslims to refer to those countries where Muslims can practice their religion freely. Translates to the "realm of Islam" in English. This realm was comprised of various regions around the world that were under the control of Muslims. The areas in this realm were not required to have a majority Islamic population as Islam was still a minority in many areas in the early centuries and were instead included because Islamic values were upheld and protected in those areas. The areas that were not part the dar al-islam were referred to as the dar al-harb ("realm of war") and dar al-kufr ("realm of unbelief"). The leftover areas are known as the realm of war because the Quran instructs believers to struggle, and even fight, against the kufr (unbelievers).

Ghulam

A young male slave like figure that was beardless. The coming of a beard was considered to be the making of a man and in many traditions, at this time the beard would not be shaved. Abu Nuwas preferred them, but still had temptations to go for others that had beards. He believed that the young men not having their beards was more valuable to their youth

Nawbakht Family

Abu Nuwas was a great poet during the Abbasid reign in Baghdad. He and his poetry was supported by many powerful and wealthy families in different cities throughout the Islamic communities. He was supported by one family in particular that helped spread his poetry greatly, the Nawbakht family. The Nawbakht's were known to be his most loyal and supportive family of his poetry, financially and as a person as well. Abu Nuwas was close with four of the sons, Abdallah, al-Fadl, Sulayman and al-Hasan. The sons and Abu Nuwas often drank together and were good friends. The Nawbakht family is a huge reason why Abu Nuwas poetry continued to spread even after his death. Although, it is said to be that they are also the reason for his death. Abu Nuwas wrote a poem criticizing the family and they ended up imprisoning him and poisoning him. After the support they gave him, they felt betrayed. Although, they firmly believe in his work and continued to help spread it and help his poems become more popular, such as Arabian Nights. The Nawbakht family greatly contributed and impacted Abu Nuwas poetry and the spread of it, their role is crucial in his story.

Kharajites (al-kharaji)

Ali's most radical group of supporters. A minority group of Shii extremists who believed the caliph should be the most devout muslim and not those who wanted power. Broke away from Ummah, reenacting prophet's hijrah. They turned against Ali eventually and murdered him. Caused Muslims to consider who was and who was not a Muslim.

Sufism

An Islamic mystical tradition that desired a personal union with God--divine love through intuition rather than through rational deduction and study of the shari'a. Followed an ascetic routine (denial of physical desire to gain a spiritual goal), dedicating themselves to fasting, prayer, meditation on the Qur'an, and the avoidance of sin. A place for Sufis to worship and practice their rituals was housed in Madrasas. By the end of the 15th century, Sufism was fully integrated into the Muslim religion.

Al-Jahiz

An Islamic scholar who lived in the 800s and who presented a theory about the evolution of animals. Born into poverty. After serious contemplation of his mother's wisdom, he went on to write two hundred books whose subjects varied from Arabic grammar, zoology, lexicography, rhetoric, and poetry. More than just a writer, Al-Jahiz was well-known for his intellectualism and search for knowledge. Due to his economic dependence on his writing career, that may have influenced his drive for the quality of his prose but that isn't necessarily the case. He was a scholar in that his writings covered such a broad array of topics in the humanities, it's difficult to pin him down to one specific subject. The anthologized Kitab al-bayan wa al-tabyin , was a collection of rhetoric works and criticisms on literary styles of the times. Al-Jahiz, part of the Mu'tazilite school of theology, wrote under the caliph, then al-Ma'mun on Mu'tazilite topics even after it was abandoned by his successor.

Sharia

Body of Islamic law that includes interpretation of the Quran and applies Islamic principles to everyday life. The rules established so that people could live a moral life. It was known as the Islamic law that helped to express Muslim identity. Qadis used these rules to finalize their decisions in courts. Not a system of laws, but rather a set of standards defining how to live a righteous life that would please God. Covered a wide array of topics even including how to defecate and consummate a marriage. More importantly though, it covered significant issues like inheritance, marriage, divorce, and holy rituals. It also helped define the role of women. It claimed that a woman was to always have a male guardian. If a girl had not reached puberty yet, then her father could give her away in marriage without her approval. While a man could marry as many as four wives, a woman could only have one husband. .

Carmathians

Carmathians were a group of people from the Isma'ili religion. Formed in the early 890's as a response to the A Abbasids regime. They had their demographic support in Syria, Iraq, and Persian Gulf coast. They were a great threat to the Abbasids of which they vowed to destroy because of their proximity to Baghdad. The Carmathians captured the Bahrain from the Abbasids governor and maintained a prosperous state there for almost two centuries. Bahrain became the base for numerous raids against the Abbasids. The Carmathians gained publicity among the poor as a result of their policy of sharing goods equally whereas it gained disrepute among its detractor's for their notorious rumors. In 930, a group of the Carmathians raiders attacked Mecca and stoled the Black Stone from the Kaaba. This theft showed how irrelevant the Abbasid caliphate had become and also demonstrated that the caliphate had no power outside of the metropolis of Baghdad. Bahrain remained a regional power until the half of the eleventh century, when it began to experience political and economic problems. The Carmathians were finally defeated and destroyed in 1077.

Isnad

Chain of transmitters. The most crucial standard for figuring out how legitimate a hadith was in the development of a legal system strictly based on Islamic values starting under Abbasid rule. These chains would allow a scholar, such as al-Bukhari (d. 870) and Muslim (d. 875), to trace a phrase or certain behavior of the Prophet through a succession of well-known individuals back to the original source. The hope was that the succession would lead to a source close to the Prophet when he was alive. This focus on the isnads was part of the movement of new jurists to focus solely on the words and actions of the Prophet instead of garnering guidance from the sunna, "way", "custom", or "practice" of first generation Muslims. Though numerous Western scholars question the legitimacy of the isnads, most Muslims believe them to be as authoritative as the Qu'ran.

al-Saffah

First Abbasid Caliph. Abu al-'Abbas was the first Abbasid caliph. Instead of his name, he used the title al-Saffah, which is known as the Blood Shedder. There were two important reasons why he chose this label. He chose this title because it had been associated with the concept of the Mahdi in previous literature. The Mahdi was believed to be the ruler before the end of time. However, its literal translation is "guided one." Therefore, the title implied his divine status as a ruler. Additionally, this title revealed that much blood would be lost since they were in a revolution. Even leaders of the Abbasid movement were murdered for contesting the decision to have al-Saffah rule as caliph. Similarly, many Shi'ites who were believed to be dangers to his authority were persecuted. After al-Saffah's death, the following caliphs also decided to choose titles with a religious meaning.

Madrasas

Islamic institutions of higher education that originated in the 10th century. Earlier, within the middle period, the madrasa taught Islamic law. The other aspects of Islamic school teachings like science and philosophy were taught, however they were not the main curriculum. Had ties to local mosques. the Persian vizier Nizam al-Mulk was able to cultivate one of the four main existing focal points of the Muslim identity that exists today. His influence in the madrasa was able to allow shari'a to persist; through th appointed preachers Abu Hamid al-Ghazali and Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi he was able to build and endow madrasas in Baghdad.

Qadi

Islamic judge. An agent of the Sharia court whose job was to implement the body of administrative and fiscal regulations and laws. Had wide discretionary powers. They would try to make their ruling based on the Qur'an, but they often had to utilize local legal traditions in order to make decisions. The caliph encouraged officers to to rely on principles being articulated by the Ulama.

Majlis

Legislature of Iran. This term is also used to refer to a private place where guests are received and entertained. Among the Shia community, the term Majlis is used as a verb meaning to the gathering who came to remember Ahl al Bayt and in particulsr Hussain ibn-e-Ali.

Madinat al-Salaam

Madinat al-Salaam is present-day Baghdad (Iraq). It was founded in the mid-8th century as the Abbasid Caliphate capital, following the Abbasid victory over the first Muslim dynasty, the Umayyad Caliphate. The city was founded by Abu Ja'far, also known as Al-Mansur. It was referred to as the "City of Peace" or round city of Baghdad. Situated along the banks of the Tigris River, the city became a center for international trade. Over time it evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual center for the Islamic world. By the 9th century, Madinat al-Salam contained close to 500,00 people; growing to be the largest city worldwide by the beginning of the 10th century. It became one of the second or third greatest cities in the world.

Harun al-Rashid

Most famous of the Abbasid caliphs (786-809); renowned for sumptuous and costly living recounted in The Thousand and One Nights. In 802, he appointed his eldest son ,al-Amin, to be his successor as caliph, and he appointed his other .al-Ma'mun, to rule over the Khorasan and succeed al-Amin as caliph. This lead to many disputes between the brothers, and it ultimately led to war. Al-Ma'mun's army besieged Baghdad in 812, and al-Amin was killed. Al-Ma'mun appointed himself as caliph, but unrest remained in Baghdad until 819.

Yazid

Mu'waiya's son and successor; believed to have stolen the caliphate and not be a good Muslim. Yazid or Yazid ibn Muʿawiyah was the second Umayyad caliph. Yazid succeeded his father Mu'awiyah, but he died suddenly after only three years as the caliph. Mu'awiyah was the first caliph who ruled over the Umayyad Dynasty but he broke common practice by appointing Yazid, his son, who would succeed him on the day of his death. This established a new tradition of hereditary succession among the Caliphate. The new tradition led to a rebellion headed by Husayn, the son of Ali, which Yazid did not take kindly to and he eventually had Husayn killed. Husayn became a martyr and this event contributed to the permanent division in Islam between the Shiites and Sunnis.

Fitna

Muslim civil war(s). A deep, violent, factional dispute within the Muslim community. This dispute began with disagreements over the leadership of the caliph Uthman. After his assassination, Ali, son-in-law of the prophet Muhammad, was chosen to succeed. Questions over the justification of the death of Uthman arose, and battles outbroke in response. The battles themselves are representative of the first violent disagreement within the Muslim community. A'isha, the wife of the prophet and two of the prophet's friends, opposed the rule of Ali and believed that Uthman's death was unjustified.1 At The Battle of the Camel, Ali's forces and his opponents met, but Ali was victorious. His victory reinforced the authority of his leadership but did nothing to dissipate the disagreements over the legitimacy of his caliphate.

Ulama

Muslim religious scholars. From the 9th century onward, the primary interpreters of Islamic law and the social core of Muslim urban societies. The first interpreters of the Qur'an and transmitters of the hadith. They also were the ones who first outlined the principles of Islamic law. Also played a large role in Islamic education, they regulated all levels of instruction, and were instrumental in the training of all the Islamic scholars. They developed rigorous curriculum centered around law, instructing and training future jurists and theologians. Through this they became liked to political authority in the Islamic world.

Shiites

Muslims that believe that only direct descendants of Muhammad should become caliph. The Shi'ite movement started in the middle of the 10th century. The Shi'ite's were followers and supporters of Ali as caliph and believed that the descendants of Ali should stay in power. They believed that the assassination of Ali was unjust. Eventually, these supporters were split into two groups, the "Twelvers" and the Isma 'Ilis. Both groups believed that their Imams should be the rulers of the Muslims. Characteristics that defined the Shi'ites set them apart from other Muslim groups. Such as, some knowledge only allowed for the elites and the way they worshiped by emotion. Their focus was on the injustices and persecutions their groups suffered, like of Ali. Shi'ites also wanted the ruler in charge to be both a religious and political leader. The Shi'ite group was seen as the minority in all of the branches of Islam in the Muslim community. Shia Muslims constituted 10-20% of the world's Muslim population. modern Shia Islam has been divided into three main groupings: Twelvers, Ismailis and Zaidis, with Twelver Shia being the largest and most influential group among Shites.

Fatimids

People who claimed they were descended by Muhammad's daughter Fatima. The Shi'a Muslims formed the Fatimid Caliphate around 1258 in North Africa but it eventually spread to western Arabia and Syria. The Fatimid fleet dominated the central Mediterranean and worked to increase trans-Sahara trade,

The Buyids

Persian invaders of the 10th century; captured Baghdad and acted as sultans through Abbasid figureheads. The Buyids were from Daylam in the Elburz mountains. In 932, a Daylami named Ali' ibn Buya, his brothers, and a few hundred infantrymen to enter into Fars; the heartland of the old Sassanian empire. In a single battle, Ali won control of the area and he and his brothers sought to expand their area of control. One of Ali's brothers had already negotiated control over Baghdad while another brother conquered the Iranian Plateau from Rayy to Esfahan. The Buyid brothers and their descendants ruled the areas as a confederation. They acknowledged the spiritual authority of the Caliph and asserted that he had appointed them to their posts. Ali was the most influential of the rulers and adopted the title Shahanshah, "King of Kings". The first generation of Buyid rulers seem to have been Zaydi Shi'ites but they later provided support to Twelver Shi'ism. They did not try to force their subjects to adop Shi'ism. However, the Sunni Abbasid caliph was humiliated that he was under Shi'ite control. Therefore, after many years, the Abassid Caliphs had been reduced to figurehead status.

Abu Nuwas

Poet of Persian descent who lived in Abbasid Baghdad, considered one of the greatest poets in the Arabic language. He was a famous and prominent poet as well as an Islamic scholar as he studied the Koran and Hadith. He was recognized in Iraq for his work and from there worked mainly for the al-Nawbakht familiy but also the caliphs Harun al-Rashid and al-Amin. His poems were a combination of licentousness and the classics, or pre-Islamic poetry which is what made his works stand out as he pushed the boundaries of identity and religion. The genre of poetry that he mostly produced was wine poetry, or Khamriyya, which encompassed erotic and bacchic themes. Despite these suggestive themes, Abu wrote in a very high form of Arabic poetry, which is what made his works so excellent. He also wrote about piety, addressing the beliefs of pre-Islam and current Islam in relation to eternity and what it meant to be a good Arab and how they should act. Because of these factors, Abu is considered to be "the Modern Poet," as his works advanced poetry in a way that other poets did not during this time.

Madhhab

Quranic schools of law that first started during the 9th century. The different schools were filled with scholars that would teach the methods from the ulama for the principles of law. All of the Madhhabs had their own rules and usually lasted a couple of generations. The Maddhabs would be different from each other due to the choice of hadiths they chose to follow and the different ways that each Maddhab would intercept certain surahs from the Qu'ran. In shar'ia Law each person was to choose the Maddhab they would follow and eventually the number of schools declined to a smaller number. A very popular Maddhab were the Hanbali which were in the area of Baghdad. They were heavily against the use of analogy with Qu'ranic interpretations, were against personal opinion and took a conservative approach. Only 4 out of 100 schools were in the modern era in different areas of Iraq, Syria, which were the Kufa, Hanifa, Malik Ibn Anas.

Ilm

Religious knowledge. It was the central cultural staple of the Islamic tradition and social patterns in which the religion was experienced in the Middle Period. This knowledge was ingrained in the inter-related body of texts: the Qu'ran, hadith collections, legal treasties and textbooks. This knowledge was formed the basis for the training of ulama or religious scholars. The social uses of the ilm helped define Muslim identities and the parameters of the ulama authority. For the ulama, ilm was the active process of transmitting religious knowledge that was critical. Socially, the ulama were diverse. the only thing that identified them as a collective was their fluency in these highly valued texts and their access to them. Ilm was something those who were educated could use in order to ensure public recognition of their status, and secure appointments with others as well as inherited benefits and status for their heirs.

Ali al-Rida

Seventh descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the eighth of the Twelve Imams, according to Shia sect of Islam. Ali al-Rida was the grandson of Jafar al-Sadiq. He is recognized widely as the living Imam by modern Shi'is. He was appointed by Abassid caliph, al-Mamun, to be his successor as caliph. al-Mamun appointed Ali in hopes that it would regain control of the alliance between questionable Shi'a and the Abassids. Or in other words, regain support of Shi'a who were not sold on the Abassid rule. Ali al-Rida is significant because he shifted the relationship between Shi'is and Abbasids in that this was the closest time an Imam ever became to becoming caliph. As a result, Shi'is were pushed farther away from power, and they were seperated from the Abassids, as their threat to them decreased due to their distance from rule. Ali did not improve the relationship between the Shi'a and the Abassids completely, and led to the Shi'a practice of taqiyya, in which they allowed the denial of being a Shi'i for self-preservation in order to avoid persecution.

Imam

The "imams" were also known as the Prophets heirs. They were also considered to be infallible, sinless, and the rightful leader of the entire Umma. And to disobey or disrespect the current Imam was considered a horrible sin, equivalent to disrespecting Muhammad himself. It is most commonly used as the title of a worship leader of a mosque and Muslim community among Sunni Muslims.The Imam in villages was the most pious man or otherwise a respected personage, while in urban areas he has scholarly credentials as well as spiritual responsibilities. However, the members of the congregation did not regard him as having anything like the spiritual authority that Shi'ites invested in their supreme leader.

Taqiyya

The Shi'i practice of disguising or denying their religious when faced with the threat of persecution. Shi'ites held the belief that the rightful ruler of the kingdom had to come from descendants of the prophet Muhammad. As a result, they allied themselves with the Caliph Ali and members of his family. When the Abbasid leader al-Saffah came to power, he began executing all those who rejected his authority. As a result, many Shi'i Muslims were persecuted because of their belief that Ja'far al-Sadiq was the Imam and the rightful caliph.

Shahada

The confession of faith, the first of the Five Pillars and central creedal statement of Islam: "There is no god except God. Muhammad is the messenger of God." Shahada is the first ritual in the Five Pillars. All of the Five Pillars are derived from the Koran. These rituals give Muslims a distinctive character. Additionally, it gives them emotional support, which is especially important when their faith weakens. Shahada means the proclamation of faith. If someone wanted to become a Muslim they had to recite, "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is His prophet." This statement is important because it acknowledges one of the most prominent ideas of the Muslim faith: there is only one true God. If they do not recite this, then they are committing one of the gravest sins, which is to deny God's singularity and to have other gods before Him. Since Muslim means to accept to God's will, it is vital for Muslims in this ritual to thank God for their lives and to fully give themselves to Him.

Ali

The fourth caliph of Islam who is considered to be the first caliph by Shiites. Ali was the cousin and son-in-law of th Prophet. He came into power as the caliph during the fitna, after Uthman's assassination in 656, as he was acclaimed by the rebels who were against the Umayyads because he met the criteria they wanted in their caliph. These included the facts that he was a pious Muslim, a great warrior, and had profetic ties that bridged the tribal mentality of Uthman's rule with religious ties. These ties came from his marriage to Fatna, the Prophet's daughter. Ali fit these criteria for caliph however, one thing that he lacked was the action of uniting people. In fact, Ali was responsible for splitting the Umma through his victory at the Battle of Camels in which he defeated Aisha and anti-Ali forces. Through his rule, Ali was accused of not being a true Muslim by the Kharajites, and he was eventually asassinated in 661, which shocked the community.

Janan

The only woman that Abu Nuwas ever loved. She was known to be extremely intelligent and beautiful. The family of al-Wahhab ibn 'Abd al-Majid al-Thaqafi had her as a slave girl. She was knowledgeable with Arab lore and poetry. Even though Abu Nuwas was in love with her, he was previously known to be a homosexual. It even surprised his close companions to learn of his feelings for her. Similarly, she was thought to be a lesbian. The relationship was characterized by its constant changes between attraction and aversion expressed through poems. Abu Nuwas accompanied her after she decided to complete a pilgrimage to Mecca. While they were at the Ka'ba, they both kissed the Black Stone together at the same time so that their cheeks were touching. This action was thought to be disrespectful in such a holy site. Overall, the nature and demise of their relationship is not known. But it is believed that his love for the young beardless man out weighed his love for her.

Hadith

Traditional records of the deeds of Muhammad, and his quotations. One of the four source of Islamic law aside from the Qu'ran, the consensus, and the analogical reasonings. The hadith or "traditions" is recorded text of words and deeds of the prophet, Muhammad. Muslim use the hadith as a form of authoritative law that Muhammad instructed. The hadith contains many verse on the accounts of Muhammad; these texts are written in arabic. It was later found out that some hadith were counterfeit because of this fact there are many Muslims that do not follow these verses.

Mamluks

Under the Islamic system of military slavery, Turkic military slaves who formed an important part of the armed forces of the Abbasid Caliphate of the ninth and tenth centuries. Mamluks eventually founded their own state, ruling Egypt and Syria (1250-1517). Arabic meaning for "own" or "belonged to." In reference to a private slave army, made mostly of Turks, under al-Muʿtaṣim rule. The obtained limited legal rights to property and marriage as free people after training. They formed a strong unity and shunned the civilian population out. They worked for the caliph and could moved up in rank achieving high social/economic status. However, as a united militia they stood counterpart to the rest of society. The ethnic divide surrounding language and custom lead to a divide in loyalty to the caliph as different ethnic groups were torn between their devotion to the court or their homeland.

Uthman ibn Affan

Uthman was one of the Prophet's earliest converts to Islam, and he served as Caliph from 644-656. Umar reigned as caliph until his assassination by a Persian slave in 644. His successor as caliph would be Uthman, who had been highly respected and was a popular choice as caliph. This respect comes mostly for the part he played in the standard version of the Qur'an, known as the Uthmanic Codex. However, dislike for Uthman started to grow. Uthman showed favoritism towards the Quarysh and his own family rather than rewarding the early Muslims and Meccan elite. Uthman would appoint his own family members to leadership positions. Also, Uthman increased taxes to make up for lost revenue. Overall, Uthman didn't purposely try to upset the Meccan elite rather he though of his actions as customary. Neverless, his actions ultimately led to his assassination in 656 at the hands of protestors of Uthman's policies.

Wilaya

What is bestowed upon a designated Imam to establish his authority religiously and somewhat politically in the muslim community. Religiously at the core of the Shi'i understanding of Muslim leadership lies the conviction that God provides each generation of Muslims with an Imam, who as the rightful leader of the community is imbued with sovereignty over the world(wilaya). Politically, however, wilaya meant an authority to interpret divine law and speak authoritatively over matters both political and religious.1 Religious sovereignty has a lot to do with having the final say in doctrinal disputes. Politically, Imams did not bring with them new law, as did Muhammad, Moses, and Jesus.2 Instead, this was done collectively, as a community, through consensus of the ulama. This quite possibly may have prevented the Imamate from ever becoming more powerful in its social position within the Islamic faith and the Muslim communities.

Mozarab

a Spanish Christian in the period of Muslim domination of Spain from about the 9th century to the 15th century. Even though they remained unconverted to Islam, they were heavily influenced by the culture, they adopted Muslim clothes, ate the same foods, spoke Arabic, and many of them even used Arab names besides their Hispanic ones, especially those in close contact with Muslims. Under Islamic law, they had Dhimmi status which allowed them to practice their religion with certain restrictions. Christians were prohibited from building and repairing churches and synagogues, they were also prohibited from public displays of faith, such as processions or bell ringing, and proselytizing, insulting Muhammad, or openly refuting Islam was also not allowed.

Ismailis

a member of a branch of Shiite Muslims that seceded from the main group in the 8th century because of their belief that Ismail, the son of the sixth imam, should have become the sevFenth imam. They also began to develop a theory of interpretation of the Qur'an that placed a premium on esoteric knowledge. That means knowledge which by virtue is intended for a spiritual life. At the heart of the system was the idea of an inner (batin) and outer (zahir) meaning og the Qu'ran, religious law, and ritual aspects of Islam. Only individuals with superior insight are able to interpret the hidden meanings. After a century of underground activity, the Isma'ili movement reappeared inn southwester Iran and southern Iraq in the second half of the 9th century. Its members were determined to create a new Islamic society characterized by justice and righteousness.

Taqlid

following a tradition, especially a specific tradition advocated by a madhab. A term in Islamic law that meant the imitation of previous scholars, or, "intellectual forebears" in their legal judgements. In other words, it was the acceptance of a choice, teaching, or belief without questioning the rationality or proof of how that doctrine came to be. Islamic lawyers were required to practice taqlid during the middle and late periods of the Islamic Empire. During the late fourteenth century, many Sunni scholars believed that faqihs and "modern" jurists should only use taqlid. There was debate over the practice of taqlid versus itjihad, in that it was thought that ijtihad would block the impact of taqlid both socially and intellectually. Taqlid also grew overtime as a factor of the "homogenization" of religious life during medieval Islam in that it played a role in uniforming legal discussion during this time.

Ja'far al-Sadiq

sixth Imam for the Twelvers. Important because he established writings which twelver theory of the nature of the Imam is based on. A respected scholar of all schools of thought throughout the Muslim community. He was a descendant of the prophet of Muhammad. He was pro Alid theologian, this means that he was a supporter of Ali caliphate and believed that the line of leadership should be from his bloodline. Through this theologian, there was the belief that descendants from Ali had special traits or special powers that qualified them for leadership of the Muslim community. Created a branch or another form of Shi'ism called Twelver Shi'ism to set the path for the descendants of Ali. He is known throughout the Muslim community for shaping the future of Twelver Shi'ism greatly by not to rebel against the Abbasid rule but to go alongside. His quietism proved to be a model for Shi'ism in future hardships. Through this the first Imams came from Ali's bloodline. He started this line with his son al-Husayn. When he died, the Twelver community had to decide who the next Imam would be.