ISU Bio 312 Exam 1

Define "Biome" and "Terrestrial Biome" (8 - terrestrial Biomes)

Biome: A regional ecosystem type. Terrestrial Biome: a plant formation/a major plant community + animals + the physical environment; distinguished primarily by their predominant plants and are associated with particular climates.

define population. (11 - Populations)

a group of individuals of the same species that co-occur in time and space.

provide examples of how organisms respond to light, temperature, and water. (10 - organisms)

there are physiological, behavioral , and morphological systems/responses.

distinguish levels of organization used in ecological studies.

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distinguish types of investigations used in ecological studies.

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describe how SA/V changes with size of organisms and explain the consequences. (10 - organisms)

*********(Surface Area/Volume)

List the four (six) major areas of ecological study. Provide examples of the types of questions they might investigate. (1 - introduction)

- organisms - populations - communities - ecosystems: - landscapes - the bioshpere.

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describe the processes that transfer heat and mass between an organism and its environment. (10 - organisms)

--radiation --conduction --convection --evaporation

distinguish gaseous and sedimentary cycles.

1 - gaseous -- elements occur in gaseous forms (+ nongaseous forms); more mobile ; the atmosphere serves as a main reservoir; the soil may also be a reservoir ; C, O, S, N 2 - sedimentary (nongaseous) -- little or none in the atmosphere; elements less mobile ; the soil serves as a main reservoir ; P, K, Ca

What are the roots of the word "ecology"? (1 - introduction)

1866; Haeckle; oecology; Oikos: household, home. Logos: study of, science of. = the study of the household of nature.

Provide examples of how the science of ecology spans scales from individuals to the biosphere. (1 - introduction)

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distinguish life history strategy from tactics. (11 - Populations)

A life history strategy is the collective set of life history traits exhibited by a species that allow it to utilize a particular set of resources, live in a particular habitat, etc. "tactic" is often used to describe the specific mechanism used to implement a strategy.

describe the efficiencies of energy capture and transfer among trophic levels.

A rough value of 10% is typically used as an estimate of overall ecological efficiencies over trophic levels of consumers, where ecological efficiency is basically the ratio of energy in one trophic level divided by the energy in the preceding level. However, endotherms typically have much lower efficiencies (due to high metabolic rates), whereas ectotherms may have substantially higher efficiencies. Production efficiency (=new biomass/ingested energy), based on energy actually ingested by a trophic level, is necessarily higher than overall ecological efficiency.

Define: A. Science B. Faith C. Intuition D. Evidence (2 - Science)

A. Science is a WAY OF KNOWING based on a collection of facts/observations, but science is not "facts"; science if a SYSTEM, OR METHOD, of understanding the universe. B. Faith is a deep inner belief, not necessarily based on facts; may use supernatural explanations. C. Intuition, you just know, somehow. D. EVIDENCE (= SCIENCE) = a way of knowing based on observation and "natural" explanations attributable to the physical world, without the influence of a desire to find a particular thing to be true or false

define adaptation and acclimatization and provide examples of each. (10 - organisms)

An adaptation is a property of an organism that enhances survival in a specific environment. Acclimatization is the production of some physiological or morphological feature by a single organism that compensates for some change in the environment, so as to improve performance or maintain homeostasis (and presumably enhance survival).

distinguish types of autotrophs and types of heterotrophs. (13 - Ecosystems--energy flow)

Autotrophs: Autotrophs (=self-nourishing) are called primary producers. This name can be further modified with a prefix indicating the source of the energy captured. Photoautotrophs fix energy from the sun and store it in complex organic compounds (= green plants, algae, some bacteria). Chemoautotrophs (=chemosynthesizers) are bacteria or archaea that oxidize reduced inorganic substances (typically sulfur and ammonia compounds) and produce complex organic compounds, without depending on sunlight. Heterotrophs: Heterotrophs (=other-nourishing) cannot produce their own food directly from inorganic compounds. They require energy previously stored in complex molecules by autotrophs. Heterotrophs can also be called consumers. Consumers feed on organisms or particulate organic matter. One can also distinguish subsets of consumers: --"Consumer" is often restricted to mean organisms feeding on other organisms (live or recently dead). --"Detritivore" is a consumer that breaks dead organisms (or parts) into smaller pieces, while not totally decomposing them into inorganic components. Detritus is material such as dead leaves, twigs, animal body parts, etc. Detritivores extract some of the energy contained in the detritus and condition the material so that decomposers can finish breaking it down. --"Decomposer" is a consumer that utilizes complex compounds in dead protoplasm and breaks the initial organic compounds down to inorganic form. Bacteria and fungi are the main groups of decomposers.

distinguish C3, C4, and CAM plants. (10 - organisms)

C3: "C3" plants include essentially all woody species, the vast majority of broad-leaved herbaceous species, and about 6/10 of all grass species. 3 carbon chain. C4: have an additional enzyme called phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase (PEP-case) in the mesophyll cells that initially fixes carbon dioxide into four-carbon chains. About 40% of all grass species, plus some broad-leafed herbaceous plants, have the C4 system. C4 plants have high photosynthetic rates and low water use at high temperatures. ~8,100 C4 plant species. CAM: "Crassulacean Acid Metabolism" used for photosynthesis. > 16,000 species. limited by storage capacity, so their photosynthetic rates are low.

distinguish cohort life table, static life table, and age distribution as ways of calculating survivorship. (11 - Populations)

Cohort life table--identify individuals born at the same time (= a cohort) and track how long each one lives. Static life table--record the age at death of individuals (this assumes an unchanging pattern of birth and death over the years). Age distribution--determine how many individuals are alive in each age class and assume the differences are due to mortality (this assumes the same number were born every year).

A group of several species of fish living together at the same place and time would most appropriately be called a (an) (1 - introduction)

Community

describe how dispersal, environmental tolerance, and biotic interactions combine to create observed patterns of distributions of species. (11 - Populations)

Dispersal--may limit organisms reaching a habitat Environmental tolerance--once dispersed to a new site, an organism may not be able to survive in that environment Biotic interactions--if an organism reaches a site and can survive there, biotic interactions such as competition or predation may exclude it from the site.

define ecology.

Ecology is the scientific study of interactions among organisms and their environment.

Investigations of energy flow through several trophic levels are most relevant to which level of ecological integration? (1 - introduction)

Ecosystems

distinguish endotherm, ectotherm, homeotherm, and poikilotherm. (10 - organisms)

Endotherms have a high metabolic rate, Endotherms usually have body temperatures higher than the mean environmental temperature. Endothermy allows activity to be maintained even in low temperatures, although at a high energetic cost. Ectotherms do not have physiological mechanisms for producing heat to maintain body temperatures at a constant level. Rather, they gain/lose heat to the environment rapidly, via radiation, conduction, convection, etc. This usually means that their body temperatures will be close to the environmental temperature. Homeothermic organisms maintain a constant body temperature even when the temperature of the environment changes. Birds and most mammals are examples of homeotherms, typically maintaining body temperature near 38-39 C. Poikilotherms have body temperatures that are usually close to the temperature of the environment and that vary as the environmental temperature varies. A clam, for example, has a body temperature that tracks water temperature. The terms homeothermic and poikilothermic refer to the pattern of an organism's temperature relative to the environmental temperature, but do not indicate how that pattern is achieved.

distinguish eutrophic and oligotrophic lakes. (9 - Aquatic and Marine Systems)

Eutrophic: Lakes with high nutrient content. high biological production from algae, bacteria, and macrophytes. Low water clarity bc high sediment input. potentially harmful for humans and other animals. oligotrophic lakes have become eutrophic due to changes in nutrient loads caused by human activities.

identify the equations for geometric growth, exponential growth, and logistic growth and identify their components. (11 - Populations)

Geometric Growth: Nt = N0λ^t Exponential Growth: Nt = N0 e^^rt Logistic growth: dN/dt = rN (1-N/K)

describe Gleason's concept of the independent distribution of species. (12-communities)

Gleason's ideas of the independent distribution of species and of communities as minimally organized collections of species have dominated ecological theory since then. Note that the concept of independent distribution of species does not negate the concept that species may coevolve in response to selection pressure from one another. Coevolution may imply similar distributions along environmental gradients, but the concept is typically limited to a pair of species (or groups of similar species) and not applied to a community as a whole.

describe how events and processes in nature are interconnected. (ADV. 1 - principles and methods in ecology)

Interconnections -- Events in the natural world are interconnected. Ecology -- Ecology is the scientific study of interactions among organisms and their environment. Methods -- Ecologists evaluate competing hypotheses about natural systems with lab experiments, field experiments, and models. Broader scales in time and space -- Modern ecological research is often directed toward larger scales that can help us understand the earth as a global system.

Explain what Landscapes and the Biosphere have to do with ecology. (1 - introduction)

Landscape: all of the interacting communities, ecosystems in a region; somewhat more extensive than a local ecosystem; study change in a heterogeneous land area comprised of interacting systems. The Biosphere: living organisms plus those regions of the earth inhabited by life; the sum of all the earth's ecosystems.

identify the variables listed in a life table. (11 - Populations)

Life Tables--Survivorship and reproduction data can be tabulated in a Life Table. Life tables list survivorship (usually as a fraction of the initial number), age-specific mortality (=the fraction of an age class dying in that interval), and reproduction during that interval. Since females are usually the limiting factor for population growth, many life tables simply concentrate on females in a population. Life tables can also be used to determine intrinsic rate of increase for a population (more about that later...) or life expectancy for a given age class (very useful for human planning!).

define life history and describe various life history traits. (11 - Populations)

Life history: describes those attributes of a species primarily related to growth, development, reproduction, and survival, i.e., it describes the timing and nature of significant events in an organism's life cycle. Attributes: --lifespan --sexual versus asexual reproduction --developmental pattern (e.g., type of metamorphosis, if any) --age at first reproduction --how many reproductive events occur over the lifetime of an individual --how many offspring, of what size, are produced --degree of parental care of offspring --survivorship of different age classes --competitive ability

identify six classes of species interactions and give an example of each. (12-communities)

Neutralism--neither species is affected by the presence of the other species. (Not of much interest to most investigators!) Amensalism--one species is negatively affected while the other is not affected. Commensalism--one species benefits while the other is not affected. Competition--both species are negatively affected. Predation--one organism consumes another. Mutualism--both species benefit from the interaction.

identify the major elements composing organisms.

Organisms are primarily composed of about a dozen elements, plus other elements in trace amounts: 96% of living matter: --carbon --oxygen --hydrogen --nitrogen ~4% of living matter: --phosphorus --calcium --potassium --sulfur --sodium --chlorine --magnesium

describe how phosphorus is important to organisms.

Phosphorus is a major component of nucleic acids, phospholipids, and ATP (see figure below). It is also a mineral component of bones and teeth. Phosphorus is an essential element for organisms. In the environment, the only biologically important form of phosphorus is phosphate (PO43-), which plants absorb.

locate major biomes on a world map (8 - terrestrial Biomes)

Polar Ice Tundra Boreal Forest Mountain Zone Temperate Deciduous forest temperate evergreen forest tropical seasonal forest tropical rainforest temperate shrubland and woodland temperate grassland desert

A group of individuals of a single species living in a particular area at the same time is called a(n) (1 - introduction)

Population

What are the two major factors affecting the distributions of biomes? (8 - terrestrial Biomes)

Precipitation and Temperature. 1. temperature 2. water 3. sunlight 4. geology and soil type 5. wind 6. disturbances

identify the components of the vertical and horizontal structure of streams, rivers, lakes, and oceans. (9 - Aquatic and Marine Systems)

River/stream: Length: Pool—an area of deeper, slow-moving water Run—an area of intermediate depth and current speed (these dominate most systems) Riffle—shallow water with exposed rocks and higher current Rapids—an area with a steep gradient leading to high current speed, usually with projecting large rocks and deeper water than riffles. Width: Wetted channel-- area of wetted stream bed Active channel-area of channel being actively modified by average stream discharges Vertical: Water surface—top of the water; the interface with the atmosphere Water column (=conceptual column of water from the surface to the bottom) Benthic zone (or benthos)--the bottom rock/sediment and the water immediately above the bottom. Lakes: Littoral zone: Shallow areas near shore, with rooted plants Limnetic zone: Open lake. It can be divided vertically into: --Epilimnion: Warm surface layers. --Metalimnion: Temperature changes rapidly with depth (a thermocline, or zone of rapid change in water temperature, is present). --Hypolimnion: Cold (dark) waters. Deep Blue Sea - Structure Littoral Zone (intertidal zone): Shallow shoreline. Neritic Zone: Coast to margin of continental shelf.

identify the terms describing organisms in different trophic levels.

Primary producers occupy the first level. Primary consumers occupy the second level. Secondary consumers occupy the third level. Tertiary consumers occupy the fourth level.

describe global patterns of net primary production and how much of NPP goes to different groups of consumers.

Primary production = total fixation of energy by autotrophs in an ecosystem. Primary productivity = rate of primary production = amount of energy fixed per unit time (per area, volume) Gross primary production (GPP): Total amount of energy fixed by autotrophs, before respiratory costs are considered. Net primary production (NPP): Amount of energy left over after autotrophs have met their respiratory needs (= amount of energy stored in new producer biomass). NPP = GPP - respiration or GPP = NPP + respiration Net primary production is thus the amount of energy stored by the producers and potentially available to consumers and decomposers.

distinguish random, regular and clumped distributions and describe reasons for each. (11 - Populations)

Random distributions typically occur in homogeneous habitats, where conditions and resources are about the same everywhere and there is not much interaction among individuals. Regular (or uniform) distributions occur through competition for resources or antagonistic behaviors, such that spacing among individuals is roughly the same. Clumped distributions commonly occur, due to: --variable distribution of resources or habitats --daily and seasonal changes in the environment --reproduction --social interactions --better prey defense against predators or better success for predators in capturing prey.

Define the term "Ecology". (1 - introduction)

Relationships between organisms and their environment.

identify measures of relative abundance. (12-communities)

Relative abundance is often called relative importance, although with respect to calculation of diversity, importance is simply a measure of the quantitative abundance of the species and does not imply anything about any particular effects of that species on community structure. Relative abundance of a species is calculated as the proportion of the total amount (of some measure) summed over all species in a community. But, the entity being summed can vary.

summarize the scientific method as used in ecology.

Scientists use a series of steps called the scientific method. --Make observations and ask questions. --Use previous knowledge or intuition to develop hypotheses addressing the questions. --Evaluate hypotheses by manipulative experimentation, observational studies, and/or quantitative models. --Use the results to modify the hypotheses, pose new questions, or draw conclusions about the natural world.

be able to calculate Simpson's index and the Shannon-Wiener index. (12-communities)

Simpson: D=1-chi p i^2 Shannon: H= -chi p i ln(p i)

define species composition. (12-communities)

Species composition refers to the identities of the species present in a community. Two different communities might each have 10 protist species present and thus have the same species richness, but the communities might be dramatically different if the 10 species in one community were all photoautotrophs and the 10 species in the other community were a mixture of photoautotrophs and consumers.

distinguish species diversity, richness, and evenness. (12-communities)

Species diversity--a measure of how many species are present and how abundant is each. Diversity has two components: Species richness--how many different species are present (regardless of the abundance of each) Species evenness--the relative abundance of each species

describe the phosphorus cycle.

Starting with phosphorus in minerals in rock: Weathering releases inorganic phosphate (PO4-) to soil and water. Assimilation of phosphate by plants allows phosphorus to enter a short-term cycle through plants and consumers (e.g., animals). Excretion and decomposition of detritus returns phosphate to the soil, where it can then be taken up by plants again, in local cycling. Phosphate is typically bound to soil particles and can be moved as soil moves. Phosphate can be carried to aquatic systems by erosion of soil particles and movement of the sediment-laden water. Eventually it reaches the oceans, where it may cycle locally. It can accumulate in sediment, which may turn to rock. Over long periods, geological uplift of the sedimentary rock into a terrestrial location may complete the cycle by providing rock for weathering. In general, phosphorus moves through its cycle(s) fairly slowly compared to other elemental cycles.

describe the process of stratification and turnover in temperate zone lakes. (9 - Aquatic and Marine Systems)

Stratification and turnover of lakes in the temperate zone: in temperate zone lakes, surface waters heat up during summer. This warmed water is less dense and does not mix with the cold water beneath it, due to the difference in density. The lake becomes stratified, with the warm epilimnion separated from the cold, denser-water hypolimnion by the metalimnion, which has a thermocline or sharp gradient in temperature. The epilimnion and hypolimnion have little mixing of water and essentially function as separate lakes.

Define functional ecology: (1 - introduction)

Studies adaptations of organisms to their environment; how physiology, morphology, structure, behavior, and other attributes of individuals affect their functioning and survival. The study of an organism and the way it functions in its environment. Includes physical environment and other organisms.

define succession and distinguish primary and secondary succession. (12-communities)

Succession is defined as the change in species composition on a site over time. Primary succession--Large disturbances can create new, uninhabited sites (with no remnants of a previous community) that will undergo the process of "primary succession", in which practically all species must immigrate to the site from other locations. Time required for immigration of species, development of soil, etc. means that the initial stages of primary succession usually proceed fairly slowly. Secondary succession--Sites with smaller disturbances that do not completely remove an existing community will undergo the process of secondary succession, which is dominated by seeds, regrowth, etc. of species already on the site. Secondary succession can typically proceed more rapidly than the initial stages of primary succession because organisms are already present, a soil with seeds and microbes is already present, etc. (there is a "memory" of the previous community).

What are the components of a Walter climate diagram? (8 - terrestrial Biomes)

Temperature and precipitation.

calculate stream order. (9 - Aquatic and Marine Systems)

The order is increased by one only when two streams/rivers of equal order merge.

identify advantages and disadvantages of food chain/web diagrams.

Trophic level diagrams (food chains and food webs) summarize the feeding relations in a community. They are basic and revealing descriptions of community structure. Problems: --Simple food chains are almost always too simplistic. --Diagrams of food webs are more realistic than food chains but typically do not show detritivores and decomposers, which process most of the energy flowing through a system. --Diagrams of food chains and webs typically have more trophic levels represented than are usually present in the field and thus give a misleading picture of energy flow through the system.

Define population ecology: (1 - introduction)

a group of INDIVIDUALS of the SAME species that co-occur in time and space.

Define community ecology: (1 - introduction)

a group of POPULATIONS (of DIFFERENT species) that co-occur in time and space

identify the major types of vegetation and animals found in each of the major biomes. (8 - terrestrial Biomes)

Tropical Rainforests: Many Epiphytes, large variety of species growing in the canopy; insects, fungi, and microbes. Harbor staple foods and medicines for world's human populations - increasingly exploited. Tropical Seasonal (Dry) Forest: Shares many animal and plant species with tropical rainforests; fairly high species diversity. Savanna: Grasses provide forage for many large herbivores, which in turn support many large carnivores. Desert: Plant cover ranges from sparse to absent. Animal abundance low, but biodiversity may be high. Temperate Grassland: Thoroughly dominated by herbaceous vegetation; moderate species diversity. Large roaming ungulates. Extensive utilization by humans; often plowed up for agriculture or grazed heavily. Mediterranean / Temperate Woodland and Shrubland: Trees and shrubs typically evergreen. Temperate Forests: Long growing seasons dominated by deciduous plants. Short growing seasons dominated by evergreen conifers. Biomass production can be very high; moderate to low species diversity. Boreal Forest: Relatively high animal density. Generally dominated by evergreen conifers; low tree species diversity. Tundra: Supports substantial numbers of native mammals. Low species diversity for almost all groups. Mountains: Flora and fauna change with elevation

describe the general patterns of temperature and precipitation for each of the major biomes. (8 - terrestrial Biomes)

Tropical Rainforests: warm temperatures and abundant precipitation all year round. Tropical Seasonal (Dry) Forest: Warm temperatures all year round, but there are wet and dry seasons. Savanna: mostly warm temperatures all year round (but with seasonality) and lower precipitation. Desert: Warm temperatures most of the year (excepts the cold deserts) with low precipitation all or most of the year. Temperate Grassland: limited or irregular rainfall, mostly in the warm summer, and low rainfall during the cold winter. Mediterranean / Temperate Woodland and Shrubland: Combination of warm, but dry summers, wet winters. Temperate forests: Even precipitation throughout the year. Cool winters, a long warm season with mean temperatures above freezing. Boreal Forest: the cold temperatures and short growing season; precipitation and evaporation are both low due to the temperatures. Tundra: Climate typically cool and dry with short summers; winters are very cold. 200 - 600 mm precipitation. Mountains: Climate changes with elevation and latitude. Temperatures decrease with increasing elevation in mountains and precipitation usually increases

describe the global hydrologic cycle. (9 - Aquatic and Marine Systems)

Water evaporates in the form of vapor, leaving behind any solutes. There is more evaporation from the oceans than there is precipitation over the oceans; about 10% of what is evaporated moves over land. On land, there is more precipitation than evaporation. The excess returns to the oceans in the form of liquid water moving through rivers. This liquid water may carry dissolved chemicals and sediment to the oceans. Thus, there is a net movement of dissolved chemicals from land to oceans, since evaporation from the oceans leaves chemicals in the oceans. Only over long geological time do various geological processes (see the plate tectonics module) provide a way of chemicals being returned to land.

Define ecosystem ecology: (1 - introduction)

a COMMUNITY (or group of communities) and the abiotic environment functioning together.

Define soil profile (8 - terrestrial Biomes)

collection of horizons.

Provide examples of scientific disciplines that overlap to form the basis for ecology. (1 - introduction)

ecology overlaps with: - physiology - behavior - genetics - evolution - as well as physical sciences of geology, meteorology, hydrology, etc.

define biogeochemical cycle. (14 - Ecosystems--chemicals)

elements are cycled between living/dead organisms and the environment (biogeochemical: literally, chemicals are cycled between biota (living things) and "geo", the earth).

define soil horizon (8 - terrestrial Biomes)

layer of soil. O Horizon = Organic Layer freshly fallen organic material - most superficial layer. A horizon: = Mixture of minerals, clay, silt and sand. B Horizon = Clay, humus, and other materials leached from A horizon - often contains plant roots. C Horizon = Weathered parent material.

describe why trophic pyramids of biomass and energy may have different shapes.

it depends on the energy flow of each trophic level.

state the General Transport Equation and identify its components. (10 - organisms)

net amount moved = how easily it can be moved * how much "push" there is. Flux density = conductance * driving force The amount of heat transferred (from any point A to point B) by conduction or convection or the amount of mass transferred by convection or evaporation/condensation can be calculated using specific formulas for each situation.

identify the location of and limiting factors for primary production in oceans. (9 - Aquatic and Marine Systems)

shallow waters, oxygen levels, nutrient levels, currents, certain ranges of temperature.

identify the Principle of Allocation and give examples of it. (11 - Populations)

states that devoting a resource in limited supply (such as energy) to one use, such as reproduction, will reduce the amount available for other functions such as growth, competitive ability, defense, etc. - greater parental care of existing offspring may reduce the number of offspring