Kristof physiology 2

Allodynia

Pain due to a stimulus that does not normally provoke pain

Function of C fibers (type IV fibers)

Pain fibers and autonomic postganglionic fibers

Analgesia

Pain relief

Main function of the vestibular system

Maintain balance

What is observed in the masseter reflex?

Masseter muscle is contracted, mouth is closed

List 8 proprioceptive reflexes

Masseter reflex, biceps reflex, triceps reflex, brachioradial reflex, brachioulnar reflex, abdominal muscle reflex, patellar reflex, achilles tendon reflex

On which side of the retinal is the temporal vision projected?

Medial

Where do the fibers in DCML decussate?

Medial lemniscus (brainstem)

In which case do you get a contraction both when you switch on and off the stimulus?

Medium stimulus intensity (both cathode make and anode break excitations)

Which part of the adrenal gland is innervated by the autonomic system?

Medulla

Definition of the equilibrium membrane potential

Membrane potential at which there is no net movement of a certain ion across the membrane

Role of hippocampus

Memory formation

Last menstruation and after

Menopause

Examples of utradian cycles

Menstruation cycle

Type of dye used in a vaginal smear

Methylene blue

In which case can goiter be present in euthyroidism?

Mild iodine deficiency, TSH overproduction

What is rheobase?

Minimum electrical current required to excite the nerve or muscle when the duration of the stimulus is indefinitely long

What is chronaxie?

Minimum time required to excite the nerve or muscle when twice the rheobase is applied

Other names for the proprioceptive reflex

Monosynaptic, myotatic, deep reflex

Characteristics of Cushing's syndrome

Moon face, buffalo hump, obese trunk/head/neck, thin extremities, DM, osteoporosis

Effect of eserine on the eye

More significant pupil constriction (more intense parasympathetic activation)

Length of smooth muscle AP

More than 300 ms

Functions of A-gamma fiber (type II fibers)

Motor fibers to muscle spindle

Functions of A-alpha fibers

Motor neurons (Ia) and primary endings of muscle spindle/ afferent/sensory fibers from proprioceptors (Ib)

Type of receptors on pupillary sphincter muscle

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors

Cathode is closer to the muscle, circuit is closed, open conduction between the two poles, low stimulus is on. What is observed?

Muscle contraction

Cathode is closer to the muscle, circuit is closed, open conduction between the two poles, strong stimulus is on. What is observed?

Muscle contraction

Cathode is closer to the muscle, circuit is open, open conduction between the two poles, post middle stimulus excitation. What is observed?

Muscle contraction (anode break excitation)

Cathode is closer to the muscle, circuit is closed, open conduction between the two poles, middle stimulus is on. What is observed?

Muscle contraction (cathode make excitation)

Cathode closer to the muscle, closed circuit, no conduction between the two poles. What is observed?

Muscle contracts because there is a depolarization around the cathode

Symptoms of decerebration

Muscle rigidity, limbs in extension, back and neck in extension,

Symptoms of decortication

Muscle rigidity, upper limbs in flexion, lower limbs in extension, hyporeflexia, no communication, no locomotion, normal BP and respiration, no cortical reflexes

Which receptors are affected by curare?

Muscle type nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

Effect of atropine on the eye

Mydriasis (paralysis of the pupillary sphincter muscle, pupil dilation) Cycloplegia (paralysis of the ciliary muscles, no accomodation)

Movement of Na+, K+, and Cl- if membrane potential is between -85 mV and +55 mV

Na+: inflow K+: outflow Cl-: if under -60 outflow, if above -60 inflow

Movement of Na+, K+, and Cl- if membrane potential is 0 mV

Na+: inflow K+: outflow Cl-: inflow

Movement of Na+, K+, and Cl- if the membrane potential is +10 mV

Na+: inflow K+: outflow Cl-: inflow

Which visual field does not decussate?

Nasal visual field, projected on the temporal part of the retina

Polarity of cathode

Negative

Location of GLUT3

Neuron

In which patient group can the Babinski reflex be physiological?

Newborns

Which substance inhibits nicotinic ach receptors?

Nicotine

Type of receptors on ganglia

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

What kind of receptors are on the adrenal medulla?

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

What do the dopaminergic pathways from the substantia nigra to the striatum form?

Nigrostriatal dopaminergic system

What is observed in the mamillary reflex?

Nipple erection

Do PSPs have a threshold?

No

Anode is closer to the muscle, circuit is closed, open conduction between the two poles, strong stimulus is on. What is observed?

No contraction

Cathode is closer to the muscle, circuit is open, open conduction between the two poles, post strong stimulus. What is observed?

No contraction (AP elicited around the anode cannot pass through the negative charge accumulation around the cathode)

Cathode is closer to the muscle, circuit is open, open conduction between the two poles, post low stimulus excitation. What is observed?

No muscle contraction

What is observed in the crossed extensor reflex if the ipsilateral dorsal root is cut?

No reflex (no sensory input to initiate the reflex)

Can Post synaptic potentials (PSPs) be inhibited by TTX, why?

No, they do not use fast voltage gated Na+ channels.

Other name for DM2

Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus

What kind of hormone is the hPL?

Nonapeptide

Which enzymes are required for the synthesis of androgens/sex hormones from progesterone?

None

Effect of increased stimulus intensity on the amplitude of the contraction curve, above maximum threshold

None, all fibers have reached their threshold

What is observed in the crossed extensor reflex if the contralateral dorsal root is cut?

Normal reflex, ipsilateral flexion and contralateral extension

What can be seen in a proestrus phase?

Nucleated epithelial cells

Typical body shape for DM2 patients

Obese/overweight

Result of ventromedial hypothalamus

Obesity (no feeling of satiety)

What are hair cells made of?

One kinocilium and multiple smaller stereocilia

How is reflex time measured in a decapitated frog?

One leg is put into acetic acid and the reflex time is measured

What is the dominant cell type in the diestrus/anestrus?

Only a few cells are present, mainly leukocytes

What is observed in the crossed extensor reflex if the ipsilateral ventral root is cut?

Only contralateral extension

What is observed in the crossed extensor reflex if the contralateral ventral root is cut?

Only ipsilateral flexion

What causes the depolarization in the AP?

Opening of fast voltage gated Na+ channels causes Na+ influx

What causes repolarization in the AP?

Opening of voltage gated K+ channels causes K+ outflow

What is tested in the corneal reflex?

Ophthalmic nerve (afferent) and facial nerve (efferent)

Which is the most important pathway from the optic tract?

Optic tract-lateral geniculate body-optic radiation-primary visual cortex

Oroxigenic molecules

Orexin, ghrelin, insulin

Where is linear acceleration detected?

Otolith organs

Typical onset of DM2

Over 40 years old

Which hormones are produced by the hypothalamus?

Oxytocin, TRH, CRH, GnRH, GHRH, ADH

What stimulates calcitriol?

PTH

Parasympathetic or sympathetic fibers are longer, and why?

Parasympathetic, because the ganglia are located on the viscera and not close to the spinal cord

What is eserine?

Parasympathomimetic agent, it inhibits acetylcholine esterase (no breakdown of acetylcholine)

Types of sympathetic ganglia

Paravertebral (sympathetic trunk) and prevertebral

Which disease presents if the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system does not work properly?

Parkinson's disease (low dopamine levels)

What is the Babinski reflex?

Pathological response to the plantar reflex, dorsal flexion

Pupil/light reflex pathway

Photoreceptors in the retina-bipolar cell-ganglion cell-optic nerve-optic chiasm-optic tract-pretectal region-Edinger Westphal nucleus-parasympathetic preganglionic fibers-ciliary ganglion-parasympathetic postganglionic fibers- pupillary sphincter muscle-miosis (pupillary constriction)

What factors increases the formation of GH?

Physical exercise, sleeping, and low blood glucose levels

Decreased levels og GH in childhood

Pituitary dwarfism

What can bitemporal hemianopia be a sign of?

Pituitary gland tumor

What is observed in the achilles tendon reflex?

Plantar flexion

What is observed in the plantar reflex?

Plantar flexion

Characteristics of experimental setup for each of the polar excitement, Pflüger's law, and electrotonus examinations

Polar excitement: one stimulator, conduction between poles is blocked via NH4+ Pflügers law: one stimulator, free conduction between poles Electrotonus: two stimulators, free conduction between poles

Anode is closer to the muscle, circuit has just been opened, no conduction between the two poles. What is observed?

Polarities switch. There is a depolarization (accumulation of positive ions) around the anode, a contraction is observed.

Other names for exteroceptive reflex

Polysynaptic, skin, surface reflex

Symptoms of hyperglycemia

Polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia, itchy skin

Which center is tested in the masseteric reflex?

Pons

Via what does GHRH reach the pituitary gland?

Portal vessels

Polarity of anode

Positive

Where do the two somatosensory systems terminate?

Postcentral gyrus

Where is the heating center located?

Posterior hypothalamus

Types of implicit memory

Procedural, priming, classical conditioning/pavlovian, non-associative

Which hormone increases after ovulation?

Progesterone

Steps of synthesis of corticosterone from progesterone

Progesterone -> 11-desoxyxorticosterone -> corticosterone

Which hormones increase towards the end of the pregnancy?

Progesterone, estradiol, hPL (human placenta lactogen)

Which hormone in the anterior pituitary is not affected if the portal circulation is blocked?

Prolactin

Two uterine phases

Proliferative and secretory

which phase in humans does the proestrus correspond to?

Proliferative phase (uterus), follicular phase (ovaries)

What causes iatrogenic Cushing's?

Prolonged glucocorticoid therapy

What are the two types of reflexes?

Proprioceptive and exteroceptive

In which form are thyroid hormones mostly found in?

Protein bound (thyroxin binding globulin)

Functions of A-delta fibers (type III fibers)

Protopathic sensation

Type of sensation carried by the spinothalamic system

Protopathic: pain, temperature, crude touch

Which factors can activate the stress-axis?

Psychological stress Physical stress: extreme exercise, pain, hypoglycemia

Where does the pyramidal tract cross?

Pyramidal decussation (medulla)

What can the babinski reflex indicate?

Pyramidal tract lesion

Origin of the descending monoaminergic system

Raphe nucleus of the brain

What are TRVP-1 receptors?

Receptors found mainly in the nociceptive neurons (such as free nerve endings). They are involved in the transmission of pain (nociception)

Function of EEG

Recording the electrical activity of the brain

Location of GLUT 1

Red blood cells and blood brain barrier

Deuter anomaly

Reduced pigment in green cones

Protanomoly

Reduced pigment in red cones

Tritanomaly

Reduced pigment in the blue cones

function of cerebellum

Regulation of movements, motor coordination, and muscle tone regulation

Effect of TSH on thyroid gland

Release of T3 (tri-iodo-thyronine) and T4 (tetra-iodo-thyronine/thyroxin)

Effect of TRH on the anterior pituitary

Release of TSH

Example of semantic memory

Remembering facts

Symptoms of Parkinson's disease

Resting tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, hypokinesia, akinesia, micrography, postural instability, increased salivation, poor facial expressions

Layers of the eyeball

Retina, choroidea, sclera

What does rhodopsin consist of?

Retinal and opsin

Characteristics of endolymph

Rich in K+ (similar to intracellular fluid)

Characteristic of perilymph

Rich in Na+ (similar to extracellular fluid)

In the tonic neck reflexes, what does turning the head to the right result in?

Right side extension of the limbs and left side flexion of the limbs

There is a lesion in the left optic tract, which vision is affected?

Right temporal vision, left nasal vision (homonymous hemianopia)

If the fast component is rightwards and the slow one is leftwards, which is the direction of the nystagmus?

Rightwards

Which receptors are affected by vitamin A deficiency?

Rods

Which type of photoreceptors are important for scotopic vision?

Rods

What is tested in the plantar reflex?

S1-S2

Which segments are tested in the achilles tendon reflex?

S1-S2

What is tested in the anal sphincter?

S4-S5 segments

Which structures in the cochlea are filled with endolymph?

Scala media

Which structures in the cochlea are filled with perilymph?

Scala tympani and scala vestibuli

Why do levels of progesterone increase in the luteal phase?

Secreted by corpus luteum which grows in the luteal phase

Which phases in humans does the metestrus and diestrus correspond to?

Secretory phase/luteal phase

Where is angular acceleration detected?

Semicircular canal

What are the two components of the vestibular apparatus?

Semicircular canals and otolith organs

Neurotransmitter of the descending monoaminergic pathway

Serotonin

Symptoms of low decerebration

Sherringtonian reflexes (tonic labirynthine and neck reflexes) can be evoked, no righting reflex (postural reflex), no locomotion, hyperactive proprioceptive reflex

Symptoms of high decerebration

Sherringtonian reflexes and righting reflexes can be evoked, locomotion may be evoked upon painful stimulus

Other name for myopia

Short sighted

Loctation of peripheral thermoreceptors

Skin, liver, and skeletal muscle

Typical body shape in individuals with DM1

Skinny, the cells of the body are not getting any glucose

What happens if you wake up in REM phase?

Sleep paralysis

Effect of increased corticsol on CNS

Sleepiness, depression

When are theta waves normal?

Sleeping adults, children anytime

What are the indications for an EEG examination?

Sleeping disorder, epilepsy, brain death

What causes hyperpolarization at the end of the neuron AP?

Slow closure of the K+ channels

Components of nystagmus

Slow component and fast component

Two main phases of the sleep cycle

Slow wave sleep and REM phase

Where do the fibers in the spinothalamic tract decussate?

Spinal cord, same level of corresponding DRG

Via which pathway are the signals from the peripheral receptors carried?

Spinothalamic pathway

Which structures in the basal ganglia can be inhibited by the striatum?

Substantia nigra, pallidum (pars interna and externa)

Where can information from the optic tract go?

Superior colliculus, pretectal region, lateral geniculate body

Which hypothalamic nuclei produce oxytocin and ADH?

Supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei

What is tested in the mamillary reflex?

T4 segment

What is tested in the superficial abdominal reflex?

T7-T11 segments

Which segments are tested in the abdominal reflex?

T8-T12

Which hormones are present in a bigger concentration in the portal circulation than in the peripheral circulation?

TRH

In which case can goiter be present in hyperthyroidism?

TSH producing tumor, autoimmune disease (antibodies stimulate TSH release)

Which hormones are produced in the anterior pituitary?

TSH, ACTH, LH, FSH, GH, prolactin

Effect of LH on testis, and via which cells

Targets Leydig cells and increases production of testosterone

Effect of FSH on testis, and via which cells

Targets Sertoli cells, increases spermatogenesis and inhibin production

What does the equilibrium potential depend on (Nernst equation)?

Temperature, ion charge, intracellular and extracellular concentrations

Which visual field decussates?

Temporal visual fiels, projected on the nasal part of the retina

How would the shape of the compound AP change when the recording electrodes are moved further away?

The AP becomes wider

How does the amplitude of the contraction curve change when the intensity of the stimulus is increased (from above threshold to higher), and why?

The amplitude is increased, more fibers are activated (each fiber has a different threshold). This is called a compound stimulus, where the APs of individual fibers are summated

How is the amplitude of the PSP different compared to the amplitude of the AP?

The amplitude of the AP is constant while that of the PSP decreases with time and distance

What causes the refractory period in neurons?

The fast voltage gated sodium dependent channels have an inactivation gate that needs to be reset after an AP. The time taken for the inactivation gate to reset back into the activation gate is the refractory period within which no AP can be elicited.

Effect of higher acetic acid concentration on reflex time

The higher the concentration, the shorter the reflex time

Relation between excitability and diameter of nerve fibers

The larger the diameter, the higher the excitability (lower threshold)

Cathode is closer to the muscle, circuit has just been opened, no conduction between the two poles. What is observed?

The polarities of the cathode and anode will switch. There will be a hyperpolarization (accumulation of negative charge) around the cathode, no contraction is elicited.

Why does 11-beta-hydroxylase deficiency cause non-salt losing form of androgenital-syndrome?

The production of 11-desoxycorticosterone and corticosterone is not inhibited since 21-beta-hydroxylase is present. 11-desoxycorticosterone and corticosterone have a sreduced but similar effect as aldosterone

What generates the electrical activity of the brain?

The pyramidal cells in the 5th cortical layer are the main generators of post synaptic potentials. The depolarization (EPSP) or hyperpolarization (IPSP) will cause an electrical difference between the cortical layers which forms an electrical current that can be measured by an EEG

Why do the levels of FSH regress during the follicular phase?

The rise in estrogen inhibits FSH secretion

How is the mechanical stimulus from sound waves transformed into an electrical signal?

The sound waves result in movement of the endolymph. The movement of the endolymph results in the movement of the stereocilia towards the kinocilium. This causes opening of the mechanosensitive potassium channels, resulting in K+ influx (endolymph is rich in K+). The inflow of K+ causes depolarization and opening of the voltage gated calcium channels. This results in the influx of calcium and the release of neurotransmitters (glutamate/excitatory). Glutamate binds to the NMDA-R receptors on the sensory neuron which causes opening of the ligand gated Na+ channels. The inflow of sodium to the sensory neuron causes a depolarization and the signal is transported.

What forms the EEG wave?

The summation of about 1 million PSPs

What is the Bell-Magendie law?

The ventral root is the motor root, posterior root is the sensory root

Anode is closer to the muscle, closed circuit, no conduction between the two poles. What is observed?

There is a hyperpolarization around the anode (accumulation of negative ions), no contraction is elicited

Why is there no anode break excitation with a strong stimulus, cathode closer to the muscle?

There is a large accumulation of negative charge around the cathode, blocking the AP which was elicited around the anode from reaching the muscle

What is the cathode make excitation?

There is an accumulation of positive charge around the cathode, causing depolarization and increase in excitability. It is easier to elicit a contraction, lower threshold

Three types of physiological nystagmus

Thermal nystagmus, optokinetic nystagmus, postrotational nystagmus

Why are calcium channels important for signal transmission?

They cause exocytocis of the vesicles with neurotransmitters into the synapse where they can bind to the posynaptic membrane

Why do PSPs not have a refractory period?

They do not depend on fast voltage gated Na+ channels; no inactivation gate

How do glucocorticoids cause high blood pressure?

They increase the sensistivity of adrenergic receptors and increase water and salt retention

Which parts does proinsulin consist of?

Three amino acid chains: A, B and C. The C chain conects the A and B chains

Which reflexes can be evoked in decerebration (both types)?

Tonic labyrinthine reflex and tonic reflesxes

Function of the ossicles

Transmition and amplification of sound

Which cells release hCG?

Trophoblast cells

Way of action of dopamine on prolactin

Tuberoinfundibular dopaminergic system

Which parts does insulin consist of?

Two amino acid chains: A and B chain

Difference between type one and two Addison's disease

Type one causes hyperpigmentation, not the secondary type

Type of feedback by which TRH acts on itself

Ultrashort negative feedback

Characteristics of petit mal seizure

Unconsciousness, absence (zoning out)

Which frequency is the infrasound?

Under 20 Hz

Two types of leads in EEG

Unipolar and bipolar

Characteristics of grand mal seizure

Unvoluntary movements, unconcsiousness, shaking

In the tonic neck reflexes, what does lifting the head up result in?

Upper limbs are extended and lower limbs flexed

Effect of ADH on V1, V2, and V1-b receptors

V1: vasodilation V1-b: release of adrenocorticotrope hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary V2: collecting tubules, water retention

How does the posterior hypothalamus decrease the temperature?

Vasoconstriction, decreases sweating, shivering, change in behaviour

How does the anterior hypothalamus cool the body?

Vasodilation in the periphery, sweating, change in behaviour (undressing, seeking shade)

Location of glucose receptor neurons

Ventromedial hypothalamus

What is examined in the compass reflex?

Vestibular system

What is examined in the turning reflex?

Vestibular system

How does adrenaline increase blood glucose levels?

Via beta 2 receptors in the liver, it stimulates the breakdown of glycogen. Via alpha receptors on beta cells, it inhibits the production and secretion of insulin.

Why do glucocorticoids cuase decreased calcium content in bones?

Via inhibition of osteoblasts

How does GnRH reach the anterior pituitary gland?

Via portal vessels

How does TRH reach the anterior pituitary gland?

Via portal vessels

Which vision do patients with presbyopia struggle with?

Vision of objects close to the eye

What is iconic memory?

Visual memory

Which vitamin is important for rhodopsin?

Vitamin A

Which vitamin is required for the production of steroid hormones from cholesterol?

Vitamin C

Other names for calcitriol

Vitamin D and 1,25 dihydroxycholecalciferol

where are the fast voltage gated sodium channels found in the neuron?

nodes of ranvier and axon hillock

Neurotransmitter released by sympathetic postganglionic fibers

norepinephrine

Where is calcitonin produced?

parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland (c-cells)

What kind of hormone is glucagon?

peptide hormone

When do gamma waves occur?

When focusing

How is the convexity of the lens changed?

When the ciliary muscles contract, the zonular fibers relax and the lens becomes more loose. The looser the lens is, the more of a convex shape it will hold.

Strabismic ambylopia

When the eyes are not alligned, the brain turns off the visual input from one of the eyes (to avoid getting

Which reflexes can be investigated in a decapitated frog?

Wiping reflex, reflex time, embracing refles, Brondgest phenomenon

What causes prebyopia?

With age, the lens becomes more rigid and issues arise with the accomodation

Which scenario can provoke beta waves?

Writing a test

Which chromosome is color vision linked to?

X chromosome

Duration of long term memory

Years

What is the inner layer of the adrenal cortex?

Zona reticularis

Optokinetic nystagmus

a reflexive eye movement in which the eyes will involuntarily track a continually moving object

Function of alpha cells

produce glucagon

Four phases of estrous cycle

proestrus, estrus, metestrus, diestrus

blood glucose in diabetes mellitus

above 7 mmol/L

Neurotransmitter released by preganglionic neurons

acetylcholine

Where are glucocorticoids produced?

adrenal cortex

Where is epinephrine produced?

adrenal medulla

Where is glucagon produced?

alpha cells of pancreas

What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

Impaired fasting glucose (IFG)

an intermediate stage between normal glucose homeostasis and diabetes.

Hemiballism

an involuntary and violent movement of a large body part

Where is the aqueous humor located?

anterior chamber (between cornea and lens)

Where is growth hormone produced?

anterior pituitary gland

Where are the hair cells in the cochlea located?

basilar membrane

where is insulin produced?

beta cells of pancreas

effect of TTX (tetradotoxin)

blocks fast voltage gated sodium channels

effect of TEA (tetra ethyl ammonium)

blocks voltage gated potassium channels

How does glucagon increase blood glucose?

breaks down glycogen and stimulates gluconeogenesis

What is myosis?

pupil constriction

effect of inhibitory synapse on the post synaptic membrane

chloride and potassium channels open causing outflow of potassium and inflow of chloride, resulting in a hyperpolarization of the post synaptic membrane (making it harder to elicit an AP)

What kind of cells are in the adrenal medulla?

chromaffin cells which produce catecholamines (adrenaline, noradrenaline and dopamine)

What is myxedema?

condition caused by hypothyroidism where proteoglycans escape into the interstitial fluid and cause fluid retention (osmotically active)

Strabism

cross-eyed

How is astigmatism corrected?

cylindrical lens

Hypoalgesia

decreased pain sensation

Where is somatostatin produced?

delta cells of pancreas

Function of inner hair cells

detect sound

What is mydriasis?

pupil dilation

What inhibits prolactin?

dopamine

What is goiter?

enlargement of the thyroid gland

types of explicit memory

episodic and semantic

Types of long term memory

explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative)

Where does fertilization take place?

fallopian tubes

Example of episodic memory

first day of school

Two ovarian phases

follicular and luteal

what is GIP?

gastric inhibitory peptide, or glucose dependent insulinotrop peptide. It is secreted by the proximal part of the small intestine and inhibits gastric juice secretion and stimulates insulin production (promotes digestion).

which hormones increase blood glucose?

glucagon, adrenaline, noradrenaline, glucocorticoids (cortisol), growth hormone, thyroid hormones, and somatostatin

What does the zona fasciculata secrete?

glucocorticoids (cortisol) and androgens

which substances stimulate beta cells?

glucose, some amino acids, glucagon, parasympathetic nervous system (Ach), incretins (GIP, GLP-1)

Which neurotransmitters are found in the excitatory synapse?

glutamate and aspartate

What type of hormone is hCG?

glycoprotein hormone

types of nonassociative learning

habituation and sensitization

What is the organ of Corti composed of?

hair cells and supporting cells forming neuroepithelium

What connects the scala tympani to the scala vestibuli?

helicotrema

Auditory agnosia

inability to recognize sounds

Hyperalgesia

increased pain sensation

function of aldosterone

increases Na+ reabsorption, K+ and H+ secretion

What is the end plate potential?

initial depolarization of motor end plate

which hormones decrease blood glucose?

insulin

What causes goiter?

iodine deficiency

Photopigment in cones

iodopsin

NMDA-R

ionotropic receptor for glutamate when bound, becomes permeable to cations (Na/Ca)

role of somatostatin in blood glucose regulation

it raises blood glucose and inhibits beta cells in the pancreas

Ataxia

lack of muscle coordination

Where is the hunger center located?

lateral hypothalamus

amblyopia

lazy eye

range of blood glucose in hypoglycemia

less than 3.5 mmol/L

normal OGTT

less than 7.8 mmol/l

Duration of sensory memory

less than a second

Sensory aphasia

loss of ability to understand language

Anesthesia

loss of sensation

what are the characteristics of GLUT2?

low affinity and high capacity for glucose

Effect of calcitonin of blood calcium

lowers blood calcium

1st menstruation

menarche

What is the adrenal medulla?

modified sympathetic ganglion

which blood glucose values in an OGTT are indicative of diabetes mellitus?

more than 11 mmol/l

Location of GLUT4

muscle and adipose tissue

Protonopia

red color blindness, no red cones

Types of cones

red, green, blue

When do alpha waves occur?

restful waking state (such as meditation)

Photopigment in rods

rhodopsin

Example of procedural memory

riding a bike

type of axonal conduction of AP

saltatory

Duration of short term memory

seconds to minutes

Location of GLUT5

small intestine

why do GLUT2 have low affinity for glucose?

so that glucose is only taken in when it is abundant in the blood, not when its scarce and needed for energy production

why do GLUT2 have high capacity for glucose?

so that high amount of glucose can be taken up and more insulin synthesised to regulated the blood glucose

effect of excitatory synapse on the post synaptic membrane

sodium and calcium channels open, causing inflow of sodium and calcium and depolarization of the post synaptic membrane

What is the resting membrane potential maintained by?

sodium potassium ATPase

which molecules inhibit beta cells?

somatostatin, adrenaline, and noradrenaline via alpha receptors.

Where is Norepinephrine produced?

sympathetic postganglionic fibers

how are beta cells stimulated? what is the result?

they are stimulated by glucose via GLUT2 and result in the production of insulin.

Where is iodine stored?

thyroid gland

What is TRH and what does it do?

thyrotropin releasing hormone, it stimulates prolactin

where are voltage gated potassium channels found in the neuron?

under the myelin sheath

Capacity of long term memory

unlimited

What are the two otolith organs?

utricle and saccule

Where is the satiety center located?

ventromedial hypothalamus

What is the middle layer of the adrenal cortex?

zona fasciculata

equilibrium membrane potential for Na+

+55 mV

Organs involved in the stress axis and their corresponding products

- Hypothalamus: corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) - Anterior pituitary: adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - Adrenal cortex: cortisol(glucocorticoid)

Functions of GH

- growth processes - anabolic hormone; increases protein synthesis and increases muscle mass - increases blood glucose by decreaseing glucose uptake by cells - increases lipolysis

Range of membrane potential in which both the activation and inactivation gates of the fast voltage gated sodium channels are open

-20 to -40 mV

Membrane potential at which the inactivation gate of the voltage gated sodium channels is closed (also MP at which potassium channels open; peak of AP)

-30 mV

Equilibrium membrane potential for Cl-

-60 mV

Equilibrium membrane potential for K+

-85 mV

Reasons for a false positive pregnancy test with the immunological method

In males: testicular cancer In females: abnormally high FSH and LH levels caused by menopause, choliocarcinoma, wilms tumor, hydratidiform mole

where are the voltage dependent calcium channels found on the neuron?

In the axon terminal

Where are parasympathetic ganglia located?

In the wall of the innervated organ (intramural)

How do glucocorticoids increase blood glucose?

Increase gluconeogenesis and decrease glucose uptake

How does T3 and T4 increase blood glucose?

Increase glucose absorption from the small intestine

Functions of glucocorticoids (cortisol)

Increase of blood sugar via increasing gluconeogenesis, increasing glycogen synthesis, decreased glucose uptake of cells, increased proteolysis, amino acid release from skeletal muscle, lipolysis in limbs (central shift of adipose tissue), surfactant production by type II pneumocytes, increased sensitivity of adrenergic receptors, decreased calcium in bones, increased sensitivity of mineralocorticoid receptors (water and salt retention), inmmunosuppressiv effect, decreased WBC, decreased interleukin levels, decreased C-reactive protein levels

What is cathelectrotonus?

Increase of excitability around the cathode due to the accumulation of positive charge (depolarization)

Effect of amino acids on glucagon secretion

Increased

Effect of anelectrotonus on the threshold

Increased

Effect of catecholamins of glucagon secretion

Increased

Effect of glucose on glucose receptor neurons

Increased activity (after eating, BS increases, activity of glucose receptor neurons increases, ventromedial hypothalamus is activated-satiety)

Effect of gestational diabetes on chance of developing DM2

Increased by 50%

Effect of Cushing syndrome

Increased cortisol levels

Effect of oroxigenic molecules

Increased food intake

Why does hyperthyroidism cause exophthalamus?

Increased proliferation of retrobulbar tissue

Effect of glucocorticoids on glucagon

Increased secretion

Effect of growth hormone on glucagon

Increased secretion

Causes of increased pain sensation (hyperalgesia or allodynia)

Increased sensitivity of nociceptors, inflammation

Effect of acidosis on concentration of free calcium

Increased, plasma proteins bind H+

Effect of glucagon on blood glucose

Increases

Effect of testosterone on spermatogenesis

Increases

Effect of PTH on calcium levels on blood calcium

Increases blood calcium

Effect of calcitriol on blood calcium

Increases blood calcium

How does GH increase blood glucose?

Increases glucose levels and decreases glucose uptake by the cells

How does adrenaline and noradrenaline increase blood glucose?

Increases glycogen break down in the liver via beta-2 receptors

Functions of TSH

Increases iodine uptake to thyroid gland Increases size of thyroid gland Increases all enzymes involved in T3 and T4 formation Increases thyroglobulin formation

Function of testosterone in females

Increases libido

Effect of kisspeptines

Inhibit GnRH during lactation

Effect of ACTH on CRH

Inhibition

Effect of T3 on TSH

Inhibition

Effect of TSH on TRH

Inhibition

Effect of cortisol on ACTH

Inhibition

Effect of cortisol on CRH

Inhibition

Effect of dopamine on prolactin

Inhibition

Effect of estradiol on LH (not the end of follicular phase)?

Inhibition

Effect of insulin on hormone sensitive lipase

Inhibition

Effect of insulin on lipolysis

Inhibition

Effect of insulin, somatostatin, and glucose on glucagon secretion

Inhibition

Effect of magnesium on NMDA-R

Inhibition

Effect of testosterone on LH and GnRH

Inhibition

Final outcome of the indirect loop on the thalmaus

Inhibition

Effect of LH and FSH on GnRH

Inhibition (negative feedback)

Types of post synaptic potentials

Inhibitory and excitatory

What kind of fibers does the substantia nigra receive from the striatum?

Inhibitory fibers (GABA)

What kind of fibers does the thalamus receive from the substantia nigra?

Inhibitory fibers (GABA)

What kind of interneuron is the Renshaw cell?

Inhibitory neuron

Effect of inhibin

Inhibits secretion of FSH and GnRH

Effect of progesterone on hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland

Inhibits secretion of GnRH, LH, and FSH

Effect of increased sensitivity of adrenergic receptors

-Beta-1 receptors in the heart: increased HR, SV, CO, BP -alpha-1 receptors in the vessels: increased TPR and BP

Causes of hemiballism

Injury of subthalamic nucleus, pathways between subthalamic nucleus and globus pallidus

Which factors activate adrenocorticotropic hormone?

-CRH (hypothalamus) -catecholamines (adrenaline, noradrenaline) -ADH/vasopressin (via V1-b receptors)

Causes of secondary Addison's disease

-CRH deficiency -> low ACTH -> low cortisol -ACTH deficiency -> low cortisol

Reasons for secondary Cushing syndrome

-CRH overproduction -> increased ATCH -> high cortisol -ACTH overproduction -> high cortisol

In which cases can postganglionic sympathetic fibers secrete acetylcholine

Innervation of sweat glands

Effect of FSH and LH on ovaries

-Production of estradiol by theca interna cells and granulosa cells -Production of progesterone by corpus luteum

Effect of hyperparathyroidism on urine

-decreased calcium concentration -increased phosphate concentration

Characteristics of gamma waves

-high frequency -small amplitude -short duration

Endocrine causes of hyperglycemia

-hyperthyroidism -giantism (GH, childhood) -acromegaly (GH, adult) -glucagonoma (glucagon producing tumor) -cushing-syndrome (cortisol overproduction) -pheocromocytoma (adrenal medulla tumor) -somatostatinoma

Function of descending monoaminergic system

It inhibits pain transmission at the level of the spinal cord with serotonin

How does PTH decrease plasma phosphate?

It inhibits the Na+/PO4 2- cotransportes in the proximal convoluted tubule

Why is color blindness more frequent in males?

It is linked to X chromosomes

Why can high levels of LH give a false positive hCG test?

LH and hCG have the same beta subunit, they have very similar structures

Other examples of glycoprotein hormone

LH, FSH, TSH (released by anterior pituitary)

glycoprotein hormones

LH, FSH, TSH, hCG

What is diabetes mellitus type 1 caused by?

Lack of insulin, viral infection, autoimmune disease where antibodies are produced against beta cells of the pancreas

Decreased levels IGF-1 in childhood

Laron's dwarfism

On which side of the retina is the nasal vision projected?

Lateral

Where are glucose sensitive neurons located?

Lateral hypothalamus

In the tonic neck reflexes, what does turning the head to the left result in?

Left side of extension of the limbs and right side flexion of the limbs

There is a lesion in the right optic tract, which vision is affected?

Left temporal vision, right nasal vision (homonymous hemianopia)

Anorexigenic molecules

Leptin and CCK

What causes hemiballism?

Lesion of the subthalamic nucleus or the pathways between the subthalamic nucleus and the pallidum

Duration of AP in neuron

Less than 4 ms

What is the dominant cell type in the metaestrus?

Leukocytes

What type of receptors are on the post synaptic membrane?

Ligand gated ion channels

Issue in hypermettropia

Light rays are focused behind the retina, the refractive power is too weak

Issue in myopia

Light rays are focused in front of the retina, the refractive power is too strong

Effect of pheochromocytoma (adrenal medulla tumor)

-increased BP -hyperglycemia -mydriasis (pupil dilation) -piloerection -increased HR, BP, SV, CO, TPR -decreased blood flow to GI, urogenital tract, and skin -increased blood flow to skeletal muscle and coronary aa -decreased gastric motility and secretion of gastric juice -sphincter contriction -uterus and urinary bladder relaxation

Visual pathway

Light-photoreceptors-bipolar cell-ganglion cell-optic nerve-optic chiasma-optic tract

Which part of the body has the finest two point discrimnation?

Lip

Acute stress reactions

-increased blood glucose via B2-receptors on the liver -increased FFA via B3 receptors in adipose tissue -pupil dilation via A1 receptors on dilator pupil m. -piloerection via A1 receptors on erector pili -increased HR, SV, CO, BP via B1-receptors in the heart -increased TPR via A1-receptors on vessels (vasoconstriction) -decreased blood flow to GI, urogenital tract, skin via A1-receptors -increased blood flow to skeletal muscle and coronary aa via B2-receptors -decreased gastric motility and gastric juice production -sphincter constriction via A receptors -uterus and urinary bladder relaxation via B2-receptors

Effect of hyperparathyroidism on plasma

-increased calcium concentration -decreased phosphate concentration

Effect of insulin on skeletal muscle

-increased glucose uptake via GLUT4 -increased glycogen synthesis -increased protein synthesis -increased amino acid uptake -decreased proteolysis -decreased amino acid release -increased potassium uptake

Effect of insulin on adipose tissue

-increased glucose uptake via GLUT4 -increased lipid synthesis -increased lipid uptake via stimulation of lipoprotein lipase -decreased lipolysis via inhibition of the hormone sensitive lipase -decreased free fatty acid release -decreased ketone body formation

Functions of glucagon

-increased glycogenolysis -increased gluconeogenesis -glucose release from the liver -increased proteolysis -amino acid release from skeletal muscle -increased lipolysis

How does calcitriol increase blooc calcium?

-increases calcium ansorption from the GI -increases calcium reabsorption in the kidneys

Effect of PTH

-increases calcium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule -increases osteoclast activity -decreases concentration of plasma phosphate

Effect of prolactin

-milk production -surfactant production -stimulates kisspeptines

Function of testosterone in males

-promotion of spermatogenesis -increases protein synthesis (anabolic steroid hormone) -responsible for primary and secondary male features

Function of oxytocin

-uterine contraction -milk ejection -orgasm -prosocial hormone -pair bonding -maternal behavior

Threshold for the human ear (in decibel)

0 dB

What is the standard sound pressure?

0 dB or 20 uPa

Frequency of delta waves

0-4 Hz

how is an oral glucose tolerance test performed?

1 g/bwkg is dissolved in 300 ml of water and consumed within 10 minutes. The blood glucose is measured 2 hours later

Conduction velocity of C fibers

1 m/s

Diameter of C fibers

1 micron

Extracellular concentration of free calcium ions

1,1-1,4 mmol/l

Effect of insulin on liver (enough glucose)

1- increased glycogen synthesis 2- decreased glycogenolysis 3- decreased gluconeogenesis 4- increased lipid formation from glucose (lipogenesis) 5- increased glycolysis 6- decreased ketone body formation

How long is the refractory period in a neuron?

1-2 ms

Length of neuron AP

1-2 ms (less than 4 ms)

Typical onset of DM1

10-24 years old

If you double the sound decibel, by how much does the frequency increase?

100 times

Enzyme required for synthesis of aldosterone from corticosterone

11-beta hydroxylase

What is the molecular mechanism elicited by light in the photoreceptors?

11-cis-retinal —> trans-retinal

Conduction velocity of A-delta neurons

12-30 m/s

Frequency of beta waves

13-30 Hz

Diameter of A-alpha fibers

15 microns

Conduction velocity of A-gamma neurons

15-30 m/s

Which enzymes are present in the zona fasicularis and reticularis?

17-alpha-hydroxylase

Which enzyme in the glomerular zone of the glomerular zone of the adrenal cortex is responsible for the production of aldosterone?

18-aldehyde oxygenase enzyme

The ratio of inner to outer hair cells in the human cochlea is approximately

1:3

What are the 4 stages of slow wave sleep and their characteristics?

1st stage: alpha waves (restful waking state) disappear and are replaced with theta waves (light sleep) 2nd stage 3rd stage: delta waves appear (synchronized, low frequency, high amplitude) 4th stage: delta waves (synchronized, low frequency, high amplitude)

Total concentration of extracellular calcium

2,2-2,8 mmol/l

How many pascals is 0 dB?

20 micropascal

Formula for sound pressure level in dB

20 x log10( given sound pressure/standard sound pressure)

How much of the sleep cycle does the REM phase in adults occupy?

20%

Range of frequencies that can e detected by the human ear

20-20 000 Hz

Length of AP in pacemaker cells

200-300 ms

Causes of androgenital syndrome/virilism (androgen overproduction)?

21-beta-hydroxilase deficiency, 11-beta-hydroxilase deficiency, androgen producing tumor, hyperactivation of reticular zone

Enzyme required for synthesis of corticosterone from progesterone

21-beta-hydroxylase

Which enzymes are required for the synthesis of glucocorticoids (cortisol) from progesterone?

21-beta-hydroxylase and 11-beta-hydroxylase

Enzymes required for the synthesis of aldosterone from progesterone

21-beta-hydroxylase, 11-beta-hydroxylase

Refractive power of the lens

23 diopters

Diurnal cycle

24 hour cycle

How long is the normal female cycle?

28 days

How can a petit mal seizure be recognized on an EEG?

3 Hz spike wave (3 spike waves in 1 second)

Diameter of A-delta fibers

3 microns

Diameter of B fibers

3 microns

Conduction velocity of B fibers

3-15 m/s

Above which undetected threshold is there a hearing deficit?

30 dB

Frequency of gamma waves

30-100 Hz

Conduction velocity of A-beta neurons

30-70 m/s

How long is the longitudinal section of the cochlea?

33 mm

How long is the rat cycle?

4-5 days

normal fasting blood glucose

4-5.5 mmol/L

Average weight of fetus in pregnancy with gestational diabetes

4-6 kg

Length of AP in skeletal muscle

4-6 ms

Frequency of theta waves

4-8 Hz

Refractive power of the cornea

42 diopters

Diameter of A-gamma fibers

5 microns

When does implantation take place?

5-6 days after fertilization

How much of the sleep phase in newborns does the REM phase occupy?

50-60%

how many amino acids does insulin have?

51

range of blood glucose in IFG

6-7 mmol/L

Total refractive power of the eye

65 diopters

Capacity of short term memory

7 +/- 2 items

impaired glucose tolerance blood glucose range

7.8-11 mmol/l

Conduction velocity of A-alpha neurons

70-120 m/s

Diameter of A-beta fibers

8 microns

Frequency of alpha waves

8-13 Hz

How much of the sleep phase in a fetus does the REM phase occupy?

80%

How many amino acids does proinsulin consist of?

86

Above which undetected threshold is one deaf?

90 dB

How long is one sleep cycle?

90 minutes

Infradian cycle

>24 hr cycle

Why does iodine deficiency cause goiter?

A deficiency prevents the synthesis of T3 and T4 which means that there are no thyroid hormones synthesized. Thus, no negative feedback on TSH which will increase in production and cause the enlargement of the thyroid gland.

Which are the fastest and slowest fibers?

A-alpha are the fastest, C fibers are the slowest

Which fibers innervate the extrafusal fibers of the muscle spindle?

A-alpha motor neurons

Which fibers are characteristic of the DCML?

A-beta fibers

Which fibers are characteristic of the spinothalamic tract?

A-delta fibers and C fibers

Which motor/efferent fibers innervate the intrafusal fibers of the muscle spindle?

A-gamma motor neurons

Which hormones are secreted by the posterior pituitary?

ADH and oxytocin

Which frequency is the ultrasound?

Above 20 000 Hz

Neurotransmitter released by parasympathetic postganglionic fibers

Acetylcholine

Describe the process from the release of acetylcholine to the generation of AP in the skeletal muscle

Ach binds to acetylcholine receptors on the muscle cell membrane (sarcolemma) which causes opening of ligand gated Na+ channels, and Na+ will flow into the cell. This will cause a depolarization (EPP) of the sarcolemma and activate the fast voltage gated Na+ channels. This causes further inflow of Na+ and the generation of the AP (overshoot).

Where is prolactin produced?

Acidophilic cells of the anterior pituitary gland

What is echoic memory?

Acoustic memory

Increased levels of GH in adulthood

Acromegaly

Which requires more energy to be evoked, action potential or PSP?

Action potential, requires activation of fast voltage gated Na+ channels

Final outcome of the direct loop on the thalamus

Activation

Corresponding activation/inhibition for the direct loop: Cortex-striatum-pars interna-thalamus

Activation-inhibition-inhibition (all in all activation)

Corresponding activation/inhibition for the following pathway: Cortex-striatum-substantia nigra-thalamus

Activation-inhibition-inhibition (all in all activation)

Corresponding activation/inhibition for the indirect loop: Cortex-striatum-pars externa-subthalamic nucleus-pars interna-thalamus

Activation-inhibition-inhibition-activation-inhibition (all in all inhibition)

Where are leptin and CCK released from?

Adipose tissue

Causes of primary Addison's disease

Adrenal cortex failure

Which hormones can increase blood glucose?

Adrenalin, noradrenaline, glucagon, growth hormone, glucocorticoids, thyroid hormones, somatostatin (by inhibiting insulin)

Which hormones does proopiomelanocortin gene produce?

Adrenocorticotrope hormone (ACTH), melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH), lipoprotein hormone (LPH), and beta-endorphin hormone

When are delta waves normal?

Adults in deep sleep, children anytime

Why can menopause result in a false positive hCG test?

After menopause, estradiol and progesterone levels decrease. There is no negative feedback on FSH and LH, which will increase. The high levels of FSH and LH can cross-react with hCG and give a positive test.

Which molecules can be synthesized from cholesterol?

Aldosterone/mineralocorticoids, cortisol/glucocorticoids, and androgens/sex steriods

Maximum threshold in compound AP

All axons are activated

Effect of alpha 1 receptors and beta 2 receptors in vessels (both adrenergic)

Alpha 1: vasoconstriction Beta 2: vasodilation

Components of hCG

Alpha and beta subunit

What subunits are glycoprotein hormones composed of?

Alpha and beta subunits

Function of outer hair cells

Amplify and modify the sound

What are the two main characteristics of muscle stimulus?

Amplitude and duration (pulse width) of stimulus

How is the antagonist muscle in the monosynaptic reflex relaxed?

An inhibitory interneuron can move in between the segments and inhibit the alpha motor neuron for the antagonist muscle.

What is observed in the compass reflex?

An intact frog is placed in a clockwise-rotating chamber, the intact frog turns antclockwise

Effect of 21-beta-hydroxylase enzyme deficiency on the synthesis of mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) and glucocorticoids (cortisol)

Androgenital syndrom (virilism), salt-losing form

Effect of 11-beta-hydroxylase enzyme deficiency

Androgenital syndrome, non-salt-losing form

Which molecules are synthesized in the case of 21-beta-hydroxylase deficiency?

Androgens/sex steroids

What stimulates the production of aldosterone?

Angiotensin II, hyperkalemia, hyponatremia, ACTH (adrenocorticotroph hormone)

Result of damage to the lateral hypothalamus

Anorexia (no feeling of hunger)

Where is the cooling center located?

Anterior hypothalamus

Which antibody is used in the immunological method (pregnancy test)?

Anti beta hCG antibodies

What can be seen in an estrus phase?

Anucleated epithelial cells

Minimum threshold in compound AP

At least 1 axon is activated

How many electrodes are needed to perform an EEG?

At least three electrodes

Characteristics of REM phase

Atonia, lack of thermoregulation, irregular autonomic function

Which drug can inhibit the pupillary reflex at the level of the pupillary sphincter muscle?

Atropine, blocks muscarinic acetylcholine receptors

What is Myasthenia gravis?

Autoimmune disease where antibodies are produced against the muscle type nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. This results in muscle weakness

What can be used to block nicotinic acetylcholine recpetors in the autonomic ganglion and motor end plate (separately)?

Autonomic ganglion: high dose of nicotine Motor end plate: curare/tubocurarine

Function of B fibers (type III fibers)

Autonomic preganglionic fibers

When do beta waves occur?

Awake adult, REM phase of sleeping

Where are the fast voltage gated Na+ channels located in C fibers?

Axon hillock and whole axon

Way of transport of hPL from hypothalamus to posterior pituitary gland

Axonal transport

Why does 21-beta hydroxylase deficiency result in salt-losing form of virilism?

Because no aldosterone is produced and therefore less Na+ is reabsorbed

Why is the concentration of glucose low in the ejaculate?

Because sperm cells consume glucose

Which parts of the rotational movements are detected by the semicircular canal?

Beginning and the end

Location of GLUT2

Beta cells of pancreas, liver, kidneys, and small intestine

Which subunit differentiates the glycoprotein hormones (FSH, LH, TSH, hCG)?

Beta subunit

Which subunit in glycoproteins is different?

Beta subunit

Where is the vitreous humor located?

Between the lens and the retina

Where in the cochlea is the organ of Corti located?

Between the scala media and the scala tympani

Difference between unipolar and bipolar leads

Bipolar leads: measure voltage difference between two electrodes Unipolar leads: measure voltage difference between different and indifferent electrode

What is the characteristic of the optic disc?

Blind spot with no photoreceptors

Tritanopia

Blue color blindness

What does an isoelectric line on an EEG indicate?

Brain death

Importance of the REM phase

Brain development in fetuses, conversion of short term memory to long term memory

What can delta waves in an awake adult indicate?

Brain disturbances

What can theta waves in an awake adult indicate?

Brain disturbances

Effect of decreased corticsol on CNS

Brain malfunctions

How are catecholamines metabolized?

By MAO-A (monoamino oxydase), MAO-B, and COMPT (cathecolamine ortho-methyl transferase)

How will alpha receptor blockers affect blood glucose levels and how?

By blocking alpha receptors, adrenaline cannot bind and will not inhibit the production and secretion of insulin. Insulin will be produced and the blood glucose levels will decrease.

Where is the hPL produced?

By the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus

Which segments are tested in the biceps reflex?

C5-C6

Which segments are tested in the brachioradialis reflex?

C5-C6

Which segments are tested in the triceps reflex?

C6-C8

Which segments are tested in the brachioulnaris reflex?

C7-C8

Functions of thyroid hormones

CNS development in childhood and growth processes Increase metabolic rate Increase cell metabolism Increase number and function of mitochondria Increase blood glucose levels via increasing glucose uptake from the GI Increase heat production Increase sensitivity of adrenergic receptors

Activators of TRVP-1 receptors

Capsaicin (spicy food), ischemia of the heart, ischemia of skeletal muscle

Examples of infradian cycles

Cardiac cycle, respiratory cycle

Which is stronger from cathode make excitation and anode break excitation?

Cathode make excitation

Where is PTH produced?

Chief cells of parathyroid gland

How is aldosterone synthesized from cholesterol?

Cholesterol -> pregonolon -> progesterone -> 11-desoxy-corticosterone -> corticosterone -> aldosterone

Which side of the body presents hemiballism compared to location of subthalamic nucleus lesion?

Contralateral

Postrotational nystagmus

Contralateral nystagmus after rotation

Where in the spinal cord is the spinothalamic tract located?

Contralaterally in the lateral and anterior columns

Components of the accomodation triad

Convergence of eyeballs, pupil constriction, accomodation (lens becomes more convex)

How can presbyopia be corrected?

Convex lens

How is hypermettropia corrected?

Convex lens (converging lens)

Part of the eye with the highest refractive power

Cornea

What is astigmatism?

Cornea is not spherical so the refraction is different is different angles

Which reflexes are intact in spinal shock?

Corneal and pharyngela reflexes

List 7 exteroceptive reflexes

Corneal reflex, pharyngeal reflex, mamillary reflex, superficial abdominal reflex, creamster reflex, plantar reflex, anal reflex

Which reflexes can be investigated in an intact frog?

Corneal reflex, turning reflex, compass reflex, immobility reflex

Components of the indirect loop (basal ganglia)

Cortex-striatum-pars externa-subthalamic nucleus-pars interna-thalamus

Components of the direct loop (basal ganglia)

Cortex-striatum-pars interna-thalamus

Why does adrenal cortex cause hyperpigmentation?

Corticsol inhibits ACTH, without it the levels of ACTH will increase. This causes increased transcription of propriomelanocortin gene which stimulates MSH, causing hyperpigmentation

Which hormone is affected by addison's disease and in what way?

Cortisol levels are decreased

Reasons for primary Cushing syndrome

Cortisol overproduction

Where do the 1st neurons of the DCML synapse?

Cuneate or gracile nucleus

Endocrine reasons for diabetes mellitus

Cushing syndrome, giantism/acromegaly, pheocromocytoma, glucagonoma, somatostatinoma, hyperthyroidism

High decerebration

Damage above the red nucleus

Low decerebration

Damage between the pons and medulla

When can fertilization take place?

Day 12-16

What is observed in the wiping reflex?

Decapitated frog tries to move the patch with acetic acid away

What is observed in the embracing reflex?

Decapitated male frog embraces whatever is put between its limbs during mating season

Effect of cathelectrotonus on the threshold

Decreased

Effect of lidocaine and ether on the conduction velocity of nerve fibers

Decreased

Effect of glucose on glucose sensitive neurons

Decreased activity (after eating, BS increases, activity of glucose sensitive neurons decreases, less activity of LH-hunger center)

Effect of decreased temperature on conduction velocity

Decreased conduction velocity

Effect of anorexigenic molecules

Decreased food intake

Symptoms of hypothyroidism

Decreased metabolic rate, overweight, myxedema, low HR and BP

Effect of increased amino acid release from skeletal muscle as a result of glucocorticoid exposure

Decreased muscle mass and increased gluconeogenesis

How will cutting the dorsal fibers affect the muscle tone?

Decreased muscle tone (no input from Ia and II fibers)

What is anelectrotonus?

Decreased of excitability around the anode due to accumulation of negative charge (hyperpolarization)

Causes of decreased or absent pain sensation

Decreased sensitivity of nociceptors, adaptation of nocicpetors

Effect of alkalosis on concentration of free calcium

Decreased, plasma proteins release H+ and bind calcium

Treatments for Parkinson's disease

Deep brain stimulation and L-DOPA

Which types of waves (EEG) have the highest amplitude?

Delta

In a closed circuit, what happens around the cathode?

Depolarization (accumulation of positive ions)

Characteristics of beta waves

Desynchronized (short amplitude and high frequency)

Function of utricle

Detects horizontal acceleration

Function of saccule

Detects vertical acceleration

What is gestation diabetes?

Diabetes developed during pregnancy

Relation between diameter of fibers and conduction velocity

Directly proportional, the wider the faster

Explain briefly the 10-20 system for electrode placement

Distance between the nasion and inion is divided into portions of 10%-20%-20%-20%-20%-10%

Determination of nerve conductance velocity

Distance between the two recording electrodes (mm) divided by the time delay between the peaks on the two contraction curves (ms)

Types of biological rythms

Diurnal, infradian, utradian

Two types of somatosensory systems

Dorsal column meidal lemniscus and spinothalamic system

Where do the 1st neurons of the spinothalamic tract synapse?

Dorsal horn of the spinal cord

Why does LH and FSH increase towards the end of the luteal phase?

Due to the decrease in estradiol and progesterone which inhibit LH and FSH

Why does adrenal cortex cause low BP?

Due to unresponsiveness of catecholamines, water and electrolyte imbalance

Which organs produce calcitriol?

Liver, kidneys, skin

There is a lesion in the optic chiasm, which vision is affected?

Loss of temporal vision on the right and left eye (bitemporal hemianopia)

Characteristics of slow wave sleep

Low HR, low BP, low metabolic rate, low respiration, low muscle tone (energy conservation)

Characteristics of GLUT2

Low affinity (blood glucose should be higer than normal) and high capacity (a lot of glucose molecules can be taken up to produce adequate amount of insulin)

Which gradient works against the concentration gradient across the cell membrane?

Electrical gradient

What are the hair cells immersed in?

Endoplymph

Functions of A-beta fibers (type II fibers)

Epicritic sentation and secondary endings of muscle spindle/sensory fibers from proprioceptors

Type of sensation carried by the DCML

Epicritic: fine touch (two point disrimination, graphesthesia), vibration

Which hormone of the menstrual cycle is characterized by two peaks?

Estradiol

What is observed in the brachioulnar reflex?

Extension

What is observed in the patellar reflex?

Extension at the knee joint

What is observed in the triceps reflex?

Extension in the elbow

Auditory pathway

External acoustic meatus-tympanic membrane-malleus/incus/stapes-oval window-cochlea-organ of Corti-spiral ganglion-cochlear nerve-cochlear nucleus-superior olive-lateral lemniscus-inferior colliculus-medial geniculate body-auditory radiation-primary auditory cortex-wernicke's area

What is observed in the corneal reflex?

Eye blink after touching the cornea

Which muscles have a tone in the REM phase?

Eye muscles and respiratory muscles

Which stimulus can stop alpha waves?

Eye opening, light stimulus

Which hormone is characterized by a small peak before ovulation?

FSH

Other name for hypermettropia

Far sighted

What can evoke an epileptic seizure?

Flashing light, hyperventilation, sleeplessness

What is observed in the brachioradial reflex?

Flexion and supination

What is observed in the biceps reflex?

Flexion and supination in the elbow

What is the crossed extensor reflex?

Flexion of stimulated limb and extension of contralateral limb

In tonic neck reflexes, what does lowering the head result in?

Flexion of upper limbs and extension of lower limbs

Where are the light rays focused on the retina?

Fovea centralis

Which form of thyroid hormones is active?

Free form

neurotransmitters in inhibitory synapse

GABA and glycine

Types of molecules released by the fibers from the striatum to the pallidum

GABA, substance P, encephalin

What do acidophil cells in the anterior pituitary release?

GH and prolactin

Effect of GHRH on the anterior pituitary gland

GH release

What stimulates alpha cells?

GH, glucocorticoids, catecholamines, arginine

which glucose transporter is insulin independent?

GLUT2

Which type of glucose transporter is insulin dependent?

GLUT4

What is observed in the pharyngeal reflex?

Gagging

Which type of waves (EEG) have the lowest amplitude?

Gamma

Types of EEG waves

Gamma, beta, alpha, theta, delta

Increased levels of GH in childhood

Gigantism

In which zone of the adrenal cortex are mineralocorticoids produced?

Glomerular zone (outer layer)

What is tested in the pharyngeal reflex?

Glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves

Dominating hormone during post-absorptive phase

Glucagon

what is GLP-1?

Glucagon like peptide-1 (GLP-1): Secreted from L-cells of the ileum and colon (as well as neurons of the solitary tract) this hormone/neurotransmitter has a half-life of only 1-2 minutes, but has receptors in the brain, gut and pancreas. It stimulates insulin secretion by B-cells of the pancreas and suppresses appetite in the brain. GLP-1 analogs are now used in treatment of obesity in type 2 diabetes.

Describe the cellular mechanism of insulin production in beta cells

Glucose 6-P is produced from glucose and activates the preproinsulin gene. The preproinsulin gene codes for proinsulin which will differentiate into insulin and C peptide

Describe the cellular mechanism of insulin secretion in beta cells

Glucose is taken up by GLUT2 in the pancreatic beta cells. Glucose is phosphorylated into G6-P which undergoes glycolysis, TCA, and oxidative phosphorylation, producing ATP. ATP inhibits the ATP sensitive potassium channels, causing a depolarization of the cell membrane. The increase of the membrane potential activates the voltage gated calcium channels. The inflow of calcium ions causes a hypopolarization of the cell membrane which stimulates the exocytosis of vesicles containing C-peptide and insulin.

What type of fibers go from the subthalamic nucleus to pars interna?

Glutaminergic fibers

What kind of fibers does the striatum receive from the cortex?

Glutaminergic/excitatory fibers

Which neurotransmitter do the Renshaw cells use?

Glycine

Why does the long-term release of glucocorticoids cause an increase in glycogen synthesis?

Glycogen is synthesized in preparation for acute stress and the increased need for glucose this requires.

Which hormones are transported from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary via the portal circulation?

GnRH, GHRH, TRH, CRH

2 main types of epilepsy

Grand mal seizure, petit mal seizure

Deuter anopia

Green color blindness

What type of electrodes are used for EEGs?

Ground electrode Active/different electrode Passive/indifferent electrode

Reasons for a false negative pregnancy test with the immunological method

HCG levels are not high enough

What is a cholicarcinoma?

HCG producing tumor

Complications of diabetes mellitus

Heart failure, kidney failure, retinopathy, vasculopathy, neuropathy, stroke, delayed wound healing

Which hormone increases at the beginning of pregnancy until week 10 and then decreases?

Human chorionic gonadotropin hormone (hCG)

Which hormone is increased after implantation?

Human chorionic gonatotropin (hCG)

Symptoms of hypoglycemia

Hunger, pale skin, sweating, tachycardia, irritability

What stimulates the production of calcitonin?

Hypercalcemia

Side effects of increased glucocorticoids

Hyperglycemia (steroid DM), muscle loss, central shift of adipose tissue, osteoporosis, high blood pressure, gastric ulcer, weak immune system

What is characteristic of DM2 at the start?

Hyperinsulinaemia

What happens to the photoreceptors when they absorb photons?

Hyperpolarization

What stimulates PTH?

Hypocalcemia

Effect of adrenal cortex failure (no glucocorticoids/mineralocorticoids)

Hypoglycemia, low blood pressure, inadequate stress response, hyperpigmentation

Where is tRH released from?

Hypothalamus

Where is the gonadotrope releasing hormone (GnRH) released?

Hypothalamus

Where is GHRH produced?

Hypothalamus (arcuate nucleus)

Which sensory/afferent fibers innervate the intrafusal fibers of the muscle spindle?

Ia (A-alpha) and II (A-beta) fibers

Which fibers innervate the golgi tendon organ?

Ib fibers (A-alpha)

Types of sensory memory

Iconic, echoic, taste, and smell

What is the anode break excitation?

Immediately after the circuit is opened, there is an accumulation of positive charge around the anode. This causes a depolarization which can travel towards the muscle when there is an open conduction between the two poles. This is only observed in medium stimulus with the cathode closer to the muscle

Special types of conditioning

Impriting, autoshaping, conditioned taste aversion, latent learning, curiosity

What is the Brondgest phenomenon?

In a decapitated frog, hanging from a hook, the hind leg is not hanging passively but has a certain flexor tone. This flexor tone is elicited by the gravitational force which stretches the muscle spindle

Main difference between compund AP and individual AP

In individual AP, the all or nothing law applies. An increase in stimulus intensity has no effect on the amplitude

Which receptors are only active in day time?

Cones

Which type of photoreceptors are important for photopic vision?

Cones

What is observed in the anal reflex?

Constriction of the anal sphincter

Why is the light focused on the fovea centralis?

Contains many cones

Anode is closer to the muscle, circuit is open, open conduction between the two poles, post strong stimulus. What is observed?

Contraction (anode break excitation)

What is observed in the abdominal reflex?

Contraction of the abdominal muscle

What is observed in the cremaster reflex?

Contraction of the ipsilateral cremasteric muscle

What is observed in the superficial abdominal reflex?

Contraction of the ipsilateral muscle

Characteristics of myogenic lesion

Contraction with low amplitude

Which directions can nystagmus be observed in?

Horizontal, vertical, rotational

Examples of diurnal cycles

Hormones, body temperature, and sleep/wake cycle

What stimulates free nerve endings?

Hot, cols, local acidosis

What is hemiballism?

Involuntary large movement on one side of the body

Where in the spinal cord is the CDML located?

Ipsilaterally in the dorsal column

In Brown sequard syndrome, which functions are lost below the level of injury and on which side?

Ipsilaterally: motor function and epicritic sensation Contralaterally: protopathic sensation

In Brown sequard syndrome, which functions are preserved below the level of injury and on which side?

Ipsilaterally: protopathic sentation Contralaterally: motor functions and epicritic sensation

What type of issues arise in vitamin A deficiency?

Issues with scotopic vision (night vision)

How does calcitonin act?

It acticated osteoblasts and calcium is absorbed into the bone

Why is L-DOPA used instead of dopamine?

It can cross the blood-brain barrier

There is a lesion in the left optic nerve, which vision is affected?

Complete loss of vision on the left eye (left eye anopia)

There is a lesion in the right optic nerve, which vision is affected?

Complete loss of vision on the right eye (right eye anopia)

Possible causes of neuropathic pain

Compression of sensory neuron/spinal cord, spontaneous activity of nociceptors, thalamus, cortex, malfunction of periaqueductal gray matter, phantom pain, psychogenic pain

How is myopia corrected?

Concave lens (diverging lens)

Capacity of sensory memory

High

Effect of Conn-syndrome (hyperaldosteronism)

High BP, hypokalemia, high blood pH (metabolic alkalosis), low levels of free calcium

What can inhibit nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

High dose of nicotine

Difference between high and low decerebration (symptoms)

High: righting reflex and locomotion can be evoked Low: no righting reflex or locomotion, hyperreflexia

Dominating hormone during nutrient absorption phase

Insulin

Other name for DM1

Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus

Causes of diabetes mellitus type 2

Insulin resistance, decreased sensitivity of insulin receptors, genes, lifestyle

What inhibits alpha cells?

Insulin, somatostatin, and glucose

What is observed in the immobility reflex?

Intact frog is placed on its back and pushed down on the sternum then released without touching the legs. The frog will lie still/play dead

What is observed in the turning reflex?

Intact frog turns back to its original position after being placed on its back

Why is the amplitude of the AP constant?

It is restored at the nodes of Ranvier via fast voltage activated Na+ channels

Target organs of aldosterone

Kidneys (collecting ducts), salivary glands, sweat glands, colon, and gallbladder

What is tested in the cremaster reflex?

L1-L2 segments

Which segments are tested in the patellar reflex?

L2-L4

Which hormone of the menstrual cycle is characterized by a big peak before ovulation (day-14)?

LH

Effect of GnRH from hypothalamus on anterior pituitary gland

Stimulates release oof FSH and LH

Which organ does GH affect and how?

Stimulates the release of somatomedin from the liver (e.g IGF-1)

Effect of LH on GnRH in late follicular phase when estradiol is high

Stimulation

Effect of insulin on lipoprotein lipase

Stimulation

Which structure in the scala media produces the endolymph?

Stria vascularis

Which neurotransmitters are involved in the pain pathway

Substance P, encephalin, endorphins

What kind of innervation do blood vessels have?

Sympathetic

Symptoms of spinal shock

Sympathetic dysfunction (low BP, TPR, no ejaculation), cold extremities/no peripheral thermoregulation, parasympathetic dysfunction (passive incontinence, no erection)

Innervation of adrenal medulla

Sympathetic preganglionic fibers (Ach)

What causes pale skin, sweating, and tachycardia in hypoglycemia?

Symphathetic activation

Characteristics of alpha waves

Synchronized (low frequency, high amplitude)

How can the eye accomodate to an object far away?

The ciliary muscles relax, zonular fibers tighten and pull the lens which becomes less concave and is able to focus on that object

Difference in experimental setup between investigation of polar excitement and Pflüger's law

The conduction between the anode and cathode is not blocked in the Pflüger investigation; no NH4+ block.

Why do levels of estradiol and progesterone decrease at the end of the luteal phase?

The corpus luteum dies (becomes corpus albican which does not secrete progesterone or estrogen)

Thermal nystagmus

Warm water is poured inside the ear, increasing the temperature of the vestibular system and inducing perilymph movement. Warm water will cause ipsilateral nystagmus while cold water will cause contralateral nystagmus.

Symptoms of hyperthyroidism

Weight loss, exophtalamus, high HR, high systolic BP and blood glucose

Where does the issue reside in sensory aphasia?

Wernicke's area