MCAT consolidated

Antisocial personality disorder

Antisocial personality disorder is characterized by a pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others through repeated illegal acts, aggressiveness or lack of remorse -three times more prevalent in men -cluster B personality disorder

Arrhenius acid definition

Arrhenius acids dissociate to form an excess of H⁺ in solution

Asparagine Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Asparagine Polar side chain Neutral side chain at physiologic pH Nonaromatic Hydrophilic *Remember that amide side chains are not protonated/deprotonated no matter the pH*

van der waals equation of state -a term attempts to correct for..? -b term attempts to correct for..?

Attempts to correct for deviations from the ideal gas law --the "a" term attempts to correct for the attractive forces between molecules, and as such will be smaller for gases that are small and less polarizable, larger for gases that are larger and more polarizable, and largest for polar molecules --the "b" term corrects for the volume of the molecules themselves and thus larger molecules will have large values for b Note that intermolecular forces affect pressure, not volume

Thermoregulation

Because the entire respiratory tract is highly vascular, it can be used for thermoregulation --heat (the transfer of thermal energy) is regulated through the body surfaces by vasodilation and vasoconstriction --as capillaries expand, more blood can pass through these vessels, allowing more heat to be dissipated --as capillaries contact, less blood can pass through them, conserving thermal energy While these capillary beds provide a mechanism for thermoregulation, humans predominantly regulate temperature using capillaries and sweat glands in the skin, or rapid muscle contraction (shivering)

What is Benedict's reagent and what is its significance?

Benedict's reagent is used to detect the presence of reducing sugars (monosaccharides with a hemiacetal ring) --When mixed with the aldose, the aldehyde group is readily oxidized, indicated by a red precipitate of Cu₂O

Bimodal distribution

Bimodal distributions contains two peaks with a valley in between --if there is sufficient separation of the two peaks, or a sufficiently small amount of data within the valley region, bimodal distributions can often be analyzed as two separate distributions However, they do not have to be analyzed as two separate distributions - the same measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) can be applied to them as well

Body dysmorphic disorder

Body dysmorphic disorder is characterized by an obsessive preoccupation that some aspect of one's own appearance is severely flawed and warrants exceptional measures to hide or fix it -this preoccupation disrupts everyday life, and may lead to multiple plastic surgeries or other extreme interventions

Rules for capacitors in parallel

Capacitors in parallel look like resistors in parallel 1. Add up capacitance as you would resistors in series 2. For capacitors in parallel, the voltage across each is the same and equal to the emf 3. Q can be found for each by using the source voltage and individual capacitances

Cellulose --what kind of bonds is it made up of? --what is its main function?

Cellulose is a homopolysaccharide composed of β-D-glucose molecules linked by β-1,4 glycosidic bonds with hydrogen bonds holding the actual polymer chains together for support --main structural component of plants that because we lack the cellulase enzyme, are a great source of fiber

Centrioles

Centrioles are found in the region of the cell known as the centrosome, and serve as organizing centers for microtubules and are structured as nine triplets of microtubules --during mitosis, the centrioles migrate to opposite poles of the dividing cell and form the mitotic spindle apparatus --the microtubules emanating from the centrioles attach to the chromosomes via complexes called kinetochores and can exert force on the sister chromatids, pulling them apart

Thrombus formation

Clots are composed of both coagulation factors and platelets that help prevent blood loss --when the endothelium of a blood vessel is damaged, the underlying connective tissue, which contains collagen and a protein called tissue factor, is exposed When platelets come into contact with exposed collagen, they sense this as injury and begin clumping together --coagulation factors secreted by the liver also sense tissue factor and initiate a complex activation cascade Cascade -prothrombin --> thrombin via thromboplastin -fibrinogen --> fibrin via thrombin -fibrin forms small fibers that aggregate into a woven structure that captures RBCs and other platelets, forming a stable clot --this clot will eventually be broken down by plasmin, generated from plasminogen

Consensus cues

Consensus cues relate to the extent to which a person's behavior differs from others -if a person deviates from socially-expected behavior, we are likely to form a dispositional attribution about the person's behavior

Disproprotionation

Disproportionation (also called dismutation) is a specific type of redox reaction in which an element undergoes both oxidation and reduction in producing its products --these are ususally accomplished by enzymes that have metals such as Cu and Zn in their active sites that act as reducing agents Catalase, an important biological enzyme used to protect cells by excessive oxidation by free radicals or ROS, is an example

Elongation factors in translation -function

Elongation factors help remove GDP, as well as locate and recruit the correct aminoacyl-tRNAs

The formation of memory is divided into what three categories?

Encoding Storage Retrieval

Environmental justice

Environmental justice (location and exposure to health risks): poor neighborhoods are cheap due to factors such as pollution, crime rate, lower access to quality healthcare, crowded conditions. Poor people can't afford expensive housing, so they reside here and are exposed to more health risks. Infectious disease rates are higher in people of lower socioeconomic status

State the basic tenet of Erikson's psychosocial development model and the number of stages it involves

Erikson's stages of personality development are based on a series of crises that derive from conflicts between needs and social demands --there are eight such conflicts --Erikson is considered a psychoanalyst

Basic model of emotional expression

Espoused by Darwin, who believed that emotional expression was consistent with his theories on evolution and should be similar across cultures -involves a number of components including facial expressions, behaviors, postures, vocal changes and physiological changes

Origins of replication in eukaryotic DNA

Eukaryotic chromosomes are linear -these have multiple origins of replications/replication forks -as these move toward one another, sister chromatids are created, remaining connected at the centromere until anaphase

What is the density of CO₂ gas at 2 atm and 273°C?

Find the volume of the gas using the values given for P₂ and T₂, and the STP values for pressure and temperature for P₁, T₁, and V₁ (a gas occupies 22.4L at STP) -once the volume of the gas has been determined, the density can be found using the volume and the molar mass of the gas: Molar mass/Volume = Density [g/mol] / [L/mol] = [g/L]

Multiple lens systems not in contact

For lenses not in contact, the image of one lens becomes the object of another lens given by the following equation --telescope, microscopes are good examples

Functionalist approach to sociology

Functionalism, or functional analysis, is the study of the structure and function of each part of society --functions help keep society in balance, while dysfunctions are harmful consequences of people's actions

Fundamental attribution error

Fundamental attribution error posits that we are generally biased toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions, especially in negative contexts -if a team member is unable to finish his portion of the project, our immediate response would be to assume that they are lazy or incompetent (dispositional), rather than suffering from a family tragedy or got sick (situational)

How to determine an element's valence electrons?

Group I+II elements --> s subshell electrons Groups 13-18 --> s and p subshells Transition elements --> s and d subshells Actinide + lanthanide --> s and f subshells Note that all elements in period three and below may accept electrons into their d subshells, violating the octet rule

Distinguish between group polarization and choice shift

Group polarization is used to describe behavior at the individual level due to the influence of the group, while choice shifts describe the behavior change of the group as a whole as a result

Learning theory of attitudes

The learning theory posits that attitudes are developed through different forms of learning: --direct contact (positive attitude toward sweets) --other's attitudes (a teenager smoking because friends do) --conditioning

Retro-aldol reaction

In a retro-aldol reaction, a bond is broken between the α- and β-carbons of the carbonyl, forming two aldehydes, two ketones, or one of each

Alternative function of mitochondria

In addition to keeping the cell alive by providing energy, the mitochondria are also capable of killing the cell by release of enzymes from the ETC, initiating the process of apoptosis, or programmed cell death

Differentiate between gastrulation in deuterostomes and protostomes

In deuterostomes such as humans, the blastopore forms the anus, while in protostomes, it develops into the mouth --in deuterostomes, the mouth forms where the archenteron meets the ectoderm

Solution equilibrium definition

In the process of creating a solution, the equilibrium is defined as the saturation point, where the solute concentration is at its maximum value for the given temperature and pressure -systems move either spontaneously toward this equilibrium position, or non-spontaneously away from it

Intensity of sound definition and units

Intensity is the average rate of energy transfer per area across a surface that is perpendicular to the wave and is given in W/m² -while the loudness/volume of sound is subjective depending on brain function and factors such as stiffening of ossicles, the intensity of sound is objectively measurable

Distinguish between intergenerational and intragenerational mobility

Intragenerational changes in social status happen within a person's lifetime, while intergenerational changes are from parents to children

Distinguish between kinetic and thermodynamic enolates

Kinetically-controlled enolate products feature the double bond on the less-substituted alpha carbon and are formed more rapidly but are less stable Thermodynamically-controlled enolate products feature the double bond on the more-substituted alpha carbon and are formed more slowly but are more stable

Lewis acid definition

Lewis acids are defined as electron pair acceptors

Rectilinear propagation

Light that is traveling through a homogeneous medium will travel in a straight line --direction will change at an interface between two media

Solubility product constant (Ksp) and temperature

Like all equilibrium constants, Ksp is temperature-dependent -generally increases with temperature increases for non-gas solutes and decreases for gas solutes

Limbic system --area of the brain --subdivisions/associated structures

The limbic system is one of three structures that make up the telencephalon, which is part of the prosencephalon (forebrain) Associated structures: Septal nuclei --one of the primary pleasure centers and is associated with addictive behavior Amygdala --important for defensive and aggressive behaviors Hippocampus --vital to learning and long-term memory formation --communicates with other parts of the limbic system via the fornix

How is major depressive disorder diagnosed?

Major depressive disorder is a mood disorder characterized by: -at least one major depressive episode lasting at least two weeks -five of the nine possible symptoms of a major depressive episode -at least one symptom must be either depressed mood or anhedonia

Managing appearances as an impression management strategy

Managing appearances involves using appearance, associations with others or emotional expression to create a positive image -keeping calm when dealing with a difficult patient

Method-of-action of marijuana and effects

Marijuana's active ingredient, THC, acts at cannabinoid, glycine and opioid receptors, which increase GABA and dopamine activity Effects seem to fall into the categories of stimulant, depressant and hallucinogen

Measures of distribution/dispersion

Measures of distribution describe the spread of data --range, IQ ranges are examples

Mendel's second law

Mendel's law of independent assortment states that inheritance if one gene does not affect the inheritance of another gene --recall that before meiosis I, spermatogonia and oogonia undergo genome replication to produce sister chromatids that undergo recombination during prophase I --linked genes are an exception

Distinguish between obstructive and central sleep apnea

Obstructive sleep apnea occurs when a physical blockage prevents airflow, while central sleep apnea occurs when the brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe

Parasomnias

Parasomnias consist mainly of inappropriate physical behaviors that intrude predominantly during sleep -sleep walking, night terrors, teeth grinding

β-pleated sheet secondary structure of proteins

Peptide chains form rows held together by intramolecular hydrogen bonds between carbonyl oxygen atoms on one chain, and amide hydrogen atoms in an adjacent chain -can be parallel or antiparallel -proline is often found in β-pleated sheets, providing a kink at a turn

Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases

The molecules responsible for the cell cycle are known as cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) --during the cell cycle, concentrations of the various cyclins increase and decrease during specific stages, which bind to CDKs to create an activated CDK-cyclin complex --this complex can then phosphorylate transcription factors that promote transcription of genes required for the next stage of the cell cycle

Phase equilibria

Phase equilibria are states in which more than one phase exists --as with all equilibria, the change in gibbs free energy must be equal to zero G(g) = G(s)

The problem-solving theory of dreaming

Posits that dreams are untethered to the rules of the real world, allowing interpretation of obstacles differently than during waking hours

Learning theory of language acquisition

Posits that language acquisition functions according to operant conditioning/reinforcement --very young babies are capable of distinguishing between phonemes of all human languages, but by six months of age, show a strong preference for phonemes in the language spoken by their parents --accounts for development of speech, but fails to do so for the explosion in vocabulary during childhood

Significance of the linguistic relativity (Whorfian) hypothesis

Posits that the way we think about the world is determined by the content of language, seeking to describe a relationship between language and cognition --for instance, inuits are better able to discriminate subtleties between different types of snow, because their language includes a wide variety of names for different types

Power definition and equation

Power refers to the rate at which energy is transferred from one system to another -measured in Watts (J/s)

What are the three most important social factors that influence prejudice?

Power, prestige and class -unequal distribution of these can result in the grouping of haves and have-nots, which may develop negative attitudes about the other

Preparedness

Preparedness is a concept developed to explain why certain associations are learned more readily than others --for example, phobias related to survival, such as snakes, spiders, and heights, are much more common and much easier to induce in the laboratory than other kinds of fears

Pressure-volume curves

Pressure-volume curves help us determine the work done on or by a system undergoing a thermodynamic process -if pressure remains constant as volume changes, then the area under the curve is the volume change and thus the work done, according to W=P∆V -remember that the area of a right triangle is 1/2(base)(height), should it be necessary

Distinguish between prezygotic and postzygotic mechanisms of reproductive isolation

Prezygotic mechanisms prevent formation of the zygote completely, while postzygotic mechanisms allow for gamete fusion but yield either nonviable or sterile offspring

Proline Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Proline Nonpolar side chain Neutral side chain at physiologic pH Nonaromatic Hydrophobic

Sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA

Recall that enzymes only work in the 5' --> 3' direction (top to bottom in the picture)

Recognition

Recognition is a form of memory retrieval that merely identifies a piece of information that was previously learned --far easier than recall

Parallel evolution

Same lineage, evolving closer together to be similar, using similar mechanisms -for example, the feeding structure in different species of crustaceans -the feeding structure came from mutation of pair of legs, turning them into mouth parts. This is a prime example of parallel evolution: same lineage, similar traits, evolved from similar mechanisms/mutations.

Nucleotide excision repair in DNA -proteins involved? -when does it occur?

Specific proteins scan the DNA molecule and recognize the lesion because of a bulge in the strand --an endonuclease then makes nicks in the phosphodiester backbone of the damaged strand on both sides of the thymine dimer and removes the defective oligonucleotide --DNA polymerase can then fill in the gap by synthesizing DNA in the 5' --> 3' direction, using the undamaged strand as a template --occurs in G₁/G₂ phases

Spherical abberation

Spherical abberation is the blurring of the periphery of an image resulting from inadequate reflection of either parallel beams at the edge of a mirror, or inadequate refraction of parallel beams at the edge of a lens

Sphygmomanometer

Sphygmomanometer are used to measure gauge pressure in systemic circulation --recall that gauge pressure that which is above and beyond atmospheric pressure (760mmHg)

When do we use standard temperature and pressure and what are the conditions?

Standard temperature and pressure (STP) conditions are used for ideal gas calculations --0°C (273K) and 1 atm

State-dependent memory

State-dependent memory is a retrieval cue through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed --thus, being in a bad mood primes negative memories --people who learn skills while intoxicated will show better recall when performing those same tasks while intoxicated than while sober

Strain theory

Strain theory focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance --excessive individualism, social inequality and isolation are examples of anomic conditions which erode social solidarity

Structural isomers

Structural isomers share only the same molecular formula/weight but have very different connectivities.

Generalization

Term used in classical conditioning to describe the broadening effect by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response

I band of the sarcomere

The I band is the region containing only thin filaments -shortens during contraction

Bulk modulus and its effect on sound

The bulk modulus increases disproportionally more than density as one goes from gas to liquid to solid --therefore, sound travels fastest through solid and slowest through a gas

Cell cycle checkpoints and regulatory proteins

1. At the G₁/S checkpoint, the cell determines if the DNA is in good enough condition for synthesis --if there is damage to the DNA, the cell cycle goes into arrest until the DNA is repaired --main protein in control of this process is p53 2. At the G₂/M checkpoint, the concern is whether the cell has achieved adequate size and the organelles have been properly replicated to support the two daughter cells --p53 plays a role here

Three selves with regard to impression management

1. Authentic self -who the person actually is 2. Ideal self -who we would like to be 3. Tactical self -who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us -similar to the ought self described by the self-discrepancy theory, which seeks to explain the three ways selves that make up our self-concept

What are the disorders associated with the three brain areas of speech?

1. Broca's expressive aphasia --reduced ability to produce spoken language 2. Wernicke's receptive aphasia --inability to comprehend speech --speak nonsensically 3. Conduction aphasia --associated with the arcuate fasciculus --prevents a patient to repeat what was said to them because connection between the two above sites has been affected

Name and distinguish between the three types of conformity on a basic level

1. Compliance -public conformity, while possibly keeping one's own original beliefs to oneself 2. Identification -conforming to someone who is liked and respected, such as a celebrity or a favorite uncle -may be motivated by the attractiveness of the source -a deeper type of conformity than compliance 3.Internalization -accepting the belief or behavior and conforming both publicly and privately, if the source is credible. It is the deepest influence on people and it will affect them for a long time

Four primary factors that drive motivation

1. Instinct 2. Arousal 3. Drives 4. Needs

Period definition

A period is the number of cycles per second (s⁻¹) and is the inverse of the frequency (1/f)

Mechanism of action of acetyl-CoA carboxylase in fatty acid synthesis

Acetyl-CoA is activated in the cytoplasm for incorporation into fatty acids by acetyl-CoA carboxylase, the rate-limiting enzyme of fatty acid biosynthesis --acetyl-CoA carboxylase utilizes ATP and biotin to add CO₂ to acetyl-CoA to form malonyl-CoA

Acetylcholine functions in the body

Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter used by the efferent limb of the somatic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system, and some parts of the body associated with arousal and attention

How does one determine whether a sugar is D or L?

All D-sugars have the hydroxide of their highest-numbered chiral center on the right, and all L-sugars have this hydroxide on the left --these are enantiomers!

Amino acid general stereochemistry

All amino acids are chiral except glycine, and all chiral amino acids have an S configuration except cysteine

Commonly used oxidizing and reducing agents on test day

Almost all oxidizing agents contain oxygen or another strongly electronegative atom (O₂, H₂O₂, Ag₂O), while reducing agents often contain metal ions or hydrides (Sn²⁺, Zn, NaBH₄, LiAlH₄)

Respiratory control in aerobic respiration

Always think of O₂ and ADP as the key regulators of oxidative phosphorylation --if O₂ is limited, the rate of oxidative phosphorylation decreases, and the concentrations of NADH and FADH₂ increase --the accumulation of these, in turn, inhibits the CAC

Stereotype content model

The stereotype content model attempts to classify stereotypes with respect to a hypothetical in-group using warmth and competence -warm groups are those that are not in direct competition with the in-group for resources -competent groups are those that have high status within society

Lorentz force

The sum of the electrostatic and magnetic forces that may be acting on charges at the same time

Chargoff's rules

The total purines will always equal the total pyrimidines %A = %T %G = %C

Bone composition

The two types of bone are compact and spongy/cancellous bone -the lattice structure of spongy bone is visible under microscopy and consists of bony spicules known as trabeculae -the cavities in between trabeculae are filled with bone marrow, which may either be red or yellow

Describe the role of the ventral prefrontal cortex in emotion

The ventral prefrontal cortex connects with the regions of the brain responsible for experiencing emotion --specifically, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex is thought to play a substantial role in decision-making and controlling emotional response from the amygdala

Inspiratory reserve volume

The volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal inhalation

Equation for the solubility product constant (Ksp)

This is the equilibrium constant for the solubility of an ionic compound in aqueous solution -remember that pure solids and liquids do not appear in the equilibrium constant -like all equilibrium constants, Ksp is temperature-dependent

Write out the order that orbitals fill according to the aufbrau principle

This is the order of lowest to highest energy (and thus the order they are filled), When removing electrons from these orbitals, they will come from those with the highest principal quantum number (n) first

Top-down processing

Top-down processing allows us to quickly recognize objects through memories and expectations without needing to analyze specific parts -when our mind finds that it is able to recognize an experience more quickly than expected, it searches for a reason for this recognition

Triiodothyronine and thyroxine effects

Triiodothyronine (T₃) and thyroxine (T₄) are produced by the iodination of the amino acid tyrosine in the follicular cells of the thyroid -the numbers refer to the number of iodine atoms attached to tyrosine These hormones are capable of resetting the body's basal metabolic rate by making energy production more or less efficient, as well as altering the utilization of glucose and fatty acids --increased levels of T₃+T₄ lead to increased cellular respiration, resulting in greater amounts of protein and fatty acid turnover by speeding up the synthesis and degradation of these compounds

Distinguish Type A and Type B personalities

Type A personalities are characterized by competitiveness and compulsion, while Type B personalities are more laid-back and relaxed

Ultrasound

Ultrasounds use high-frequency sound waves outside the range of human hearing to compare the relative densities of tissues in the body -an ultrasound machine consists of a transmitter that generates a pressure gradient which also functions as a receiver that processes the reflected sound -because the speed of the wave and travel time is known, the machine can generate a graphical representation of borders and edges within the body by calculating the traversed distance -relies on reflection, and thus an interface between two objects is necessary to visualize anything

Validity in terms of scientific research and instrument error

Validity (accuracy) is the ability of an instrument to measure a true value

Valine Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Valine Nonpolar side chain Neutral side chain at physiologic pH Nonaromatic Hydrophobic

Indicators

Weak organic acids or bases that change color as they shift between their conjugate acid and conjugate base forms, and can be used in low concentrations without significantly altering the equivalence point -the indicator changes color at the endpoint, not the equivalence point, but if chosen correctly, the volume difference between the endpoint and equivalence point is negligible -for the MCAT, select the indicator with a pKa closest to the equivalence point

Write out Pascal's principle in terms of the following: -pressure -work

When a piston with the cross-sectional area A₁ is pushed down the left column, it exerts a force with a magnitude equal to F₁ and generates a pressure equal to P₁ (P=F/A) while displacing a volume of liquid equal to A₁d₁ -remember that W=P∆V

Absorption spectra with regard to electrons

When an electron is excited to a higher energy level, it must absorb exactly the right amount of energy to make that transition, and each element has a characteristic set of energy levels --for electrons to move from a lower energy to a higher energy level, they must absorb the right amount of energy in the form of light to do so --similarly, when electrons move from a higher energy level to a lower one, they emit the same amount of energy in the form of light Each of these occur according to the following equation: E = hf= hc/λ = -Rh (1/ni^2 - nf^2)

What is the difference between insulators and conductors?

When given a charge, conductors are able to distribute it evenly over their surface, while this charge will not distribute evenly across the surface of an insulator

Proofreading in DNA repair -proteins involved? -when does it occur?

When the complementary strands have incorrectly paired bases, the hydrogen bonds between the strands can be unstable, and this lack of stability is detected as the DNA passes through this part of the polymerase --the incorrect base is excised and can be replaced with the correct one --occurs during synthesis (S phase)

Fertilization process

When the sperm meets the secondary oocyte (usually in the ampulla region), it binds and releases acrosomal enzymes that enable the head of the sperm to penetrate the corona radiata and zona pellucida --once the sperm comes into direct contact with the secondary oocyte's cell membrane, it forms a tubelike structure known as the acrosomal apparatus, which extends to and penetrates the cell membrane --its pronucleus may then free enter the oocyte once meiosis II has come to completion

When two electrically neutral metal plates are connected to a voltage source, positive charge builds up on the _______ potential terminal and negative charge builds up on the _______ potential terminal

When two electrically neutral metal plates are connected to a voltage source, positive charge builds up on the higher potential terminal and negative charge builds up on the lower potential terminal

Mechanism of action of PDH kinase and phosphatase in regulating the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

Whenever ATP or acetyl CoA levels rise, PDH kinase catalyzes the phosphorylation of the PDH complex, inhibiting acetyl CoA production Conversely, the PDH complex is reactivated by PDH phosphatase in response to high levels of ADP

Distinguish between operant and classical conditioning

Whereas classical conditioning is concerned with instincts and biological responses, operant conditioning links voluntary behaviors with consequences, in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviors

Frameshift mutations

While point mutations occur when one nucleotide is changed, a frameshift mutation occurs when some number of nucleotides are added to or deleted from the mRNA sequence -this will shift the reading frame, usually resulting in changes in the amino acid sequence or premature truncation of the protein -thus, effects of these types of mutations tend to be more significant than point mutations -cystic fibrosis is most commonly caused by a frameshift mutation, for example

Distinguish infrared spectroscopy and UV-vis spectroscopy with respect to visualizing molecular structure

While we use IR spectroscopy is used to determine chemical structure through bond's absorption of different wavelengths of light, UV-vis goes one step further, looking at the absorption of light in the visible and ultraviolet range

Molecules that rotate plane-polarized light clockwise are given the designation ______________, while those that rotate plane-polarized light counterclockwise are given the designations ________________

d or (+) designations refer to clockwise rotation of plane-polarized light, while l- or (-) refer to counterclockwise rotation of plane-polarized light

Conversion factor between units of heat Calorie calorie joule BTU

1 Cal = 1000cal = 4184J = 4BTU

Specific heat of liquid water

1 calorie/gram°C = 4.186 Joule/gram°C

Decarboxylation reactions in carboxylic acids

1,3 dicarboxylic acids and other β-keto acids may spontaneously decarboxylate when heated --because both the electrophile and nucleophile are in the same molecule, the reaction proceeds through a six-membered ring in its transition state --the enol that is initially formed tautomerizes to the more stable keto form

What are the three most common causes of outliers?

1. A true statistical anomaly --a person who is over seven feet tall 2. A measurement error --reading the cm side of the tape measure instead of inches --should be excluded from analysis 3. A distribution that is not approximated by the normal distribution --skewed distribution with a long tail, i.e.

List the five stages of sleep and two states of alertness and describe what is seen on EEG in each stage

1. Alert/concentrating --high-frequency beta waves 2. Alert/relaxing --lower-frequency alpha waves 3. Stage 1 of sleep --theta waves that are lower in frequency and higher in amplitude relative to the alert states 4. Stage 2 of sleep --sleep spindles and K complexes 5. Stages 3+4 --progressively slowing (lower-frequency), higher-intensity delta waves 6. REM sleep --beta waves more characteristic of alertness, yet the sleeper is harder to arouse than at even stages 3+4

Adding/removing protecting groups

1. Can be two equivalents of alcohol or a diol

Write out the four steps of spermatogenesis, including the ploidy at each step

1. Diploid stems cells called spermatogonia undergo the S phase of meiosis I to produce diploid primary spermatocytes 2. Primary spermatocytes undergo the first meiotic division to produce haploid secondary spermatocytes 3. Secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division to generate four haploid spermatids for each spermatogonium 4. Spermatids undergo maturation to form spermatozoa GCCTZ --Occurs in the seminiferous tubules

According to the system for multiple level observation of groups (SYMLOG), what are the three fundamental dimensions of interaction?

1. Dominance vs. submission 2. Friendliness vs. unfriendliness 3. Instrumentally-controlled vs. emotionally-expressive

Reactions for β-oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids --two enzymes to know

1. Enoyl-CoA isomerase rearranges cis double bonds at the 3,4 position to trans double bonds at the 2,3 position, once enough acetyl-CoA has been removed to isolate the double bond within the first three carbons --β-oxidation enzymes require a double bond located between carbons 2 and 3 In polyunsaturated fatty acids, a further reduction is required before this, using 2,4-dienoyl-CoA reductase, which converts two conjugated double bonds to just one double bond at the 3,4 position

Steps in the scientific method

1. Generate a testable question 2. Gather data and resources 3. Form a hypothesis --proposed explanation or answer to the testable question 4. Collect new data --experimentation involves manipulating and controlling variables of interest --observation often involve no changes in the subject's environment 5. Analyze the data 6. Interpret the data and existing hypothesis --if the data is inconsistent with the original hypothesis, consider alternate hypotheses 7. Publish for peer review 8. Verify results under new conditions

List the three main types of G proteins and their effects when activated

1. Gs --stimulates AC, which increases levels of cAMP in the cell 2. Gi --inhibits AC, decreasing levels of cAMP in the cell 3. Gq --activates phospholipase C, which cleaves a membrane phospholipid to form PIP₂ --PIP₂ is then cleaved to DAG and IP₃ --IP₃ can open calcium channels in the ER, increasing levels in the cell

What four factors contribute to higher levels of aggression?

1. Higher amygdala activity 2. Decreased prefrontal cortex activity 3. Higher levels of testosterone 4. Psychological and situational predictors, like being angry, hungry, and hot makes one more prone to aggression

Gram positive cell walls 1. Staining properties 2. Peptidoglycan layer thick or thin? 3. What component triggers the human immune response?

1. If the cell wall absorbs the crystal violet stain, it will appear deep purple, making it gram positive 2. Gram-positive walls consist of a thick layer of peptidoglycan, made from amino acids and sugars 3. in addition, the gram-positive cell walls contains lipoteichoic acid, whose function is unknown but may trigger the immune response in humans

Three mechanisms of removing neurotransmitter from the synaptic cleft following signal transmission

1. Neurotransmitters can be broken down by enzymatic reactions such as those of acetylcholinesterase 2. Neurotransmitters can be brought back into the presynaptic neuron using reuptake carriers --serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine all utilize such carriers 3. Neurotransmitters may simply diffuse out of the synaptic cleft --nitric oxide, a gaseous signaling molecule, fits this category

What are the two hormones released from the posterior pituitary and what are their functions?

1. Oxytocin is a hormone that stimulates uterine contractions during labor as well as milk letdown during lactation 2. ADH increases reabsorption of water in the collecting ducts of the kidneys in response to increased plasma osmolarity

Steps for finding V,I, and R at individual as well as combined resistors in series

1. Sets of resistors in series can be thought of as a single, large resistor, that equals the sum of the individual resistances 2. Using the total resistance, use V = IR to find the current through the single, big resistor, and this will be constant across individual resistors 3. Use resistance and current values to find the voltage drop across each individual resistor

What are the two primary functions of the thyroid gland?

1. Setting the basal metabolic rate -mediated through the release of triiodothyronine (T₃) and thyroxine (T₄) 2. Calcium homeostasis -mediated through calcitonin release

What three processes make up the post-transcriptional processing of hnRNA to mRNA

1. Splicing 2. Addition of the 5' cap 3. Addition of the 3' poly-A tail

Atmospheric pressure

Changes with altitude -impacts a number of processes including hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen and the boiling of liquids

Chunking

Chunking, or clustering, involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning --part of the encoding aspect of memory formation

Chylomicrons

Chylomicrons function in the transport primarily of dietary triacylglycerol but also cholesterol, and cholesterol esters to other tissues --assembly of chylomicrons occurs in the intestinal lining and results in a nascent chylomicron that contains lipids and apolipoproteins

Rules for closed pipes (2)

Closed pipes are those with on fixed end and one open end 1. Unlike strings or pipes, the harmonic in a closed pipe is equal to the number of quarter-wavelengths -thus, the distance between any node and/or antinode is wavelength/4 2. There can only be odd harmonics for closed pipes because these are measured in quarter-wavelengths, rather than half-wavelengths in strings and open pipes -the first harmonic (n=1) is known as the fundamental frequency -the third harmonic (n=3) is known as the first overtone -the fifth harmonic (n=5) is known as the second overtone

Anal stage of Freud's psychosexual development -which stage is this? -period of development? -associated fixation?

Anal stage -second stage (1-3 years of age) -during this stage, gratification is gained through elimination and retention of waste materials -anal fixation in adulthood would to either excessive orderliness (anal-retentive) or sloppiness

Nephron filtration

Approximately 20% of the blood that passes through the glomerulus is filtered as fluid into Bowman's space The movement of fluid into Bowman's space is governed by Starling forces --hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus is significantly higher than in Bowman's space, as well as the oncotic pressure resisting this movement -BS has relatively low oncotic pressure (~0), and the hydrostatic pressure in the glomerular capillary is much larger than the oncotic pressure in the the capillary The filtrate is similar in composition to blood, but does not contain cells or proteins due to the filter's ability to select based on size --the filtrate is isotonic to blood, so that neither the capsule nor the capillaries swell

Kirchhoff's loop rule

Around any closed circuit loop, the sum of voltage sources will always be equal to the sum of voltage (potential) drops -all the electrical energy supplied by a source gets fully used up by the other elements within that loop

Distinctions between Arrhenius acids/bases and Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases

Arrhenius acids and bases are generally limited to aqueous solutions, while Bronsted-Lowry are not --for example, OH⁻, NH3 and F⁻ are all B-l bases, but only OH⁻ is also an Arrhenius base The only difference between the two in terms of acids is the requirement of an aqueous medium for Arrhenius acids --water is not considered an acid according to the Arrhenius definition because it does not produce an excess of H⁺ in solution, but it is an acid according to the B-l definitions of acid

Aldoses as reducing sugars

As monosaccharides switch between anomeric configurations, the hemiacetal rings spend a short period of time in the open-chain aldehyde form --just like other aldehydes, they can be oxidized to carboxylic acids (called aldonic acids) --this makes aldoses (monosaccharides with a hemiacetal ring) reducing sugars (in the ring form, oxidation yields a lactone) Hemiacetal rings are anomeric carbons attached to: -OR -OH -H -R

Attribute substitution

Attribute substitution occurs in situations where individuals must make judgments that are complex -according to the attribute substitute, they instead substitute a simpler solution or apply a heuristic -this substitution is thought to take place automatically, rather than intentionally -this explains why individuals can be unaware of their own biases, and why biases persist even when the subject is made aware of them

Method-of-action of cocaine and effects

Cocaine decreases reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin similarly to amphetamines though by a different mechanism --similar effects and withdrawal Effects: --increases arousal, HR/BP --induces euphoria, hypervigilance, delusions of grandeur, paranoia --reduces appetite --decreases need for sleep --anesthetic/vasoconstrictive properties

Describe the structure and function of collagen

Collagen has a trihelical fiber (three α-helices woven together to form a secondary helix) and makes up most of the extracellular matrix of connective tissue --found throughout the body and is important for providing strength and flexibility

Column chromatography

Column chromatography uses an entire column filled with silica or aluminum beads as an adsorbent (stationary phase), allowing for much greater separation --while TLC uses capillary action to move the solvent up the plate, column chromatography uses gravity to move the solvent and compounds down the column --eventually, the solvent drips out of the end of the column, and the different fractions containing different compounds that leave the column can be collected over time --size and polarity both have a role in determining how quickly a compound moves through the polar silica/beads

Conflict theory approach to sociology

Conflict theory focuses on how power differentials are created and how these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order --such power differentials can lead to the dominance of a particular group if it successfully outcompetes other groups - think Marx and class conflict -relevant to medicine as well

Conformational isomers

Conformational isomers are stereoisomers that differ only in rotation around single bonds, and are thus the most similar of all isomers --note the differences in potential energies/stabilities

Identification conformity

Conforming to someone who is liked and respected, such as a celebrity or a favorite uncle -may be motivated by the attractiveness of the source -a deeper type of conformity than compliance, but less deep than internalization

How is bipolar disorder diagnosed?

Bipolar disorder is a major type of mood disorder characterized by episodes of both depression and mania

Boiling

Boiling is a specific type of vaporization that occurs only under certain conditions -results in the rapid bubbling of the entire solution, with rapid release of the liquid as gas particles -while evaporation happens in all liquids at all temperatures, boiling can only occur above the boiling point of a liquid, and involves vaporization through the liquid's entire volume

Borderline personality disorder

Borderline personality disorder characterized by a pervasive instability in interpersonal behavior and relationships, mood and self-image -there may also be a profound identity disturbance with uncertainty about self-image and sexual identity -intense fear of abandonment -splitting -suicide attempts and self-mutilation are common -twice as common in females -cluster B personality disorder

Hund's rule and exceptions

According to Hund's rule, with a given subshell, orbitals are filled such that there are a maximum number of half-filled orbitals with parallel spins --chromium and copper are exceptions, due to their location on the periodic table

Peak experiences according to Maslow

According to Maslow, self-actualized people are more likely to have peak experiences, profound and deeply moving experiences which have important and lasting effects on the individual -consistent with the humanistic perspective of personality

Describe the biological perspective of personality and how it differs from the social cognitive theory?

According to the biological perspective, personality can be explained a a result of genetic expression in the brain -many traits can be shown to result from genes or differences in brain anatomy

Explain the ego-defensive function of attitudes posited by the functional attitudes theory

According to the functional attitudes theory, one function of attitudes is to protect our self-esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong -for example, a child who has difficulty doing math may develop a negative attitude toward the subject

Acids ending in -ic are derivatives of anions ending in ________, while acids ending in -ous are derivatives of anions ending in __________

Acids ending in -ic are derivatives of anions ending in -ate, while acids ending in -ous are derivatives of anions ending in -ite

Activation energy

Activation energy is the energy needed to reach the transition state, which is unstable and thus at a higher energy than either the reactants or the products -the difference in free energy between the transition state and the reactants is the activation energy of the forward reaction, while the difference in free energy between the transition state and the products is the activation energy of the reverse reaction

Distinguish between active and passive immunity

Active immunity describes the process by which the immune system is stimulated to produce antibodies against a specific antigen such as in the case of infection or vaccines Passive immunity refers to the transfer of antibodies to an individual, such as occurs from mother to fetus prior to birth

Kinesthetic sense

Also called proprioception, kinesthetic sense refers to the ability to tell where one's body is in space --for example, knowing the location and position of your hand with eyes closed

Fusion

Also known as melting, fusion is the transition from a solid to a liquid -if atoms or molecules in the solid phase absorb enough energy, its 3D structure breaks down, allowing molecules to escape into the liquid phase

Can Tollen's and Benedict's reagents be used to test for ketoses?

Although ketones cannot be oxidized directly to carboxylic acids, they can tautomerize to form aldoses under basic conditions via keto-enol shifts --while in the aldose form, they can react with Tollen's or Benedict's reagent * google Lobry de Bruyn-van Ekenstein transformation*

Altruism

Altruism is a form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at the some cost to him or herself -can be motivated by selflessness, or ulterior motives such as public recognition

Cyclic amides are called ____________

Amides that are cyclic are called lactams

Define an isovolumetric process in terms of the first law of thermodynamics -describe its associated pressure-volume curve

An isovolumetric (or isochoric) process occurs when there is no change in volume, and thus no work performed --(W=0) and thus ∆U = Q An isochoric process is a vertical line on a P-V graph, and thus the area under the graph (the work done by the gas) is zero

Case-control study

Case-control studies are a type of observational study that identifies the number of subjects with or without a particular outcome, and then looks backwards to assess how many subjects in each group had exposure to a particular risk factor --for example, a study in which 100 patients with lung cancer and 100 patients without lung cancer are assessed for their smoking history

Catch/noise trials and the four possible outcomes

Catch and noise trials can be used to evaluate response bias, the tendency of subjects to systematically respond to a stimulus in a particular way due to nonsensory factors Catch trials present the signal (stimulus), while noise trials do not --a significant portion of misses or false alarms gives an indication of response bias in the subject

Conjugation

Conjugation involves two cells forming a conjugation bridge between that that allows for the transfer of genetic material from the donor male (+) to the recipient female (-) --the bridge is made from appendages called sex pili that are found on the donor male --this method of genetic recombination allows for rapid acquisition of antibiotic resistance or virulence factors in a colony because other plasmids can also be passed through the conjugation bridge (remember that the sex factor plasmid is necessary to form the bridge initially) If the sex factor is incorporated into the host gene (through processes such as transformation or transduction), the bacterium becomes an Hfr cell --in these cells, when conjugation occurs, the donor will attempt to transfer an entire copy of its genome into the recipient, but the bridge usually breaks before the whole DNA sequence, indeed the whole sex factor, is transferred

Connective tissue

Connective tissue supports the body and provides a framework for the epithelial cells to carry out their function --whereas epithelial cells contribute to the parenchyma of an organ, the connective tissue are the main contributors to the stroma - support structures for the organ --bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, adipose tissue and blood --most cells in connective tissues produce and secrete materials such as collagen and elastin to form the ECM

Contemptuous stereotypes -warmth/competence?

Contemptuous stereotypes are those in which the group is viewed with resentment, annoyance, or anger -those in direct competition with the in-group for resources, who do not hold a high place in society -welfare recipients, the poor

Context effects

Context-dependent memory refers to improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same

Critical speed -definition -equation

Critical speed is the speed of a fluid at which turbulence can arise -Reynolds number is a constant that relates the size, shape and surface roughness of any objects within the fluid -η is the viscosity of the fluid

Cross-sectional study

Cross-sectional studies are a type of observational study that attempt to categorize patients into different groups at a single point in time --for example, a study to determine the prevalence of lung cancer in smokers and nonsmokers at a given point in time

What is crossing over and when does it occur?

Crossing over occurs once homologous chromosomes come together to form a tetrad during prophase I --describes the process of exchanging equivalent pieces of DNA between these homologous chromosomes --note that crossing over occurs between homologous chromosomes and not sister chromatids Genetic recombination can unlink linked genes, thereby increasing the variety of genetic combinations that can be produced via gametogenesis (linkage refers to the tendency for genes to be inherited together) --thus, as opposed to to asexual reproduction, which produces identical offspring, sexual reproduction provides the advantage of genetic diversity

Culture

Culture is defined as the beliefs, behaviors, actions and characteristics of a group or society of people -the beliefs held by individuals are typically based on learned behavior, expectations and pressure from the group one is in

What effect do cyanide, oligomycin and 2,4 dinitrophenol (DNP) have on the ETC?

Cyanide binds to complex IV and inhibits the reaction --thus, electrons cannot be transported to oxygen and the ETC will back up, increasing levels of electron carriers like NADH and FADH₂ --without regenerating NAD⁺ and FAD, glycolysis and the TCA cycle cannot occur Oligomycin binds the ATP synthase directly DNP dissipates the proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane

Cyclothymic disorder

Cyclothymic disorder consists of a combination of hypomanic episodes and periods of dysthymia -episodes of depressed and elevated moods that are each below the threshold for mania and depression -more chronic but sub-threshold form of bipolar disorder

Define deposition in terms of phase change

Deposition occurs when a gas changes directly into a solid

Disorganized attachment

Disorganized attachment occurs when a child shows no behavior in response to the caregiver's absence or presence -may be a red flag for abuse

Distinguish between dispositional and situational attributions

Dispositional (internal) attributions are those that relate to the person whose behavior is being considered, including personality characteristics Situational (external) attributions are those that consider social context, rather the characteristics of the individual as the primary cause of an event -money, peer pressure, luck

Demographic transition

During a demographic transition, death rates drop before birth rates, so the population grows at first, and begins to level out as birth rates start to fall

Acetate structure

(minus the -H)

Polyvalent acid/base titrations

Each buffer region corresponds to a pKa, at which there are equal amounts of protonated and deprotonated molecules (pH = pKa) --each equivalence point corresponds to the fully deprotonation of the preceding molecule --amino acids will usually show three equivalence points (carboxyl group, amino group and side chain)

Fundamental concepts of genetics

Each human being possesses two copies of each chromosome, called homologues - except for male sex chromosomes, in which there is one X and one Y chromosome --because each chromosome is part of a homologous pair, a person will inherit two alleles for all genes (except for male sex chromosomes) --each gene has a particular locus, or location on a specific chromosome - the normal locus of a particular gene is consistent among human beings, such that a gene can be described by its location

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase reaction

Each type of amino acid is activated by a different aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase that requires two high-energy bonds from ATP --the synthetase transfers the activated amino acid to the 3' end of the correct tRNA --each tRNA has a CCA nucleotide sequence where the amino acid binds --this high-energy bond will be used to supply energy needed to create a peptide bond during translation

Describe education as a social institution

Education systems arm the population with information, but also creates statuses within society -sociologists also explore educational trends, grade inflation/deflation, adult education, and accessibility

Electrical potential

Electric potential is the amount of electric potential energy that a unitary point charge would have if located at any point in space -equal to the work done by an external agent in carrying a unit of positive charge from the arbitrarily chosen reference point (usually infinity) to that point without any acceleration

Induction effects on acidity

Electronegative elements positioned near an acidic proton increase acid strength by pulling electron density out of the bond holding the acidic proton, facilitating dissociation

Describe emotional support

Emotional support is listening, affirming and empathizing with someone's feelings

Endergonic/exergonic reactions

Endergonic reactions are those that absorb energy and have a positive Gibbs free energy change, while exergonic reactions are those that release energy and are associated with a negative Gibbs free energy change

Lipid mobilization

Fall in insulin levels/increase in epinephrine/glucagon levels activates hormone-sensitive lipase in adipose tissue, which hydrolyzes triacylglycerols to fatty acids and glycerol --released glycerol from fat may be transported to the liver for glycolysis or gluconeogenesis While HSL works in adipose, lipoprotein lipase is necessary for the metabolism of chylomicrons and VLDL through facilitating the release of free fatty acids from triacylglycerols

A lewis acid is a _______ while a lewis base is a ______________

A lewis acid is an electron acceptor, while a lewis base is an electron donor When lewis acids and bases interact, they form coordinate covalent bonds

Ethnocentrism

Refers to the practice of making judgments about other cultures (out-groups) based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture (in-groups), especially when it comes to language, customs and religion -can also manifest as cultural relativism

Regenerative capacity

Regenerative capacity is the ability of an organism to regrow certain parts of the body and varies from species to species --when regeneration is required, stem cells migrate to the necessary part of the body to initiate regrowth via either complete or incomplete regeneration

Distinguish between absolute and relative poverty

Relative poverty = being poor compared to most people around you Absolute poverty = being poor such that your basic needs are not met (food, shelter, clothing, water)

Molecular geometry for molecules with 5 regions of electron density as follows: -5 atoms bonded to the central atom with 0 lone pairs

Trigonal bipyramidal

Describe the mesoderm germ layer and what it gives rise to during embryogenesis

Mesoderm --gives rise to the musculoskeletal, circulatory and most of the excretory system --gonads --muscular/connective tissue layers of the digestive/respiratory systems --adrenal cortex

Metallic conductivity

Metal atoms can easily lose one or more of their outer electrons, which are then free to move around in the larger collection of metal atoms, making most metals good electrical and thermal conductors

Metencephalon

Metencephalon --one of two components of the rhombencephalon (hindbrain) Associated structures: Pons --lies above the medulla oblongata and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and medulla Cerebellum --helps maintain balance and coordinates body movements including speech

Percent composition by mass equation

Method of measuring concentration

Distinguish between geminal and vicinal diols

Geminal diols denote molecules with hydroxyl groups the same carbon, while vicinal diols are those that have hydroxyl groups on adjacent carbons

List three different types of identity commonly tested

Gender identity Ethnic identity National identity

Law of mass action

For a given reversible reaction, the law of mass action states that, if the system is at equilibrium at a constant temperature, then the ratio shown is constant -recall that the equilibrium constant is related to the rate law of the forward reaction over the rate law of the reverse reaction

Relationship between pressure/volume and work

For isobaric processes (those in which pressure remains constant), work is defined as the change in volume a system experiences multiplied by the pressure

Relationship between Ka and Kb

(Ka)(Kb) = Kw = 10⁻¹⁴ --thus as one increases, the other decreases --by this logic, a strong acid will produce a very weak conjugate base and a strong base will produce a very weak conjugate acid --on the other hand, weak acids and bases tend to have conjugates that are also weak

Ray diagrams for convex lenses

(Top pictures) 1. Rays that hit the lens parallel to the axis will converge inward toward the focal point 2. Rays passing first through the focal point will run parallel to the axis after hitting the lens

(X¹)² =

(X¹)² = X¹*²

Bone remodeling -PTH, vitamin D, calcitonin

During bone formation, essential ingredients such as calcium and phosphate are obtained from the blood, while during bone resorption, these ions are released back into the blood --bone remodeling occurs in response to stress --parathyroid hormone, a peptide hormone released by the parathyroid gland in response to low blood calcium, promotes resorption of bone, increasing the concentration of calcium and phosphate in the blood --vitamin D, activated by parathyroid hormone, acts in similar function, though this results in stronger bone (dual effects) --calcitonin, a peptide hormone released by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid in response to high blood calcium, promotes bone formation, lowering blood calcium levels

Basic overview of changes in the sarcomere during contraction

During contraction, the H zone, I band, the distance between Z-lines and the distance between M lines all become smaller, whereas the A-band's size remains constant

G₂ stage of the cell cycle

During the G₂ stage, the cell must pass through the second restriction point --DNA has already been replicated in the S phase, and now the cell must check to ensure that there are enough organelles and cytoplasm to divide between the two daughter cells, and that DNA replication proceeded correctly to avoid passing on an error to daughter cells

S stage of the cell cycle

During the S stage, the cell replicates its genetic material so that each daughter cell will have identical copies After replication, each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids that are bound together at the centromere (note that the ploidy [2n] does not change even though the number of chromatids has doubled from 46 to 92 --thus, cells entering G₂ have twice as much DNA as cells in G₁, but the same number of chromosomes because the sister chromatids are connected

Distinguish between absolute and relative refractory periods

During the absolute refractory period, no amount of stimulation can cause another action potential to occur During the relative refractory period, there must be a greater than normal stimulation to cause an action potential because the membrane is starting from a potential that is more negative than resting

Insulin overview

Insulin is a water-soluble, peptide hormone secreted by β-cells in the pancreatic islets of Langerhans --the tissues that requires insulin for effective uptake of glucose are adipose tissue and resting skeletal muscle --tissues in which glucose uptake is not affected by insulin include nervous tissue, RBCs, kidney tubules, intestinal mucosa, and pancreatic β-cells

Relationship between sound intensity, amplitude, and distance from the source

Intensity is equal to the square of the amplitude of the sound wave Intensity of also inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source -think of sound waves emanating in all directions from a source

Distinguish between internal and external validity

Internal Validity - the degree to which the results are attributable to the independent variable and not some other rival explanation -negatively impacted by confounding variables External Validity - the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized

Female sexual development

During the fetal period (from nine weeks post-fertilization until birth), the lack of the Y chromosome results in female sexual differentiation Estrogens are secreted in response to FSH and result in the development and maintenance of the female reproductive system and secondary sexual characteristics (breast growth, widening hips, changes in fat distribution) --in adults, estrogen leads to the thickening of the endometrium each month in preparation for zygote implantation Progesterone is secreted by the corpus luteum, the remnant follicle that remains after ovulation, in response to LH --progesterone is involved in the maintenance of the endometrium, but not its initial thickening every month

Inversion mutations

Inversion mutations are a type of chromosomal mutation that occur when a segment of DNA is reversed within the chromosome

Pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction

Involves the cleaving of of the 3C pyruvate to a 2C acetyl group and CO₂ --the reaction can be inhibited by the accumulation of acetyl-CoA and NADH that can occur if the electron transport chain is not properly functioning

Male sexual development

During the fetal period (from nine weeks post-fertilization until birth), the presence of the Y chromosome allows for production of androgens, resulting in male sexual differentiation --androgen production remains low until puberty Production of testosterone by the testes increases dramatically after GnRH production begins at puberty, and sperm production begins --FSH stimulates the Sertoli cells in the seminiferous tubules and sperm maturation --LH causes the interstitial cells of Leydig to produce testosterone Testosterone not only maintains and develops the male reproductive system, but also results in the development of secondary sexual characteristics, such as facial and axillary hair, deepening of the voice, and growth --production remains high though adulthood and declines as men age

Second trimester

During the second trimester, the fetus undergoes a tremendous amount of growth, measuring 30-36cm by the end of the sixth month

Dyssomnias

Dyssomnias are disorders that produce either excessive sleepiness or difficulty in initiating or maintaining sleep -abnormalities of the processes that govern our sleep/wake states -obstructive sleep apnea, narcolepsy and insomnia

Equation for migration velocity in electrophoresis

E = electric field strength z = net charge on the molecule f = frictional coefficient --depends on the mass and shape of the migrating molecules Thus, a molecule will move faster through the medium if it is small (remember the gel is porous), highly charged, or placed in a large electric field

Describe each organ's contribution to the seminal fluid --seminal vesicles --prostate gland --bulbourethral gland

Each contributes to the seminal fluid that turns sperm into semen 1. Seminal vesicles contribute fructose to nourish sperm, as well as alkaline properties 2. Prostate gland also add alkaline properties 3. Bulbourethral gland produce a clear, viscous fluid that cleans out remnants of urine as well as lubricates the urethra

Describe the ectoderm germ layer and what it gives rise to during embryogenesis

Ectoderm --surface layers --gives rise to integument including epidermis, hair, nails, and epithelia of the nose, mouth and lower anal canal --lens of the eye --nervous system including adrenal medulla --inner ear

Graham's law and effusion

Effusion is the flow of gas particles under pressure from one compartment to another through a small opening --for two gases at the same temperature, the rates of effusion are proportional to the average speeds --the law is the same as that for diffusion

Define electrochemical cells and name the three types

Electrochemical cells are contained systems in which redox reactions occur --the three types of electrochemical cells are galvanic (voltaic), electrolytic and concentration cells

Electrophoresis

Electrophoresis is a method of separating proteins by subjecting a compound to an electric field, which moves them according to net charge and size --negatively-charged compounds will migrate toward the positively-charged anode --positively-charged compounds will migrate toward the negatively-charged cathode

Adipose tissue metabolism

Elevated insulin levels stimulate glucose uptake by adipose tissue --insulin also triggers fatty acid release from VLDLs and chylomicrons --lipoprotein lipase, an enzyme found in the capillary bed of adipocyte tissue allow for the uptake of lipoproteins and re-esterified to triacylglycerols for storage (the glycerol phosphate comes from glucose metabolized in adipocytes) --during the fasting state, increased epinephrine activates hormone-sensitive lipase in adipocytes, allowing fatty acids to be released into circulation

What are the the eluent and adsorbent aspects of chromatography?

Eluent--> the mobile phase that carries the sample through the stationary phase Adsorbent --> stationary phase Components that have a high affinity for the stationary phase will barely migrate, while components with a high affinity for the mobile phase will move very quickly

Positron emission

Emission of a positron, which has the mass of an electron but carries a positive charge (denoted e⁺ or β⁺) --during B⁺ decay, a proton is converted into a neutron, hence the atomic number will decrease by one, while the mass number will remain the same

Describe emotionally-focused strategies to cope with stress

Emotionally-focused strategies center on changing one's feelings about a stressor, through methods such as taking responsibility for the issue, distancing oneself from the issue and using positive reappraisal to focus on positive outcomes instead of the stressor

Adaptive role of emotion

Emotions are thought to be evolutionary adaptations due to situations encountered over the evolutionary history of the human species that guide sensory processing, physiologic response and behavior -different emotions are thought to have evolved during different periods in history - more primal emotions such as fear developed earlier, while more progressive ones like guilt and pride are more societal in origin

Enantiomers

Enantiomers are configurational isomers (a type of stereoisomer) that have the same different configurations at all chiral centers, and are thus nonsuperimposable mirror images --identical chemical/physical properties other than their optical activity and reactions in chiral environments

Distinguish between enantiomers, diastereomers, and epimers

Enantiomers are diastereomers that differ at every stereocenter Diastereomers differ at a number of stereocenters but not all of them Epimers differ at one of several stereocenters

Describe the endoderm germ layer and what it gives rise to during embryogenesis

Endoderm --forms the epithelial linings of the digestive/respiratory tracts --pancreas, liver, thyroid, bladder and distal urinary tracts

Standard heat of a reaction

Enthalpy change accompanying a reaction being carried out under standard conditions --this can be calculated by taking the difference between the sum of the standard heats of formation for the products and the sum of the standard heats of formation of the reactants -from the chemical reaction formula, the coefficients are included in the equation as well

Standard heat of combustion

Enthalpy change associated with combustion of a fuel -most combustions are in the presence of atmospheric oxygen, but keep in mind that combustions can occur in the presence of diatomic fluorine, and hydrogen gas -Hess' law

Entropy definition and equation

Entropy is a measure of how widely spread out energy becomes in a process -Qrev = heat gained or lost in a reversible manner -when energy is distributed into a system at a given temperature (+Q), its entropy increases (+ΔS), and when energy is distributed out of a system at a given temperature (-Q), its entropy decreases (-ΔS )

Entropy

Entropy is the measure of the spontaneous dispersal of energy at a specific temperature --Q is the heat gained or lost in a reversible process ΔSuniverse = ΔSsystem + ΔSsurroundings > 0 -If S > 0, the system becomes more disordered through the course of the reaction -If S < 0, the system becomes less disordered (or more ordered) through the course of the reaction

Describe esteem support

Esteem support is similar to emotional support, but involves touching more directly on affirming the qualities and skills of a person -saying that someone is smart and capable to handle a job

Mechanics of exhalation

Exhalation does not have to be an active process (unlike inhalation) - simple relaxation of the external intercostal muscles will reverse the processes of inhalation As the chest wall relaxes and the diaphragm moves upward, the chest cavity decreases in volume, increasing its pressure and forcing air out --during active tasks, we can speed this process up by using the internal intercostal and abdominal muscles, which oppose the external intercostals and pull the ribcage down

Distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation includes rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if the desired behavior is not achieved, while intrinsic motivation comes from within an can include interest in a task or pure enjoyment -a student who takes interest in the subject matter and has the goal of mastering the content is driven by intrinsic motivation, while the goal of achieving high grades is considered extrinsic

List the six major social institutions

Family Education Religion Government Economy Medicine

Describe the family as a social institution

Family is influenced by a number of different factors including culture, value systems, practices, gender, age and race

Mechanism of action of fatty acid synthase

Fatty acid synthase is a large multienzyme complex found in the cytosol that is rapidly induced in the liver following a meal high in carbohydrates because of elevated insulin levels --the enzyme complex contains an acyl carrier protein that requires pantothenic acid (vitamin B₅) as well as NADPH --more appropriately called palmitate synthase because palmitate is the only fatty acid that humans can synthesize de novo --8 acetyl-CoA groups are required to produce palmitate

Isoleucine Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Isoleucine Nonpolar side chain Neutral side chain at physiologic pH Nonaromatic Hydrophobic

Propionic acid pathway --2 enzymes to know

Fatty acids with an odd number of carbon atoms undergo β-oxidation in the same manner as even-numbered carbon fatty acids for the most part --the only difference is observed during the final cycle, where instead of the two acetyl-CoA molecules that are created from even-numbered fatty acids, one acetyl-CoA and one propionyl-CoA are formed 3C propionyl-CoA is converted to methylmalonyl-CoA by propionyl-CoA carboxylase, which requires biotin (Vitamin B₇) Methylmalonyl-CoA is then converted to succinyl-CoA by methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, which requires cobalamin (Vitamin B₁₂) --recall that succinyl-CoA is a CAC intermediate that can also be converted to malate to enter the gluconeogenic pathway in the cytosol --odd-numbered fatty acids are thus an exception to the rule that fatty acids cannot be converted to glucose in humans

Write out the molecular formulas for the following: Ferrous Cuprous Ferric Cupric

Ferrous --> Fe²⁺ Cuprous --> Cu⁺ Ferric --> Fe³⁺ Cupric --> Cu²⁺ *Note that iron starts at 2+, while copper starts at 1+*

Follicular phase of the menstrual cycle

Follicular (pre-ovulatory) phase --begins with the menstrual flow --as estrogen and progesterone levels begin to fall at the end of the cycle, GnRH secretion from the hypothalamus is dis-inhibited --the higher GnRH concentrations cause increased secretion of FSH and LH, which work together to develop several follicles --as the follicles develop, they begin producing their own estrogen, inhibiting GnRH secretion, and thus FSH/LH secretion from the anterior pituitary --increases first in pituitary and later follicular estrogen secretion work to build up the endometrial lining, as well as vascularization/glandularization of the decidua

Acetyl-CoA shuttling in fatty acid synthesis

Following a large meal, acetyl-CoA accumulates in the mitochondrial matrix, which needs to move into the cytosol for fatty acid biosynthesis --as the cell becomes energetically satisfied, it slows the CAC cycle, causing citrate accumulation (recall that the step following the formation of citrate in the CAC involving isocitrate dehydrogenase is the rate-limiting step in the cycle) As citrate accumulates, it begins to diffuse through the mitochondrial membrane into the cytosol, where citrate lyase splits citrate back into acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate - the oxaloacetate can then return to the mitochondrion to continue moving acetyl-CoA

Newton's third law

For every force exerted by object A on object B, there is an equal but opposite force exerted by object B on object A -applies to physical contact as well as forces like gravitation and electromagnetism

Power in terms of optics

For lenses, power is inversely related to the focal length -it has the same sign as f, and is positive for converging lens and negative for diverging lens

β-oxidation steps

Four steps of β-oxidation 1. Oxidation of the fatty acids to form a double bond 2. Hydration of the double bond to form a hydroxyl group 3. Oxidation of the hydroxyl group to form a carbonyl (β-ketoacid) 4. Splitting of the β-ketoacid into a shorter acyl-CoA and an acetyl-CoA Many of these reactions are reversed in fatty acid synthesis

Write out the four equations used for linear motion at constant acceleration

Free fall questions involve linear motion with constant acceleration

How does Jung's idea of the ego differ from Freud's?

Freud's ego operates according to the reality principle, taking into account the world objectively as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and its pleasure principle Jung gave the name ego to the conscious mind

Atomic fusion

Fusion occurs when small nuclei combine to form a larger nucleus --results in the release of energy

Gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)

GALTs are immune tissues found in close proximity to the digestive system, a site of potential invasion by pathogens --tonsils and adenoids in the head --peyer's patches in the small intestine --lymphoid aggregates in the appendix

Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) -where is it released from? -what does it stimulate?

GHRH is released from the hypothalamus -stimulates GH release from the anterior pituitary, which acts in peripheral tissues

GLUT 2 transporter

GLUT 2 is a low-affinity transporter in hepatocytes and pancreatic cells --the Km of this transporter is quite high (~15mM), meaning that the liver will pick up glucose in proportion to its concentration in the blood --this is first-order kinetics --in other words, the liver will pick up excess glucose and store it only after a meal, when blood glucose levels are high (normal blood glucose concentration ~5.6mM) --in pancreatic beta cells, GLUT2 along with glucokinase serves as the glucose sensor for insulin release

G protein-coupled receptors

GPCRs are a large family of integral membrane proteins involved in signal transduction, characterized by seven membrane-spanning α-helices --binding of a ligand increases the affinity of the receptor for the G protein, which is then in an active state and results in either stimulation or inhibition of the signaling pathway

Gabriel synthesis -what is it used for? -products?

Gabriel synthesis is a means of creating amino acids from phthalimides through SN₂ reactions first with diethyl bromomalonate and later a bromoalkane in the presence of a strong base -mix of d- and l-amino acids are generated (recall that all naturally-occurring amino acids are l-isomers)

Gastric glands -where are they found? -what cells make up these glands?

Gastric glands are typically found in the fundus and are under vagal control, activated in response to sight, taste and smell of food -include mucus, parietal and chief cells

Gastric juice

Gastric juice refers to the combination of secretions from the chief and parietal cells from gastric glands -chief cells - pepsinogen -parietal cells - HCl (cleaves pepsinogen to pepsin) and intrinsic factor

Gauge pressure --definition --equation

Gauge pressure is the amount of pressure in a closed space above and beyond atmospheric pressure -it is good to know how to relate this to absolute/hydrostatic pressure

What is a null hypothesis?

General statement or default position that there is no relationship between two measured phenomena, or no association among groups --Rejecting or disproving the null hypothesis—and thus concluding that there are grounds for believing that there is a relationship between two phenomena (e.g. that a potential treatment has a measurable effect)—is a central task in the modern practice of science, and gives a precise criterion for rejecting a hypothesis.

How is generalized anxiety disorder diagnosed?

Generalized anxiety disorder is an anxiety disorder characterized by excessive, uncontrollable and often irrational worry (apprehensive expectation about events or activities) -feelings must be present for at least six months

Genital stage of Freud's psychosexual development model

Genital stage -fifth stage (beginning in puberty and lasting into adulthood) -in this stage, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in people outside of the family If the first four stages proceeded correctly, then one should enter into healthy heterosexual relationships --if sexual traumas have gone unresolved, behaviors such as homosexuality, asexuality and fetishism may result

Distinguish between genomic DNA and cDNA libraries

Genomic libraries contain large fragments of DNA that include both coding (exon) and noncoding (intron) regions of the genome cDNA libraries are constructed by reverse-transcribing processed mRNA and thus lack noncoding regions While genomic libraries contain the entire genome of an organism, genes may by chance by split into multiple vectors --therefore, only cDNA libraries can be used to reliably sequence specific genes and identify disease-causing mutations, produce recombinant proteins (insulin, vaccines) or produce transgenic mice

Gestalt therapy

Gestalt therapy sees an individual as a complete person, rather than reducing him to individual behaviors or drives -associated with the humanistic perspective of personality, who believe that personality is the result of the conscious feelings we have for ourselves as we attempt to attain our needs and goals

Gestalt principles

Gestault principles explain ways the brain infers missing parts of a picture when it is incomplete --utilizations perceptual organization, the ability to use top-down and bottom-up processing to create a complete picture or idea

Distinguish between ghettoes and slums

Ghettoes are areas where specific racial, ethnic or religious minorities are concentrated due to social or economic inequities, while a slum is an extremely densely populated area of a city with low-quality, often informal housing and poor sanitation

Describe the actions of ghrelin

Ghrelin is secreted by the stomach in response to signals of an impending meal --it increases appetite and also stimulates the secretion of orexin

Glial/neuroglia cells

Glial, or neuroglia, cells are non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis, form myelin and provide support and protection

Globalization

Globalization is the process of integrating the global economy with free trade and tapping foreign markets

Glucagon overview

Glucagon is a water-soluble, peptide hormone secreted by the α-cells of the pancreatic islets of Langerhans whose primary target is the hepatocyte Glucagon acts through second messengers to cause the following effects --increases liver glycogenolysis by activating glycogen phosphorylase and inactivating glycogen synthase --increased liver gluconeogenesis through activation of PEPCK and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase --increased liver ketogenesis --decreased lipogenesis --increased lipolysis in the liver through activation of hormone-sensitive lipase

Postabsorptive (fasting) state

Glucagon, cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine and growth hormone are sometimes called counterregulatory hormones because their effects on skeletal muscle, adipose tissue and liver are opposite to those of insulin --in the liver, glycogen degradation and the release of glucose into the blood are stimulated --hepatic gluconeogenesis is also stimulated by glucagon, but the response is slower than that of glycogenolysis (whereas glycogenolysis begins almost immediately at the beginning of the postabsorptive state, gluconeogenesis takes about 12 hours to hit maximum velocity) --the release of amino acids from skeletal muscle and fatty acids from adipose tissue are both stimulated by the decrease in insulin and by an increase in levels of epinephrine --once carried into the liver, amino acids and fatty acids can provide necessary carbon skeletons and energy required for gluconeogenesis

Glucocorticoids -where are they secreted from? -what controls its secretion? -effects?

Glucocorticoids are secreted by the adrenal cortex and serve primarily to regulate glucose levels --cortisol and cortisone are the most common, which raise blood sugar levels by increasing gluconeogenesis and decreasing protein synthesis --their release is under the control of ACTH from the anterior pituitary, regulated by CRF release from the hypothalamus

Distinguish between glucogenic and ketogenic amino acids

Glucogenic amino acids include all except leucine and lysine, and can be converted into intermediates that feed into gluconeogenesis as shown, while the ketogenic acids can be converted into ketone bodies, which can be used as an alternative fuel during periods of prolonged starvation

Glutamine Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Glutamine Polar side chains Neutral side chains at physiologic pH Nonaromatic Hydrophilic *Remember that amide side chains are not protonated/deprotonated no matter the pH*

Forming di- and polysaccharides

Glycosides derived from furanose rings are referred to as furanosides, and those derived from pyranose rings are called pyranosides --note that glycoside formation is a dehydration reaction, and that water is needed to break glycosidic bonds

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) -where is it released from? -what does it stimulate?

GnRH is released from the hypothalamus -stimulates LH and FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary, which acts on the testes and ovaries

Groupthink

Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon in which the desire for harmony or conformity within a group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome

Heart muscle cells are connected by __________________________

Heart muscle cells are connected by intercalated discs, which contain many gap junctions directly connecting the cytoplasm of adjacent cells, allowing for coordinated ventricular contraction

Describe the actions of the following components of the DNA replication complex -helicase -ssDNA-binding proteins -DNA gyrase (topoisomerase II) -primase -DNA polymerase

Helicase is the enzyme responsible for unwinding the DNA, generating two single-stranded template strands ahead of the polymerase ssDNA-binding proteins bind to the unraveled strand, preventing both the reassociation of the DNA strands and the degradation of DNA by nucleases As the helicase unwinds the DNA, DNA gyrase (topisomerase II) introduces negative supercoils ahead of the helicase to prevent supercoiling Primase synthesizes a short primer in the 5' --> 3' direction needed to start replication on each strand DNA polymerase synthesizes the daughter strand in a 5' --> 3' direction (thus, reading the template strand 3' --> 5') -these proteins are consistent between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, though they have different DNA polymerases

What is the equivalence point of a titration?

In acid-base titrations, the equivalence point is reached when the number of acid equivalents present in the original solution equals the number of base equivalents added, or vice-versa -occurs at a pH of 7 for strong acids/strong base titrations but will not always be 7

Control points of the citric acid cycle

In addition to PDH complex regulation, there are three additional sites of regulation within the citric acid cycle 1. Citrate synthase (acetyl CoA + oxaloacetate --> citrate) --inhibited by ATP, NADH, succinyl-CoA, citrate 2. Isocitrate dehydrogenase (isocitrate ---> α-ketoglutarate --inhibited by ATP and NADH --ADP and NAD+ function as allosteric regulators, enhancing its affinity for substrate 3. α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (α-ketoglutarate --> succinyl-CoA) --succinyl-CoA, ATP, NADH function as inhibitors --stimulated by ADP and Ca²⁺

Nephron secretion

In addition to filtering blood, nephrons are able to secrete salts, acids, bases and urea directly into the tubule by either active or passive transport -the kidneys are thus capable of eliminating ions or other substances when present in relative excess in the blood, such as K⁺, H⁺ or metabolites of medications -secretion is also a method of excreting wastes that are simply too large to pass through glomerular pores

Distinguish between autocrine, paracrine, juxtacrine and endocrine signaling

In addition to induction, cell-cell communication can occur via autocrine, paracrine, juxtacrine or endocrine signals --autocrine signals act on the same cell --paracrine signals act on cells in the local area via diffuse --juxtacrine signals do not usually involve diffusion, but rather feature a cell directly stimulating receptors of the adjacent cell --endocrine signals involve secreted hormones that travel through the bloodstream to a distant target tissue

Affinity chromatography

In affinity chromatography, a protein of interest is bound by creating a compound with affinity for that protein --this can be accomplished by coating beads with a receptor that binds the protein, or a specific antibody, that retains the protein the column --once the protein is retained in the column, it can be eluted by washing the column with a free receptor, which will compete with the bead-bound receptor and free the protein from the column, or by varying pH or salinity --only drawback of this is that the eluent can be difficult to remove from the protein

Immune response to an intracellular infection

In an intracellular infection, the virally-infected cell will begin to produce interferons, which reduce the permeability of nearby cells, reduce the rate of transcription/translation in these cells, and causes systemic symptoms These infected cells also present intracellular proteins on their surface in MHC-I molecules --CD8 T-cells will recognize the MHC-I/antigen complex as foreign and will inject toxins to promote apoptosis --in the event that the virus downregulates the production/presentation of MHC-I molecules, NK cells will recognize the absence of MHC-I and will accordingly cause apoptosis

Disruptive selection

In disruptive selection, two extreme phenotypes are selected over the norm --Darwin's finches, selecting for beaks that could open the seeds found on their respective islands despite their common ancestry Adaptive radiation is a similar concept that describes the rapid rise of a number of different species from a common ancestor in order to accommodate several different niches, decreasing competition for limited resources

List and describe the nine Hill's criteria

Hill's criteria describe the components of an observed relationship that increase the likelihood of causality in the relationship. --the more criteria that are satisfied by a relationship, the likelier it is that the relationship is causal 1. Temporality --the independent variable (the variable being manipulated) must occur before the dependent variable (the variable being observed --THIS IS THE ONLY ONE THAT IS UNIFORMLY NECESSARY FOR CAUSATION 2. Strength --as more variability in the outcome variable is explained by variability in the independent variable, the relationship is more likely to be causal 3. Dose-response relationship --as the independent variable increases, there is a proportional increase in the response --the more consistent the relationship, the more likely it is causal 4. Consistency --the relationship is found to be similar in multiple settings 5. Plausibility --There is a reasonable mechanism for the independent variable to impact the dependent variable supported by existing literature 6. Consideration of alternate explanations --If all other plausible explanations have been eliminated, the remaining explanation is more likely 7. Experiment --If an experiment can be performed, a causal relationship can be determined conclusively 8. Specificity --The change in the dependent variable is only produced by an associated change in the independent variable 9. Coherence --The new data and hypothesis are consistent with the current state of scientific knowledge

Describe the humanistic perspective of personality and how it differs from the psychoanalysts

Humanistic psychology rose to prominence in response to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, emphasizing individuals' inherent drive towards self-actualization, rather than simply responding to behaviors or drives

Rank the following intermolecular forces from strongest to weakest: Hydrogen bonds London dispersion forces Dipole-dipole interactions

Hydrogen bonds > dipole-dipole interactions > london dispersion forces -note that even hydrogen bonds have about 10% of the strength of a covalent bond

Characteristics of nonmetals on the periodic table

--brittle --no luster --high ionization energies --high electron affinities --high electronegativities --small atomic radii --large ionic radii --poor conductors as a result

Characteristics of metals on the periodic table

--solid at room temp --show luster --malleable --ductile (pulled into wires) --low electronegativity --low effective nuclear charge --large atomic radius --small ionic radius --low ionization energy --these properties make them good conductors

Torque equation

-r is the length of the lever arm -F is the magnitude of the force From what we known about sin angles, no torque is experienced when the force is applied parallel to the lever arm, and the torque is maximal when the force is applied perpendicular to the lever arm

What are the four fundamental tenets of the cell theory?

1. All living things are composed of cells 2. The cell is the basic functional unit of life 3. Cells arise only from preexisting cells 4. Cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA - this genetic material is passed on from parent to daughter cell

Determine the limiting reagent and amount of product formed and excess reagent remaining following a reaction of 50g Na with 30g O₂ according to the following equation: 4Na(s) + O₂(g) --> 2Na₂O(s)

1. Always ensure that the equation is first balanced 2. Find the number of moles of each reactant -50gNa x (1molNa/23g/molNa) = 2.17mol -30gO₂ x (1molO₂/32g/molO₂) = 0.94mol -if there are no coefficients, the reactant with the fewest number of moles will be the limiting reagent 3. If there are coefficients present, the two reactants must be related to one another to find which is limiting -2.17molNa x (1molO₂/4molNa) = 0.54molO₂ -this means that we would need 0.54molO₂ to use up all the Na, which we have, making Na the limiting reagent 4. Now that we know the limiting reagent, we can find the amount of product formed using the limiting reagent -2.17molNa x (2molNa₂O/4molNa) = 1.09moleNa₂O formed 5. We can also find the amount of the excess reagent remaining -because in using up all of the limiting reagent, we consume 0.54molO₂, we subtract this from the amount we started with, and use this to find the grams of O₂ left over

Ammeter 1. What does it measure? 2. How is it placed? 3. What is its ideal resistance?

1. Ammeters measures current at some point within a circuit --requires that the circuit be on, or the current will = 0 2. Ammeters are inserted in series --current remains the same across all parts of a series circuit 3. Ideally, they will not impact V=IR, and must have resistances close to 0

Rules for object placement and concave mirror ray diagrams: - An object placed between C and F will produce what kind of image? - An object placed at F will produce what kind of image? - An object placed between F and the mirror will produce what kind of image?

1. An object placed between C and F will produce a real, inverted, magnified image 2. An object placed at F will form no image 3. An object placed between F and the mirror will produce a virtual, upright, magnified image

Rules for linear motion at constant acceleration

1. An object's velocity at its maximum height is zero 2. The time it takes an object to reach its maximum height equals the time it takes to return to its starting height -as long as the object ends up at the height at which it started, total time in flight equals the time necessary to get to the maximum height (final velocity = 0) multiplied by two 3. You should always use up as the positive direction

Explain differences in reactivity between anhydrides, esters and amides

1. Anhydrides are the most electrophilic due to their resonance stabilization and three electron-withdrawing groups, leaving a significant partial positive charge on the electrophilic carbon 2. Esters lack one electron-withdrawing carbonyl oxygen present in anhydrides and are thus slightly less reactive 3. Amides have an electron-donating amino group, making them the least reactive toward nucleophiles

Mechanism of transcription

1. As with DNA replication, helicase and topoisomerase are involved in unwinding the dsDNA and preventing the formation of supercoils 2. RNA polymerase II binds the promoter region known as the TATA box, while transcription factors help the polymerase -unlike DNA polymerase in replication, RNA polymerase II does not require a primer

Hypersensitivity reactions (2)

1. Autoimmunity occurs when the immune system fails to make the distinction between self and foreign, causing cells expressing particular self-antigens to be attacked -most autoimmune diseases can be treated with a number of therapies, including glucocorticoids, which have potent immunosuppressive qualities 2. Allergic reactions occur when the immune system misidentifies an innocuous antigen as a pathogen

Name the three universal needs as postulated by the self-determination theory of motivation

1. Autonomy 2. Competence 3. Feeling accepted

Physiologic mechanisms of blood pressure regulation (4)

1. Baroreceptors are specialized neurons that detect changes in the mechanical forces on the walls of the vessel --when BP is too low, they can stimulate the sympathetic nervous system, which causes vasoconstriction and a rise in BP 2. Chemoreceptors sense blood osmolarity changes --these promote the release of ADH, peptide hormone made in the hypothalamus and stored in the pituitary, which increases the reabsorption of water 3. Low perfusion to the juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney stimulates aldosterone release through RAAS, increasing the reabsorption of sodium and thus water 4. If bp is too high, atrial baroreceptors secrete ANP that aids in salt excretion

Physical manifestations of Parkinson's

1. Bradykinesia 2. Resting Tremor 3. Shuffling gait 4. Stooped posture 5. Cogwheel rigidity -muscle tension that intermittently halts movement as an examiner attempts to manipulate a limb 6. Pill-rolling tremor 7. Mask-like fascies -static, expressionless facial features -staring eyes

Name the three brain areas responsible for speech production and language

1. Broca's area in the frontal lobe controls the motor function of speech production 2. Wernicke's area in the temporal lobe is responsible for language comprehension 3. The arcuate fasciculus connects these two

Peg-word association for Erikson's psychosocial development model --remember the associated words first, then the ideas they bring to mind

1. Bun 2. Shoe 3. Tree 4. Door 5. Hive 6. Sticks 7. Heaven 8. Mate 1. Rusty bun (trust vs mistrust) 2. Auto-shoe with Shane (autonomy vs shame) 3. Shia looks guilty in the tree (initiative vs guilt) 4. The industry's door looks inferior (industry vs inferiority) 5. Denting the hive cause bee role confusion (identity vs role confusion) 6. Sticks - a girl can get intimate with sticks in isolation (intimacy vs. isolation) 7. In heaven, the generators are stagnant (generativity vs. stagnation) 8. My mate made grits that make me despair (integrity vs despair)

Oogenesis --5 steps

1. By birth, all of the oogonia have already undergone replication and are considered primary oocytes (diploid) 2. Primary oocytes are arrested in prophase I until menarche, after which one primary oocyte per month will complete meiosis I, producing a secondary oocyte and a polar body due to unequal cytokinesis 3. Secondary oocytes (haploid) remain arrested in metaphase II until fertilization occurs 4. If fertilization occurs, the secondary oocyte undergoes the second mitotic division to split into a mature ovum and another polar body - this zygote will contribute nearly everything to the zygote, while the sperm will only contribute half the DNA 5. Upon completion of meiosis II, the haploid pronuclei of the sperm and ovum join, creating a diploid zygote

Nucleophilicity is determined by what four major factors?

1. Charge --nucleophilicity increases with increasing electron density (increasing negative charge) 2. Electronegativity --nucleophilicity decreases as electronegativity increases (less likely to share electrons) 3. Steric hindrance --bulkier molecules are less nucleophilic 4. Solvent --protic solvents can inhibit nucleophilicity by protonating the nucleophile or hydrogen bonding

Supplemental energy reserves in working muscle -two primary

1. Creatine phosphate --created by transferring a phosphate group from ATP to creatine during times of rest, and can be reversed during muscle use to quickly generate ATP 2. Myoglobin --muscle also contains myoglobin, which binds oxygen with high affinity --as exercising muscle runs out of oxygen, they use myoglobin reserves to keep aerobic metabolism going

Biological bases for depression (4)

1. Decreased production of norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine (as posited by the monoamine theory) 2. Abnormally high levels of glucocorticoids 3. Abnormally high glucose metabolism in the amygdala 4. Hippocampal atrophy after a long duration of illness

What determines the likelihood of a bystander intervening on behalf of a victim (3)?

1. Degree of danger --the more danger, the more likely the bystander is to intervene 2. Degree of responsibility felt by the bystander --affected by things like perceived competency, relationship to the victim, and whether they perceive the victim as deserving of aid 3. Cohesiveness of the group --In groups made up of strangers, the likelihood of response and speed of response is much slower than in groups of well-acquainted individuals

Biological markers of Alzheimer's seen on Head MRI/CT

1. Diffuse atrophy 2. Widening sulci in the cerebral cortex 3. Dilated cerebral ventricles 4. B-amyloid plaques 5. Tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein 6. Deficient blood flow in the parietal lobes 7. Reduced metabolism in temporal and parietal lobes 8. Reduced acetylcholine and choline acetyltransferase that produces it

Erythrocyte properties

1. Each erythrocyte contains about 250 million molecules of hemoglobin, each of which can bind up to four molecules of oxygen 2. Erythrocytes are biconcave, which assists in traveling through capillaries and increases the surface area of the cell for gas exchange 3. Since they lose their organelles in order to create space for additional hemoglobin, they rely entirely ananaerobic glycolysis for ATP, with lactic acid as the main byproduct 4. Because they lack nuclei, they are unable to divide -live for 120 days in the bloodstream before cells in the liver and spleen phagocytize them to recycle their parts

Define the two types of negative reinforcement

1. Escape learning refers to utilizing a behavior to reduce unpleasantness of something already present --taking ibuprofen for a headache 2. Avoidance learning utilizes a behavior to avoid the unpleasantness of something that has not yet happened --preparing for the MCAT so as not to fail

List the three dichotomies of personality according to Jung's theory of psychoanalytic personality

1. Extraversion vs. Introversion 2. Sensing vs. Intuiting 3. Thinking vs. Feeling In most individuals, these are spectrums that lean more toward one or the other

Deriving the equation for electric potential at some point P near an electrical dipole

1. For a collection of charges, the electrical potential is the scalar sum of the potentials due to each charge at that point, as shown 2. Assuming the point is very far from the dipole relative to the distance between the charges, we can make two approximations: -(r⁺)(r⁻) = r² -(r⁻)-(r⁺) = dcosθ 3. Using these along with the equation for the dipole moment, we have the final equation for electric potential at some point P near an electrical dipole

Goffman's dramaturgical approach to impression management -two stages

1. Front stage -the actor is in front of the audience and performs according to the setting, role and script in order to conform to the image he wants others to see 2. Back stage -the actor is not observed and free to act in ways that may not be congruent with his desired public image

Write out the second two reactions of gluconeogenesis

1. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase reverses the reaction of PFK-1 in glycolysis and like PFK-1, is the rate-limiting enzyme of its pathway --this enzyme is activated by ATP and inhibited by AMP (high ATP --> can make glucose for the rest of the body) --this enzyme is inhibited by fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase, produced by PFK-2 and is lowered in the presence of glucagon (while insulin increases it) 2. Glucose-6-phosphatase creates free glucose from G-6-P --this enzyme is present only on the ER lumen of liver cells, and its absence in skeletal muscle means that muscle glycogen cannot serve as a source of blood glucose and can only be used within the muscle --in contrast, this enzyme can create free glucose in the liver, which can be released into the bloodstream

Biological bases for schizophrenia (5)

1. Genetics --10x more likely have the disease if a first-degree relative does 2. Excess dopamine in the brain 3. Traumatic hypoxemia at birth 4. Exposures -marijuana use in adolescence 5. Undetermined structural changes in the brain

What are the five hormones released from the hypothalamus that exert effects in the anterior pituitary?

1. GnRH stimulates LH and FSH --acts on testes and ovaries 3. GHRH stimulates GH release -- acts in peripheral tissues 3. TRH stimulates TSH release --acts in the thyroid gland 4. CRF stimulates ACTH release --acts in the the adrenal cortex 5. Constitutive PIF (dopamine) secretion prevents prolactin secretion from the anterior pituitary --prolactin acts on mammary glands when its secretion is disinhibited

List five factors that contribute to decision-making

1. Heuristics 2. Bias 3. Overconfidence 4. Intuition 5. Emotion

Health disparities in the LGBT community (4)

1. Higher likelihood of becoming HIV+ 2. LGBT youth are at significantly higher risk for bullying, victimization, violence and rates of suicide 3. Higher prevalence of depression and anxiety 4. Gay men have an increased rate of eating disorders

Gram negative cell walls 1. Staining properties 2. Peptidoglycan layer thick or thin? 3. What component triggers the human immune response?

1. If the cell wall does not absorb the initial crystal violet stain but absorbs the subsequent safranin counterstain, it appears pink-red and is said to be gram negative. 2. Gram-negative cell walls contain a much thinner layer of peptidoglycans relative to gram positive bacteria 3. In addition to the envelope, gram-negative bacteria also have outer membranes containing phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides, the aspect of the envelope that triggers the immune response in humans --the inflammatory response to this is much greater than in response to lipoteichoic acid in gram positive cell walls

Distinguish between galvanic/concentration cells and electrolytic cells in terms of the following traits of electrochemical cells 1. Where do oxidation/reduction half-reactions occur? 2. Are the reactions that are carried out spontaneous or nonspontaneous? 3. In what direction to electrons flow? 4. Which electrode is considered positive and which negative? 5. In what direction does current flow? 6. Are the emf values positive or negative? 7. Must half-reactions be separated? 8. Can the half-reactions be chemically identical? 9. What is the relationship between reduction potential and the electrodes?

1. In both types of electrochemical cells (concentration cells are a subset of galvanic ones), the electrode where oxidation occurs is always called the anode, and the electrode where oxidation occurs is always called the cathode 2. Reactions carried out in galvanic/concentration cells are spontaneous, while those carried out in electrolytic cells are nonspontaneous 3. In both types of electrochemical cells, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode 4. In galvanic/concentration cells, the anode is considered the negative electrode because it is the source of electrons, while in electrolytic cells, the cathode is considered the negative electrode because it is attached to the negative pole of the external voltage source and attracts cations from the solution 5. In both types of electrochemical cells, current flows from the cathode to the anode (convention is opposite the flow of electrons) 6. Reactions carried out in galvanic/concentration cells have positive emf values, meaning the are able to release energy, while those carried out in electrolytic cells have negative emf values, meaning that they must absorb energy. 7. Half-reactions are separated in galvanic/concentration cells in order for the released energy to be harnessed, while reactions carried out in electrolytic cells must absorb energy, and thus theirs need not be separated 8. Only in concentration cells can the half-reactions be chemically identical, and thus current is generated as a function of a concentration gradient established between the two solutions surrounding the electrodes. 9. In galvanic/concentration cells, the electrode with the more positive reduction potential is the cathode and the electrode with the less positive reduction potential is the anode, while in electrolytic cells, the electrode with the more positive reduction potential is forced by the external voltage source to be oxidized, and is thus the cathode, while the electrode with the less positive reduction potential is forced to be reduced, and is therefore the cathode

Important properties of catalysts

1. Increase the reaction rate through lowering activation energy 2. They do not affect the equilibrium constant or ∆G -affect how quickly a reaction gets to equilibrium, but not the actual equilibrium state itself! 3. Are not themselves altered or consumed 4. pH and temp-sensitive

Factors that cause a right-shift in the oxygen dissociation curve

1. Increased PaCO₂ production --causes a shift in the bicarb buffer equation, creating more H⁺ that can bind hemoglobin, lowering the affinity for oxygen --allows more oxygen unloading at tissues 2. Decreased pH, as described 3,. Increased temperature 4. Increased 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate --side-product of glycolysis in RBCs

3 factors that affect the speed at which action potentials move

1. Increased length of the axon results in higher resistance and slower conduction 2. Greater cross-sectional areas allow for faster propagation due to decreased resistance --this effect is greater than 1. 3. Myelin maximizes the speed of transmission, so that the membrane is permeable to ion movement only at the nodes of Ranvier --the hopping of the signal from node to node is referred to as saltatory conduction

Biological bases of bipolar disorders (3)

1. Increased norepinephrine and serotonin (as posited by the monoamine theory) 2. Genetics 3. Higher risk for those with MS

Distinctions between static and kinetic friction

1. Kinetic friction is constant, and independent of how much surface area is in contact or the velocity of movement 2. The value of µs will always be higher than µk, and therefore the maximum static friction value will always be greater than the constant kinetic friction value

What three factors can increase the power of an experiment?

1. Large difference in means between the populations being compared 2. Less scatter of data/more precise measurements 3. Increased sample size --more samples = more confidence in the difference or lack of difference found between populations --the is the only one of the three that we have control over

5 criteria for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

1. Large population (no genetic drift) 2. There are no mutations that affect the gene pool 3. Mating between individuals in the population is random, with no sexual selection 4. No migration of individuals into or out of the population 5. Genes in the population are all equally successful at reproducing

3 divisions of the hypothalamus and their functions

1. Lateral --triggers eating and drinking 2. Ventromedial --signals to stop eating 3. Anterior --sexual behavior, sleep and body temperature

What are the two most important enzymes in cholesterol transport and their functions?

1. Lecithin-cholesterol acetyltransferase (LCAT) adds a fatty acid to cholesterol in the bloodstream to produce a soluble cholesteryl ester such as those found in HDL --HDL cholesteryl esters can be distributed to other lipoproteins like IDL, which becomes LDL as a result --activated by HDL apoproteins 2. Cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) facilitates the transfer of cholesteryl esters from HDL to other lipoproteins

Thyroid hormones and metabolism

1. Lipid metabolism -increased thyroid hormone levels stimulate fat mobilization, leading to increased concentrations of fatty acids in plasma. They also enhance oxidation of fatty acids in many tissues -plasma concentrations of cholesterol and triglycerides are inversely correlated with thyroid hormone levels - one diagnostic indication of hypothyroidism is increased blood cholesterol concentration. 2. Carbohydrate metabolism: Thyroid hormones stimulate almost all aspects of carbohydrate metabolism, including enhancement of insulin-dependent entry of glucose into cells and increased gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis to generate free glucose.

Sources of cholesterol

1. Most cells derive their cholesterol from LDL or HDL De novo synthesis of cholesterol occurs in the liver and is driven by acetyl-CoA and ATP --recall that the citrate shuttle carries mitochondrial acetyl-CoA into the cytoplasm, where synthesis occurs --synthesis of mevalonic acid in the SER is the rate-limiting step of cholesterol synthesis and is catalyzed by HMG-CoA reductase --control over de novo cholesterol synthesis is dependent on regulation of HMG-CoA reductase gene expression --inhibited by feedback inhibition and activated by insulin

What are the three strategies a child uses to overcome basic anxiety or hostility according to Horney

1. Moving toward people to obtain goodwill 2. Fighting people to obtain the upper hand 3. Withdrawing from people While healthy people use all three depending on the situation, the highly threatened child will use one exclusively into adulthood

Genetic mutations associated with development of Alzheimer's (3)

1. Mutation in the presenilin genes on chromosomes 1 and 14 2. Mutations in the apolipoprotein E gene on chromosome 19 3. Beta-amyloid precursor protein gene on chromosome 21

What are the six characteristics of bureaucracies?

1. Non-elected officials on a fixed salary 2. Officials afforded rights and privileges as a result of making their career out of holding office 3. Regular salary increases, seniority rights and promotions upon passing exams or milestones 4. Officials who enter the organizations by holding an advanced degree or training 5. Responsibilities, obligations, privileges and work procedure rigidly defined by the organization 6. Responsibility for meeting the demands of one's position

Ohmmeter 1. What does it measure? 2. How is it placed? 3. What is its ideal resistance?

1. Ohmmeters measure resistance through supplying its own voltage to any two points in series --does not require the circuit to be on 2. It is placed in series 3. Since it is measuring resistance, its ideal resistance is zero

Three responses once antibody binds antigen

1. Once bound to a specific antigen, antibodies may attract other leukocytes to phagocytize those antigens immediately (opsonization) 2. Antibodies may cause pathogens to clump together, forming large insoluble complexes that can be phagocytized (agglutination) 3. Antibodies can block the ability of the pathogen to invade tissues, eventually neutralizing it

Explain the two major differences in chemical/physical properties between enantiomers

1. Optical activity --enantiomers will rotate plane-polarized light in equal but opposite directions, and thus when each is present in the same solution in the same concentrations, a racemic mixture is created which have no optical activity, as each cancels the other out 2. Reactions in chiral environments --each enantiomer will react with a certain chiral reagent differently

Four differences between groups and organizations

1. Organizations continue despite the departure of an individual member -can have a history before and after a member joins and leaves 2. Organizations have expressed goals that guide member activities 3. Organizations have enforcement procedures that seek to control the activities of their members 4, Organizations are characterized by hierarchical allotment of formal roles or duties to members

List the five enzymes that make up the PDH complex and their general functions

1. PDH brings about the oxidization of pyruvate, forming CO₂, while the 2C molecule binds TPP (vitamin B₁) 2. Dihydrolipoyl transacetylase --the 2C molecule bonded to TPP is oxidized and transferred to lipoic acid, a coenzyme whose disulfide group acts as an oxidizing agent, creating the acetyl group --the acetyl group now bonded to lipoic acid via a thioester linkage --after this, the enzyme catalyzes the CoA-SH interaction with the newly formed thioester link, causing the transfer of an acetyl group to form acetyl-CoA, leaving lipoic acid in its reduced form 3. Dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase --FAD is used as a coenzyme to re-oxidize lipoic acid to facilitate acetyl-CoA formation in future reactions --as lipoic acid is re-oxidized, FAD is reduced to FADH₂ - in subsequent reactions, this is reoxidized to FAD, while NAD⁺ is reduced to NADH In addition to the three listed, PDH is regulated by PDH kinase and PDH phosphatase

Digestion of proteins occurs in what three locations? -enzymes?

1. Pepsin in the stomach 2.Trypsin/chymotrypsin/carboxypeptidases A and B in the duodenum 3. Dipeptidases/aminopeptidases in the small intestine

What are the two main strategies for coping with stress?

1. Problem-focused strategies -working to overcome a stressor 2. Emotionally-focused strategies -changing feelings about a stressor

Distinguish between eukaryotes and prokaryotes in terms of the following: 1. Mitochondria 2. Cytoskeleton 3. Ribosomes

1. Prokaryotes do not contain mitochondria, but use the cell membrane for the ETC and ATP generation 2. Prokaryotes do contain a primitive cytoskeleton, but it is not nearly as complex as that which is found in eukaryotes 3. Prokaryotes also contain ribosomes, but theirs are 30S and 50S subunits, as opposed to 40s and 60S in eukaryotes

Basic steps of Mitosis

1. Prophase --chromosomes condense and spindle apparatus forms 2. Metaphase --chromosomes align 3. Anaphase --sister chromatids separate 4. Telophase --new nuclear membranes form 5. Cytokinesis --physical separation of cytoplasm and organelles into the two daughter cells Somatic cells! --2n -->2n

Five laws that govern the Gestalt Principles

1. Proximity - elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit 2. Similarity - Objects that are similar tend to be grouped together 3. Good continuation - elements that appear to follow in the same pathway tend to be grouped together 4. Subjective contours - Perceiving contours that are not actually present 5. Closure - Certain figures tend to be perceived as more complete than they really are

Write out the first two reactions of gluconeogenesis --see sheet + handout

1. Pyruvate carboxylase utilizes ATP to add HCO₃ to pyruvate, forming oxaloacetate (mito matrix!) --acetyl-CoA from fatty acid breakdown (β-oxidation) activates this enzyme to encourage glucose production when energy is needed --thus, to produce glucose in the liver during gluconeogenesis, fatty acids must be burned to provide energy, stop the forward flow of the CAC, and produce massive amounts of OAA that can be utilized for glucose production 2. Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase utilizes GTP to convert OAA to phosphoenolpyruvate (in the cytosol!) --thus, the combination of pyruvate carboxylate and PEP carboxylase are used to circumvent the action of pyruvate kinase --PEPCK is activated by glucagon and cortisol, which generally act to raise blood sugar levels

4 main factors that affect reaction rate

1. Reaction concentrations -the greater the concentration of reactants, the greater the number of effective collisions per unit time (A) 2. Temperature -increasing temperature increases the average kinetic energy of the molecules, leading to a greater proportion of reactants that gain enough energy to surpass Ea -in terms of the equation, e's coefficient becomes less negative, increasing k 3. Medium -some molecules are more likely to react with each other in aqueous environments, while others are more likely to react in nonaqueous solvents (presumably increasing A) 4. Catalyst -the only effect of the catalyst is to decrease the activation energies of both the forward and reverse reactions

Examples of cognitive changes in late adulthood

1. Reaction time decreases with age 2. Time-based prospective memory decreases with age 3. Fluid and crystallized intelligence both decrease with age 4. Activities of daily living (eating, bathing, ambulation) changes are linked with decline in intellectual abilities --this decline is not uniform 5. Dementia

Digestion of carbohydrates occurs in what three locations? -enzymes?

1. Salivary amylase in the mouth 2. Pancreatic amylase in the duodenum 3. Disaccharidases in the small intestine -sucrase, isomaltase, lactase, maltase Remember that only monosaccharides can be absorbed!

Skeletal myocyte structure

1. Sarcomeres are attached end-to-end and bundled in series into myofibrils --myofibrils are covered by sarcoplasmic reticulum, a modified endoplasmic reticulum that contains high concentrations of Ca²⁺ ions --the sarcoplasm is a modified cytoplasm located outside the SR 2. Bundles of myofibrils make up a myocyte (shown), whose numerous nuclei are found at the periphery of the cell --the cell membrane of the myocyte is known as the sarcolemma, capable of propagating action potentials to all sarcomeres using t-tubules that run perpendicularly to the myofibrils 3. Many myocytes in parallel form muscle

Rank the three ways of encoding information according to their strength

1. Semantic encoding - encoding information into meaningful context before memory storage, retrieval 2. Acoustic encoding - store the way information sounds 3. Visual encoding

Describe the two functional components of the testes

1. Seminiferous tubules --sperm are produced in the highly coiled seminiferous tubules, where they are nourished by Sertoli cells 2. Interstitial cells of Leydig --secrete testosterone and other androgens (male sex hormones)

Methods of nonspecific immune defense (4)

1. Skin --In addition to the physical barrier it provides, skin secretes antibacterial enzymes called defensins --sweat has antimicrobial properties as well 2. GI --stomach acid and competition from gut bacteria 3. Complement --number of blood proteins that act as a nonspecific defense by punching holes in the cell walls of bacteria --the classical pathway utilizes the binding of antibodies to a pathogen --the alternative pathway does not require antibodies 4. Interferons --proteins secreted by viral-infected cells --cause nearby cells to decrease production of both viral and cellular proteins --decrease cell permeability --upregulate MHC class I and II molecules on the cell surface

How are the following determined for spherical mirrors? 1. Center of curvature 2. Radius of curvature 3. Focal point 4. Focal length 5. Image distance 6. Object distance

1. The center of curvature is would be the center of the spherically-shaped mirror it it were a complete sphere 2. The radius of curvature is the distance from the vertex of the mirror to its center of curvature 3. The focal point is always half of the radius of curvature 4. The focal length is the distance from the focal point to the mirror 5. Image distance is the distance between the image and the mirror 6. Object distance is the distance between the object and the mirror

Aromaticity rules

1. The compound is cyclic 2. The compound is planar 3. The compound is conjugated -alternating single and double bonds 4. The compound obeys Huckel's rule -4n+2 electrons

Properties of the law of mass action

1. The concentrations of pure solids and pure liquids do not appear in the equilibrium constant expression 2. Keq is temperature-dependent -characteristic of a particular reaction *at a given temperature* 3. If the equilibrium constant for a reaction written in one direction is Keq, the equilibrium constant for the reverse reaction is 1/Keq

Describe the two subsystems of the superego

1. The conscience --a collection of the improper actions for which a child is punished 2. The ego-ideal --proper actions for which a child is rewarded

Rules for projectile motion

1. The equations for linear motion can be used to analyze the two dimensions of motion separately 2. Objects will experience the force of gravity in the y direction, but horizontal velocity will be constant because air resistance is usually negligible

What are the three portal systems in the body?

1. The hepatic portal system allows blood leaving capillary beds in the walls of the gut passes through the hepatic portal vein before reaching the capillary beds in the liver 2. In the hypophyseal portal system, blood leaving capillary beds in the hypothalamus travels to a capillary bed in the anterior pituitary to allow for paracrine secretion of hormones 3. In the renal portal system, blood leaving the glomerulus travels through an efferent arteriole before surrounding the nephron in a capillary network called the vasa recta

Rules to remember the type of hormone in question

1. The only amino acid-derivative hormones are the catecholamines and T₃+T₄, each of which are derived from the amino acid tyrosine 2. Steroid hormones include those secreted from the adrenal cortex, testes and ovaries and tend to end in -one (cortisone/cortisol, testosterone/estrogen/progesterone, aldosterone) 3. All other hormones are peptide hormones

Assigning oxidation numbers

1. The oxidation number of a free element is zero (N₂, P₄, S₈) 2. The oxidation number for a monoatomic ion is equal to the charge of the ion (Na⁺ = 1, Cl⁻ = -1) 3. The oxidation number of each Group 1 element is +1, and in Group 2, +2 4. The oxidation number of each Group VIIA element is -1, except when combined with an element of higher electronegativity 5. The oxidation number of hydrogen is usually +1, unless it is part of a compound with less electronegative elements (Groups 1 and 2a, like NaH) 6. In most compounds, the oxidation number of oxygen is -2, with two exceptions -Peroxides (O₂²⁻) for which the charge on each is -1, and -Compounds with more electronegative elements, such as OF₂, in which oxygen has a +2 charge

What is the rate-limiting step of the pentose phosphate pathway and what is the reaction used to accomplish?

1. The rate-limiting step is the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to 6-phosphoglutonate by glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase --induced by insulin and NADP+ --inhibited by NADPH The second half of the reaction represents a series of reversible reactions that produce an equilibrated pool of sugars for biosynthesis --because fructose-6-phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate are among the sugars produced, intermediates can feed back into glycolysis --the ribulose-5-phosphate created in the PPP is isomerized to ribose-5-phosphate, the backbone of nucleic acids - when coupled to a nitrogenous base, it forms a nucleotide that can be integrated into RNA

Describe the initiation phase of translation

1. The small ribosomal subunit binds to the mRNA --in prokaryotes, the small subunit binds the Shine-Dalgarno sequence in the 5' untranslated region of the mRNA --in eukaryotes, the small subunit binds to the 5' cap 2. The charged initiator tRNA binds to the AUG start codon through base-pairing with its anticodon within the P site of the ribosome --N-formylmethionine (fMET) in prokaryotes, methionine in eukaryotes 3. The large subunit then binds to the small subunit, forming the completed initiation complex with the assistance of GTP hydrolysis and initiation factors that do not remain associated with the ribosome after assembly

Three parts of the esophagus -what type of muscle is found in each? -what innervates each?

1. The top third is composed of skeletal muscle --under somatic control (voluntary swallowing) --upper esophageal sphincter 2. The middle third is composed of a combination of skeletal and smooth muscle --mix of somatic and autonomic control 3. The bottom third is composed of smooth muscle --under autonomic control (involuntary peristalsis) --lower esophageal sphincter

Steps for finding V,I, and R at individual as well as combined resistors in parallel

1. The voltage drop across resistors in parallel will be the same at each one because all pathways originate from and end at a common pathway -can think of it as one resistor does not affect the other resistors because each is a different path, so the voltage drop will be the same at each: Vs = V₁ = V₂, etc 2. Resistors in parallel are added according to 1/R₁ + 1/R₂......) 3. Use the resistance and voltage values to find the current at each individual resistor

Psychosocial development stages and relative time periods

1. Trust vs mistrust -0-1 year 2. Autonomy vs shame -1-3 years 3. Initiative vs guilt -3-6 years 4. Industry vs inferiority -6-12 years 5. Identity vs role confusion -12-20 years 6. Intimacy vs. isolation -20-40 years 7. Generativity vs. stagnation -40-65 years 8. Integrity vs despair -65+ years

Methods of determining protein concentration

1. UV spectroscopy can be used without any treatment because proteins contain aromatic side chains --this is particularly sensitive to sample contaminants however 2. Proteins also cause colorimetric changes with particular reactions --BCA assay --Lowry reagent assay --Bradford protein assay (standard due to reliability/simplicity)

Voltmeter 1. What does it measure? 2. How is it placed? 3. What is its ideal resistance?

1. Voltmeters measure the voltage drop across a circuit element --requires that the circuit be on, or the current will = 0 2. Voltmeters are inserted in parallel --if hooked up in series, current will not flow through that part of the circuit because of the high resistance 3. Ideally, a voltmeter has infinite resistance --want a big resistance so that all the current will go through the circuit element that we are measuring the voltage drop across

Fatty acid nomenclature

1. When describing a fatty acid, the total number of carbons is given along with the number of double bond (carbons:double bonds) 2. The omega (ω) numbering system is also used for unsaturated fatty acids --the ω designation describes the position of the last double bond relative to the end of the chain and identifies the major precursor fatty acid

A 0.1mol sample of CuS (Ksp = 8x10⁻³⁷) is added to 1L of 1M NH₃ -what is the final concentration of the complex ion tetraaminecopper(II) (Kf = 1.1x10¹³)?

1. Write out the equations for Ksp and Kf: CuS(s) --> Cu²⁺(aq) + S²⁻(aq) -- Ksp = 8x10⁻³⁷ Cu²⁺(aq) + 4NH₃(aq) --> [Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺(aq) -- Kf = 1.1x10¹³ 2. Determine the amount of copper ion produced from CuS -can assume all is liberated from the CuS salts as the dissociation of CuS is driven to completion because as Cu is liberated, it is used up in the formation of the complex ion, driving more dissolution of CuS until none remains 3. Use Kf equation to solve the problem -Kf = 1.1x10¹³ = [Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺/[Cu²+][NH₃]⁴ -we know that the initial concentration of Cu²⁺ and NH₃ are equal to 0.1M and 1M, respectively -the amount of complex ion formed is equal to x -using stoichiometric coefficients, the amount of Cu²⁺ and NH₃ at equilibrium is equal to 0.1-x and 1-4x, respectively -plug these into the Kf equation and solve

Equipose

In studies comparing two potential treatment options, one cannot approach the research with the knowledge that treatment is superior to the other --if it becomes evident that one treatment option is clearly superior before the study is scheduled to finish, the trial must be stopped because providing an inferior treatment is a net harm

What do the terms androgyny and undifferentiated refer to in terms of gender identity

In terms of gender identity, androgyny refers to individuals who score highly on scales of both masculinity and femininity, while undifferentiated individuals score low on both

Cahn-Ingold-Prelog rules for R/S designations

1.Put the H in the back 2. Highest atomic number takes priority 3. If two molecules have the same atomic number, go by the atomic number of its constituents

A Bronsted-Lowry acid _____________ while a Bronsted-Lowry base __________

A Bronsted - Lowry acid can donote a proton, and a Bronsted-Lowry base can accept a proton

Characteristic institution

A characteristic institution is the basic organization of society --in prehistoric times, the characteristic institution was primarily the kin, clan or sib --in modern times, the bureaucracy has become our characteristic institution

Describe the creation of a transgenic mouse by introducing a cloned gene into fertilized ova -pros and cons of this approach

A cloned gene (transgene) may be microinjected into the nucleus of a newly fertilized ovum --the ovum is implanted into a surrogate mother and if successful, the resulting offspring will contain the transgene in all of their cells, including their germ line cells This approach is useful for studying dominant gene effects but is less useful as a model for recessive disease because the number of copies of the gene that insert into the genome cannot be controlled - thus, the transgenic mice may each contain a different number of copies of the transgene

Cyanohydrin formation

A cyanohydrin is a functional group in which a cyano- and a hydroxy group are attached to the same carbon atom Formed through nucleophilic substitution of HCN and a carbonyl of ketones or aldehydes

Categorical perception

A important part of learning the phonology component of language that involves learning subtle differences between speech sounds

What is a meso compound?

A meso compound is a molecule that contains chiral centers but has an internal plane of symmetry, which prevents it from being optically active --it counts against the 2ⁿ rule if present - if one of the stereoisomers of a molecule with four chiral centers is a meso compound, that compound will only have 15 possible stereoisomers

Constant-pressure calorimetry

A simple example of a constant-pressure calorimeter is a coffee-cup calorimeter, which is constructed from two nested Styrofoam cups and a lid with two holes, which allows for the insertion of a thermometer and a stirring rod -the inner cup holds a known amount of a liquid, usually water, that absorbs the heat from the reaction -the outer cup is assumed to be perfectly adiabatic, meaning that it does not absorb any heat whatsoever. As such, the outer cup is assumed to be a perfect insulator -recall that at constant pressure, ∆H=q

Symbolic ethnicity

A specific connection to one's ethnicity in which ethnic symbols remain important even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life -St. Patrick's day for the Irish and other folk festivals

Hypnosis

A state in which a person appears to be in control of his or her normal functions, but is in a highly suggestible state that allows them to easily succumb to the suggestion of others --begins with hypnotic induction --proved successful in pain control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement, weight loss and smoking cessation

Conduction in terms of thermodynamics

In terms of thermodynamics, conduction is the direct transfer of energy from molecule to molecule through collisions -think of burning your fingers on a hot stove Metals are the best heat conductors because metallic bonds contain a density of atoms embedded in a sea of electrons which facilitate rapid energy transfer -gases tend to be the poorest heat conductors because there is so much space between individual molecules that energy-transferring collisions occur infrequently

Radiation in terms of thermodynamics

In terms of thermodynamics, radiation is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves -how the sun is able to warm the earth

Write out the following for each type of reversible inhibitor -method-of action -effect on Vmax, Km -resulting graph Competitive inhibition Uncompetitive inhibition Mixed inhibition Noncompetitive inhibition

A. Competitive inhibition: -binds enzyme active site -Km increases -Vmax unchanged B. Uncompetitive inhibitor: -binds allosteric site on ES complex -Km, Vmax decrease proportionally C. Mixed inhibitor: -binds allosteric site on either enzyme or ES complex -Km increases when it binds the enzyme, decreases when it binds the ES -Vmax always decreases D. Noncompetitive inhibitor: -binds allosteric site on enzyme -Vmax decreases -Km unchanged

Absolute pressure equation

Absolute/hydrostatic pressure refers to the pressure exerted by a fluid on a submerged object at depth h --Po = ambient pressure (pressure at the surface) Remember that Po will not always equal Patm -in other fluid systems, the surface pressure may be higher or lower than atmospheric pressure

Fictional finalism

According to Adler, an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences -human goals are based on the subjective estimate of life's value rather than objective data

Inferiority and superiority complexes according to Adler

According to Adler, the final goals toward which we all strive are perfection, security, conquest, and being successful -considered the striving for superiority to be the utmost drive of human beings and believed that it is inborn -when this striving goes too far, a person develops a superiority complex in which this drive is wrongly self directed and aimed at selfish goals, such as power and self-esteem -because children are small and weak, Adler thought that they develop feelings of inferiority. If these feelings become overwhelming, a child develops an inferiority complex, which has to be overcome

Descibe Freud's projection defense mechanism

According to Freud, individuals defend themselves against their own unconscious impulses or qualities (both positive and negative) by denying their existence in themselves while attributing them to others -it incorporates blame shifting -man cheating on his wife is convinced she is cheating on him

Descibe Freud's reaction formation defense mechanism

According to Freud, reaction formation occurs when a person feels an urge to do or say something and then actually does or says something that is effectively the opposite of what they really want -it appears as a defense against a feared social punishment - if I fear that I will be criticized for something, I very visibly act in a way that shows I am personally a long way from the feared position -a man who is gay has a number of conspicuous heterosexual affairs and openly criticizes gays.

Describe Freud's repression defense mechanism

According to Freud, repression is a defense mechanism the ego uses to unconsciously remove an idea or feeling from consciousness

Describe Freud's sublimation defense mechanism

According to Freud, sublimation is a defense mechanism the ego uses to transform an unacceptable urge into socially acceptable behavior --a boss who is attracted to his employee becomes her mentor

Describe Freud's suppression defense mechanism

According to Freud, suppression is the conscious decision to delay paying attention to a thought, emotion, or need in order to cope with the present reality

Describe the ego according to Freud

According to Freud, the ego operates according to the reality principle, taking into account the world objectively as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and its pleasure principle that cannot effectively reduce tension on a permanent basis

Describe the function of the id according to Freud

According to Freud, the id functions according to the pleasure principle, in which the aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension

Distinguish between primary and secondary processes with regard to the id

According to Freud, the primary process is the immediate gratification of pent-up tension that the id seeks to fulfill, while the ego's control of the id is the secondary process

Describe the superego according to Freud

According to Freud, the superego is the personality's perfectionist, judging our actions through responding with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures

Horney's concept of basic anxiety

According to Horney, basic anxiety is vulnerability and helplessness that a child experiences as a result of inadequate parenting

Horney's concept of basic hostility

According to Horney, basic hostility is anger that a child develops as a result of neglect and rejection

What is self according to Jung's theory of psychoanalytic personality

According to Jung, the self is the point of intersection between the collective and personal unconscious and the conscious mind -Jung saw the self as a mandala, a symbol of the universe in Buddhism that reconciles opposites and promotes harmony

Bundles of axons in the CNS

In the CNS, axons may be bundled together to form tracts, which only carry one type of information --cell bodies of neurons in the same tract are grouped into nuclei

Personal construct psychology as described by Kelly and how it relates to the humanistic perspective of personality

According to personal construct psychology, the individual devises and tests predictions about the behavior of significant people in their life, and constructs a scheme of anticipation of what others will do based on relationships with these people to test our interpretations of the world -a proponent of the humanist theory of personality, Kelly believed that psychotherapy can be used to help the individual that is having difficulty constructing and understanding the variables in their environment to acquire new constructs that will allow them to successfully predict troublesome events

Raoult's law equation

Accounts for vapor pressure depression, the proportional decrease in vapor pressure of the solvent as solute is added -only true for ideal solutions, when attraction between the molecules of the different components of the mixture is equal to the attraction between the molecules of any one component in its pure state

Ketolysis

Acetoacetate picked up from the blood is activated in the mitochondria by succinyl-CoA acetoacetyl-CoA transferase, an enzyme present only in tissues outside of the liver (the liver thus cannot catabolize the ketone bodies it produces) In this reaction, 3-hydroxybutyrate is oxidized to acetoacetate, reducing NAD⁺ to NADH

Citric Acid Cycle overview --major products --how much ATP is generated from these products?

Acetyl-CoA + 3NAD⁺ + FAD + GDP + Pi + 2H₂O ---> 2CO₂ + CoA-SH + 3NADH + 3H+ + FADH₂ +GTP ATP Production: 3NADH x 2.5 ATP/NADH ---> 7.5 ATP 1FADH₂ x 1.5 ATP/FADH₂ ---> 1.5 ATP 1 GTP --> 1ATP __________________ 10 ATP/ Pyruvate = 20 ATP per glucose

Relaxation following muscle contraction

Acetylcholine is degraded in the synapse by acetylcholinesterase, resulting in the termination of the signal at the neuromuscular junction and allowing the sarcolemma to repolarize --as the signal decays, calcium releases ceases, and the SR takes up calcium from the sarcoplasm --the SR tightly controls intracellular calcium concentrations so that the muscles are contracted only when necessary --ATP binds to the myosin heads, freeing them from actin

Describe the achieved type of status

Achieved status is gained as a result of one's efforts or choices, such as becoming a doctor

Adhesion --what kind of menisci are seen associated?

Adhesion is the attractive force that a molecule of liquid feels toward the molecules of some other substance, such as the container it is in -concave menisci occur when these forces are greater than cohesive forces

Describe the creation of a transgenic mouse by introducing a cloned gene into an embryonic stem cell -pros and cons of this approach

Advantages of using stem cell lines are that the cloned genes can be introduced in cultures, allowing one to select for cells with the transgene successfully inserted -the altered stem cells are injected into developing blastocysts, which are implanted into surrogate mothers -the blastocyst itself is thus composed of two types of stem cells: those from the transgene and those from the original blastocyst that lacks the transgene -the resulting offspring is a chimera, meaning that it has patches of cells, including germ cells, derived from each of the two lineages -these chimeric offspring can then be bred to produce mice that are heterozygous or homozygous for the transgene, allowing for the study of autosomal recessive gene effects that are more difficult with transgenes injected into fertilized ova

Proximal convoluted tubule

After filtration, the filtrate first enters the proximal convoluted tubule, where nearly 70% of filtered sodium is reabsorbed, as well as amino acids, glucose, water-soluble vitamins --water is also reabsorbed so that the filtrate remains isotonic to the interstitium --solutes that enter the interstitium are picked up by the vasa recta to be returned to the bloodstream -also a site of secretion of waste products such as H⁺, K⁺, ammonia (NH₃) and urea

Nucleophilic acyl substitution using carboxylic acids

After opening the carbonyl via nucleophilic attack and forming a tetrahedral intermediate, the carbonyl can reform, kicking off the leaving group -these are used to create all of the carboxylic acid derivatives -favored by a good leaving group -can occur under acidic or basic conditions

Luteal phase of the menstrual cycle

After ovulation, high LH levels cause the ruptured follicle to form the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone and to a lesser extent estrogen --while estrogen helps regenerate the uterine lining at the beginning of the cycle, progesterone helps maintain it in preparation for implantation Thus, progesterone and estrogen levels rise as the corpus luteum develops, and FSH/LH levels steadily decline due to negative feedback --assuming that implantation does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates as LH levels fall, causing progesterone and estrogen levels to decline --this results in the sloughing of the uterine lining, as well as dis-inhibition of GnRH secretion by the hypothalamus, in preparation for the next cycle

Cortical reaction

After penetration of the sperm through the ovum's cell membrane, there is a release of calcium ions from the membrane (known as the cortical reaction) --these calcium ions depolarize the membrane of the ovum, which both prevents fertilization by multiple sperm and increases the metabolic rate of the newly formed diploid zygote --the depolarized and impenetrable membrane is now called the fertilization membrane

Hormonal control of reproduction

After puberty, the hypothalamus begins releasing pulses of GnRH, which triggers the anterior pituitary gland to synthesize and release FSH and LH --these hormones trigger the production of other sex hormones that develop and maintain the reproductive system

Meiosis overview

After the S phase of meiosis, there are 92 chromatids organized into 46 chromosomes (chromatid pairs), organized into 23 homologous pairs (tetrads) --homologous pairs are considered separate chromosomes --sister chromatids are identical strands of DNA connected at the centromere

Define aggression

Aggression is defined as a behavior that intends to cause harm or increase social dominance to offer protection against perceived and real threats

Agnosia

Agnosia is the loss of ability to recognize either objects, people or sounds --usually the result of physical damage to the brain, stroke, or MS

Agoraphobia

Agoraphobia is an anxiety disorder characterized by a fear of being in places or situations where it might be hard for an individual to escape

Agranular leukocytes

Agranulocytes lack granules released by exocytosis --include lymphocytes and monocytes --lymphocytes include T/B cells and mature either in the spleen, thymus or lymph nodes --monocytes phagocytize cells and become macrophages upon leaving the blood stream and entering their target organ Each organ's macrophage population may have a specific name --brain --> microglia --skin --> langerhans cells -- bone -->osteoclasts

Alanine Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Alanine Nonpolar side chain Neutral side chain at physiologic pH Nonaromatic Hydrophobic

Method-of-action of alcohol and effects

Alcohol acts as a depressant by increasing the activity of GABA receptors - chloride channels that cause hyperpolarization of the membrane Effects: --disinhibition of inappropriate behavior --increases dopamine levels, causing a sense of euphoria --heightens inability to recognize consequences of actions (alcohol myopia)

Primary alcohols in the presence of PCC form....

Aldehydes (Pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC) is the only reagent that allows for oxidization of primary alcohols to aldehydes)

Alertness as a state of consciousness

Alertness is the state in which we can perceive, process, access and express information, and is maintained by the reticular formation that keeps the cortex awake --cortisol levels tend to be higher --EEG waves indicate a waking state

Avagadro's principle

All gases at a constant temperature and pressure occupy volumes that are directly proportional to the number of moles of gas present

Resting membrane potential

All neurons exhibit a resting membrane potential, an electrical potential difference between the inside and outside of the neuron that is usually around -70mV --neurons use selective permeability to ions and the Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase to maintain the negative internal environment

Allosteric enzymes

Allosteric enzymes have an active site, as well as at least one other site that can regulate the availability of the active site --molecules that bind to the allosteric site may be either allosteric activators or allosteric inhibitors

How does the Lewis definition of acids/bases differ significantly from the other two?

In the Lewis definition, the focus of the reaction is no longer on the proton, but instead the electrons forming the coordinate covalent bond --the Lewis definition is also the most inclusive of the three

Solvation

Also called dissolution (or hydration when water is the solvent), this refers to the electrostatic interaction between solute and solvent -involves breaking intermolecular interactions between solute molecules and between solvent molecules in order to form new intermolecular interactions between solute and solvent molecules together

Mate choice -five contributing factors

Also called intersexual selection, mate choice is the selection of a mate based on attraction -includes phenotypic benefits, sensory bias, runaway (fischerian) selection, indicator traits and genetic compatibility

Observation bias

Also called the Hawthorne effect, observation bias posits that behavior of study participants is altered simply because they recognize that they are being studied --for example, patients in a study for a given weight loss drug may begin exercising more frequently, or may make healthier diet choices, artificially increasing the perceived effect of the drug

Mere exposure effect -what is its alternate name?

Also called the familiarity effect, the mere exposure effect states that people prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently -helps explain why proximity is an important part of attraction between two people

Vaporization

Also known as evaporation, vaporization involves some of the molecules near the surface of the liquid gaining enough kinetic energy to leave the liquid phase and escape into the gas phase -this is an endothermic process for which the heat source is liquid water -while the water may be receiving thermal energy from some other source, evaporation happens in all liquids at all temperatures

Dizygotic twins

Also known as fraternal twins, dizygotic twins form from the fertilization of two different eggs released during one ovulatory cycle by two different sperm --each zygote will implant in the uterine wall, an each develops its own placenta, chorion and amnion --if the zygotes implant close together, they may fuse --these are no more genetically similar than any other pair of siblings

Monozygotic twins

Also known as identical twins, monozygotic twins are the result of a single zygote splitting in two --because the genetic material is identical, so too will be the genomes of the offspring --incomplete division of the single zygote results in conjoined twins Monozygotic twins can be classified by the number of structures they share - the more that are shared, the more risks as the fetuses grows and develops

Fatty acid synthesis overview

Although fatty acids used by the body for fuel are supplied primarily by the diet, some synthesis occurs in the liver (and to a lesser extent, adipose), and FAs are subsequently transported to adipose tissue for storage In addition, excess carbohydrate and protein acquired from the diet can be converted to fatty acids and stored as energy reserves in the form of triacylglercol

Alzheimer's pathology and effect on memory

Alzheimer's is thought to be linked to a loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to the hippocampus, and tends to proceed with the loss of recent memories first, followed by more distant memories (retrograde) --sundowning, an increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening, is also seen

Anxious-ambivalent attachment -reaction to caregiver's departure and return -reaction to strangers

Ambivalent attachment occurs when a caregiver has inconsistent response to a child's distress - sometimes responding appropriately, sometimes neglectfully -child is always anxious about the reliability of the caregiver The child will show distress with separation but has a mixed response when the caregiver returns Wary of strangers, even when caregiver is present

Acid and base equivalents

An acid equivalent is equal to one mole of H+ (H₃O⁺), while a base equivalent is equal to one mole of OH⁻ ions

Imine formation

An imine is a molecule with nitrogen atom double-bonded to a carbon atom, and are formed via nitrogen/nitrogen-based functional groups (nucleophile) reacting with carbonyls of aldehydes and less frequently, ketones (electrophile) --the lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen allows them to react readily with electrophiles This is a condensation as well as a nucleophilic substitution reaction that proceeds via an SN2 mechanism

Define an isobaric process in terms of the first law of thermodynamics -describe its associated pressure-volume curve

An isobaric process occurs when the pressure of the system is constant -these do not alter the first law of thermodynamics -result in flat lines on a pressure-volume curve

Define an isothermal process in terms of the first law of thermodynamics -describe its associated pressure-volume curve

An isothermal process occurs when the system's temperature is constant, implying that its total internal energy is unchanged -(∆U = 0), thus Q = W An isothermal process appears as a hyperbolic curve on a pressure-volume graph -work is represented by the area under the curve

Newton's second law

An object of mass m will accelerate when the vector sum of the forces results in some nonzero resultant force vector -note that net force and acceleration vectors point in the same direction

Gesellschaft

Gesellschaft translates to society, refers to groups that are formed because of mutual self-interests working toward the same goal --companies and countries

Cell death and development

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, occurs at various times in development in various ways, such as apoptotic signals or preprogramming --during the process of apoptosis, the cell undergoes changes in morphology and divides into many self-contained pieces called apoptotic blebs, which can then be digested by other cells, allowing for recycling of materials --blebs are contained by a membrane, which prevents the release of potentially harmful substances into the extracellular environment This is different from necrosis, a process of cell death in which a cell dies as a result of injury --in necrosis, internal substances can be leaked, causing irritation of nearby tissues, or even an immune response

Equation for the volume expansion

Applies to both liquids and solids but is usually applied only to liquids, whose only appreciable parameter of thermal expansion is volume -recall the thermal expansion equation for solids - β is the coefficient of volumetric expansion that characterizes how a specific material's volume changes as the temperature changes and is equal to three times the coefficient of linear expansion (β = 3α)

Post-glomerulus nephron structure

Around the glomerulus is a structure called Bowman's capsule, which leads to the proximal convoluted tubule (cortex), descending/ascending loops of Henle (cortex/medulla), distal convoluted tubule (cortex) and the collecting duct (cortex/medulla)

Properties of arteries

Arteries are highly muscular and elastic, creating tremendous resistance to the flow of blood --one of the reasons the left heart must generate much higher pressures is to overcome this resistance --after the arteries are filled with blood, the elastic recoil from their walls maintains a high pressure as the heart relaxes, forcing blood forward

Proton-motive force

As [H⁺] increases in the intermembrane space, the pH there drops, and the voltage difference between the intermembrane space and the matrix increases due to proton pumping --together, these two changes contribute to the electrochemical gradient that is harnessed by the ATP synthase to produce ATP

Describe Piaget's theory for how infants learn

As a child proceeds through the four stages of cognitive development, new information has to be placed into new schemata (behaviors, concepts, or sequences of events) This new information is processed via adaptation, involving first assimilation of new information into existing schemata, then subsequent accommodation of existing schemata to encompass the new information

What effect does menopause have on the menstrual cycle?

As a woman ages, her ovaries become less sensitive to FSH and LH, resulting in ovarian atrophy --as estrogen and progesterone levels drops, the endometrium also atrophies, and menstruation stops --also, because the negative feedback on FSH and LH is removed, the blood levels of the two hormones rise --this is menopause, and is characterized by physical and psychological changes including hot flashes, bloating, headaches and irritability

Multipotency

As cells continue to become more specialized, they are said to be multipotent Multipotent stem cells can differentiate into multiple types of cells within a particular group, such as hematopoietic stem cells, which are capable of differentiating into all of the cells found in the blood --adult stem cells are multipotent

Describe government and economy as a social institution

As institutions, the government and economy can be defined as systematic arrangements of political and capital relationships, activities and social structures --these impact all other social institutions to a certain extent

Distinguish between chemiosmotic and conformational coupling in the ATP synthase

As protons flow through the F₀ portion following their gradient, chemiosmotic coupling allows the chemical energy of the gradient to be harnessed as a means of phosphorylating ADP --> ATP in the F₁ portion Conformation coupling suggests that this relationship is more indirect, instead the result of a conformational change caused by the gradient that allows for the formation of ATP When the proton-motive force is dissipated through the F₀ portion, the free energy change ∆G° = -220 kj/mol

Water absorption in the small intestine

As solutes are absorbed, water is drawn with it both transcellularly (across the cell membrane) and paracellularly (between cells) into capillaries -the average person may consume up to 2L of fluid per day, but secretions in to the upper GIT may total up to 7L --in order to maintain proper fluid levels, much of this fluid must be reabsorbed by osmosis

Male reproductive anatomy

As sperm are formed, they pass through the epididymis where their flagella gain motility, and then stored until ejaculation --during ejaculation, sperm travel through the vas deferens and ejaculatory duct at the posterior edge of the prostate --the two ejaculatory ducts then fuse to form the urethra, which carries sperm through the penis as they exit the body As sperm pass through the reproductive tract, they mix with seminal fluid produced by the seminal vesicles, prostate/bulbourethral glands (Path of sperm --> SEVEN UP)

Ovulation phase of the menstrual cycle

As the developing follicles secrete progressively higher levels of estrogen, the effect on the hypothalamus switches from negative to positive feedback, causing the LH (and less importantly, FSH) surge, which stimulates the release of the ovum from the ovary in the abdominal (peritoneal) cavity

Deviation in real gases due to temperature (2)

As the temperature of a gas is reduced toward its condensation (boiling) point, intermolecular attractions causes the gas to have a smaller volume than that predicted by the ideal gas law At extremely low temperatures, gases will occupy more space than predicted by the ideal gas law because the particles cannot be compressed to zero volume

Synaptic pruning

As we grow, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of our brains' ability to process information

Aspartate Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Aspartate Polar side chain Nonaromatic Negatively-charged side chain at physiologic pH (protonated structure is aspartic acid) Hydrophilic

Mechanism of the mechanical advantage of pulleys

Assuming that the heavy crate is momentarily being held stationary in midair, the system is in equilibrium -the weight (load) is balanced by the total tension in the ropes -the tensions in the two vertical ropes are equal, and thus each supports half of the crate's total weight -thus, only half of the force (effort) is required to lift the crate This advantage comes at the expense of distance - to lift an object a certain distance (load distance), one must pull a length of rope equal to twice the displacement (effort distance)

Define attachment and list the four types

Attachment is an emotion bond between a caregiver and a child -types of attachment include secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-ambivalent, and disorganized

Empathy-altruism hypothesis

Attempts to explain the relationship between empathy and helping behavior by positing that an individual helps another person when he or she feels empathy for that person, regardless of the cost

Explain the ego-expressive function of attitudes posited by the functional attitudes theory

Attitudes serving a ego-expressive function serves to express one's central values and self-concept, tending to establish our identity and help us gain social approval

Attribution theory

Attribution theory focuses on the tendency of individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior through assigning either dispositional (internal) or situational (external) attributes to another's actions or choices

Avoidant personality disorder

Avoidant personality disorder is characterized by extreme shyness and fear of rejection -manifests in social isolation despite intense desire for social affection -maintains same job, relationships and life situations despite intense desire for change -cluster C personality disorder

Describe the purpose of blinding in experimental research

Because many of the measures in biomedical research are subjective, the perception of the subject and the investigator may be biased by knowing which group the subject is in --to combat this, subjects and or investigators are not given information about which group a subject is in - this is known as blinding

Crossing over and Mendel's second law (independent assortment)

Because of crossing over of genes between homologous chromosomes during prophase I, each daughter cell will have a unique pool of alleles from a random mixture of maternal and paternal origin --this explains Mendel's law of independent assortment, which states that the inheritance of one allele has no effect on the likelihood of inheriting certain alleles for other genes

Distinguish bias and confounding

Bias is a result of flaws in the data collection phase of an experimental or observational study, while confounding is an error in analysis

Bile

Bile is produced in the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and released in response to CCK secretion in the duodenum Bile salts are amphipathic molecules derived from cholesterol that emulsify fat and cholesterol into micelles --this allows water-soluble pancreatic lipase to access fat, as well as increasing the surface area for it to work --thus, bile (mechanical digestion) and pancreatic lipase (chemical digestion) are both required for proper fat digestion --it is composed of bile salts, pigments and cholesterol

Biopsychosocial approach to treating psychological disorders

Biopsychosocial therapy assumes that there are biological, psychological and social components to an individual's disorder -the biological component of a disorder is something in the body, like having a particularly genetic syndrome -the psychological component of a disorder stems from the individual's thoughts, emotions or behaviors -the social component results from the individual's surroundings and can include issues of perceived class in society, discrimination or stigmatization

Bipolar II disorders

Bipolar II disorders are characterized by: -at least one episode of hypomania -at least one episode of major depression Diagnosis requires that the individual must never have experienced a full manic episode

Composition of blood -two main components

Blood by volume: 55% liquid (plasma) --aqueous mixture of nutrients, salts, respiratory gases, hormones, and blood proteins 45% cells --erythrocytes, leukocytes, thrombocytes

Conditions related to improper growth hormone levels prior to and following puberty

Bone growth is stimulated by GH and originates in special regions of the bone known as epiphyseal plates, which seal shut during puberty Excess GH released in childhood can cause gigantism, while a deficit can result in dwarfism In adults, because the long bones are sealed, excess GH primarily affects small bones, resulting acromegaly most commonly affects the hands, feet and head

Long bones

Bones in the appendicular skeleton are typically long bones, which are characterized by cylindrical shafts called diaphyses that swell at each end to form metaphyses, terminate in epiphyses --long bone diaphyses and metaphyses are full of bone marrow, while the epiphyses use their spongy cores for more effective dispersion of force and pressure at the points --at the internal edge of the epiphysis is an epiphyseal plate, a cartilaginous structure and the site of longitudinal growth - prior to adulthood, the epiphyseal plates close and vertical growth is halted Finally, a fibrous sheath called the periosteum surrounds the long bone to protect it while also serving as a site for muscle attachment --some periosteum cells are capable of differentiating into bone-forming cells, and thus a healthy periosteum is necessary for bone growth and repair

Duodenal peptidases/dipeptidases

Both are secreted into the duodenum Peptidases break down peptides --carboxypeptidases hydrolyze a peptide bond at the C-terminal end of a protein or peptide, while aminopeptidases cleave peptide bonds at the N-terminal end Dipeptidases cleave the peptide bonds of dipeptides to release free amino acids --unlike sugars, which must be broken down to monosaccharides to be absorbed, di- and tripeptides can be absorbed across the wall of the small intestine

Which reinforcement schedules often result in brief pauses of no responses after behavior is enforced?

Both fixed-ratio and fixed-interval schedules will often have a brief moment of no responses after the behavior is enforced (the rat gets a pellet) --the rat will stop hitting the level until it wants another pellet, once it has figured out what behavior is necessary to receive it

Bottom-up processing

Bottom-up processing refers to object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection --essentially, the brain takes the individual sensory stimuli and combines them together to create a cogesive image before determining what the object is -when we believe we are experiencing something for the first time, we expect to rely on this

Which of the acid-base definitions always require conjugate acid-base pairs?

Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases always occur in pairs because the definitions require the transfer of a proton from the acid to the base

Bronsted-lowry base definition

Bronsted-Lowry bases are species that accepts hydrogen ions

List the enzymes released in the duodenum (4)

Brush-border enzymes like disaccharidases and peptidases Enteropeptidase CCK Secretin

Immune function in the respiratory system -six to know

By necessity, the lungs must be able to fight off potential invaders 1. the first line of defense occurs within the nasal cavity, with small hairs (vibrissae) that help trap particulate matter and potentially infectious particles 2. the nasal cavity also contains lysozyme, an enzyme that is able to attack the peptidoglycan walls of gram-positive bacteria 3. the internal airways are lined with mucus, which traps particulate matter and larger invaders --cilia propel mucus up the respiratory tract to the oral cavity to be swallowed 4. the lungs also contain numerous immune cells including macrophages 5. mucosal surfaces also contain IgA antibodies that help protect against pathogens that contact mucous membranes 6, mast cells, with preformed antibodies on their surfaces, also populate the lungs --when the right substance attaches to the antibody, the mast cell releases inflammatory chemicals into the surrounding area, promoting an immune response --these antibodies can also react with pollen and molds - thus mast cells also mediate allergic reactions

Rules for capacitors in series

Capacitors in series look like resistors in series 1. Add capacitance as you would resistors in parallel 2. The Q across each capacitor will be the same (just as the current through parallel resistors is the same), and can be found by using the sum of the capacitors' capacitance and the total voltage applied, just as you would for resistors in series 3. Can then use Q and C for each capacitor to find the individual voltage drops across each

Properties of capillaries

Capillaries are vessels with a single endothelial cell layer that allows easy diffusion of gases (O₂, CO₂), nutrients (glucose), and waste (ammonia, urea) -highest cross-sectional area portion of the circulation

Carbon dioxide and RBCs

Carbon dioxide can be carried by hemoglobin, but hemoglobin has a much lower affinity for CO₂ than for oxygen --when CO₂ enters a red blood cell, it encounters the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which catalyzes the combination reaction between CO₂ and water to form carbonic acid --being a weak acid, carbonic acid will dissociate into a proton and a bicarbonate ion --these have higher solubilities in water, making them a more effective method of transporting metabolic waste products to the lungs for excretion --upon reaching the alveolar capillaries in the lungs, the same reactions that led to the formation of the proton and bicarbonate anion can be reversed, allowing us to breathe out carbon dioxide

Primary alcohol in the presence of KMnO₄ yields

Carboxylic acids

Catecholamines and metabolism

Catecholamines are secreted by the adrenal medulla and include epinephrine and norepinephrine --these increase the activity of liver and muscle glycogen phosphorylase, promoting glycogenolysis and glucose output from the liver --glycogenolysis also increases in skeletal muscle, resulting in glucose's metabolism within the muscle because it does not contain glucose-6-phosphatase --they also act on adipose tissue to increase lipolysis through increasing the activity of hormone-sensitive lipase (recall that glycerol is a minor substrate for gluconeogenesis)

Structure of a neuron

Cell body = soma --location of the nucleus, ER and ribosomes Dendrites - appendages emanating from the soma which receive incoming messages from other cells --this information is transmitted through the cell body before it reaches the axon hillock, which integrates the incoming signals, which can excitatory or inhibitory --if the result is threshold reached, it will initiate an AP Axon - long appendage that terminates in close proximity to a target structure (muscle, gland, other neuron) --most mammalian nerve fibers are insulated by myelin to prevent signal loss or crossing, while also increasing its speed --Nodes of Ranvier are also critical for rapid signal conduction

Centromeres

Centromeres are a region of DNA found in the center of chromosomes --this part of the chromosome is composed of heterochromatin, which is in turn composed of tandem repeat sequences that also contain high GC-content (recall heterochromatin stays condensed even during interphase) --during cell division, the two sister chromatids can therefore remain connected at the centromere until microtubules separate the chromatids during anaphase

Mismatch repair in DNA -proteins involved in prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes? -when does it occur?

Certain enzymes can detect and remove errors introduced in replication that were missed during S phase of the cell cycle -occurs in G₂ phase -MutS, MutL enzymes in prokaryotes -MSH1,MSH2 in eukaryotes

Chelation

Chelation is a process in which a polydentate ligand bonds to a metal ion, forming a ring -the complex produced by this process is called a chelate, and the polydentate ligand is referred to as a chelating agent

Define each type of system: Closed Isolated Open

Closed systems can exchange energy but not matter with the surroundings Isolated systems cannot exchange energy or matter with the surroundings Open systems can exchange both energy and matter with the surroundings

Codominance in terms of genetics

Codominance occurs when multiple dominant alleles exist, such as a AB blood type

Distinguish between cofactors and coenzymes

Cofactors are inorganic ions that assist an enzyme in its catalytic activity -examples include Fe2+ and Mg2+ -cofactors, inclusive of coenzymes, may be closely or covalently bound to the enzyme as a holoenzyme. Without the required cofactor, an enzyme is in an inactive state, or an apoenzyme Coenzymes are small, organic molecules that assist an enzyme in its catalytic activity. Examples include heme, NAD+, and coenzyme A -many coenzymes are derived from vitamins

Cognitive dissonance

Cognitive dissonance is the mental stress or discomfort experienced by an individual who holds two or more contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values at the same time -leads to a state of internal discomfort, necessitating modification or minimization one of the dissonant thoughts in order to reduce this tension

Cohesion -what kind of menisci are seen associated?

Cohesion is the attractive force that a molecule of liquid feels toward other molecules of the same liquid -convex/backward menisci occur when these forces are greater than adhesive forces

Cohort study

Cohort studies are a type of observational study in which subjects are sorted into two groups based on differences in risk factors (exposures) and then assessed at various intervals to determine how many subjects in each group had a certain outcome --for example, a study in which 100 smokers and 100 nonsmokers are followed for 20 years while counting the number of subjects who develop lung cancer in each group

Colligative properties of solutions definition and list(4)

Colligative properties are physical properties of solutions that are dependent on the concentration of dissolved particles, but not on the chemical identity of the dissolved particles and include the following: 1. Vapor pressure depression 2. Boiling point elevation 3. Freezing point depression 4. Osmotic pressure

Colon

Colon -second part of the large intestine -includes ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid -main function is water and salt absorption from the undigested material left over from the small intestine -too much or too little water absorption can cause diarrhea and constipation, respectively -note that much more water is absorbed in the small intestine than the large intestine

Combustion reactions

Combustion reactions generally involve a fuel (hydrocarbon) mixing with an oxident (usually oxygen) to form CO₂ and H₂O

Competitive inhibition

Competitive inhibition involves occupancy of the active site, and can be overcome by adding more substrate -Km increases because the substrate concentration must increase to reach half the maximum velocity in the presence of this inhibitor -Vmax remains constant because if enough substrate is added, it will outcompete the inhibitor and be able to run the reaction at maximum velocity

Distinguish between complete and incomplete regeneration

Complete regeneration is the replacement of lost or damaged tissue with identical tissue via migrating stem cells, while incomplete regeneration implies that the newly formed tissue is not identical in structure or function to the tissue that was injured or lost --humans typically exhibit incompletion regeneration, the liver being an exception

Ketogenesis/ketolysis overview --write out general mechanisms (three enzymes to know)

In the fasting state, the liver converts excess acetyl-CoA from β-oxidation of fatty acids into the ketone bodies acetoacetate and 3-hydroxybutyrate, which can be used for energy in various tissues During fasting periods, muscle will metabolize ketones as rapidly as the liver releases them, preventing accumulation in the blood --after a week of fasting, ketones reach a concentration in the blood that is high enough for the brain to begin metabolizing them

Complex I of the ETC

Complex I is known as NADH-CoQ oxioreductase --this complex catalyzes the transfer of electrons from NADH to coenzyme Q --note that the protein has an iron-sulfur cluster as well as a flavoprotein that oxidizes NADH --the flavoprotein has a coenzyme called FMN bound to it --the first step in the reaction involves NADH transferring its electrons to FMN, thereby oxidized to NAD⁺, while FMN is reduced to FMNH₂ --next, the flavoprotein becomes reoxidized while the iron-sulfur subunit is reduced --finally, the reduced iron-sulfur subunits donates the electrons it received from FMNH₂ to coenzyme Q, which becomes CoQH₂ four protons pumped

Name the four enzymes associated with the ETC

Complex I: NADH - CoQ oxioreductase Complex II: Succinate-CoQ oxioreductase Complex III: CoQH₂-cytochrome c oxioreductase Complex IV: Cytochrome C oxidase

Complex II of the ETC

Complex II of the ETC is known as Succinate-CoQ oxioreductase --recall that succinate is a CAC intermediate, and that it is oxidized to fumarate upon interacting with FAD --FAD is covalently bonded to complex II, and once succinate is oxidized, it is reduced to FADH₂ --After this, FADH₂ gets reoxidized to FAD as it reduces an iron-sulfur protein --the final step reoxidizes the iron-sulfur protein as coenzyme Q is reduced --thus, just like complex I, complex II transfers electrons to coenzyme q, but no protons are pumped here

Complex III of the ETC

Complex III of the ETC is also known as CoQH₂-cytochrome c oxioreductase --this complex facilitates the transfer of electrons from coenzyme Q to cytochrome C in a few steps --in the transfer of electrons from iron, only one electron is transferred per reaction, but because coenzyme Q has two electrons to transfer, two cytochrome c molecules will be needed --in the Q cycle, two electrons are shuttled rom CoQH₂ near the intermembrane space to a molecule of CoQ near the mitochondrial matrix --another two electrons attached to heme moeities, reducing two moles of cytochrome C --in shuttling these electrons, four protons are displaced to the intermembrane space

Complex IV of the ETC

Complex IV of the ETC is also knowns as cytochrome C oxidase --this complex facilitates the transfer of electrons from cytochrome c to oxygen, the final electron acceptor in the ETC --This complex includes subunits of cytochrome a, cytochrome a₃, and Cu²⁺ ions --two protons are pumped

Compliance

Compliance is public conformity, while possibly keeping one's own original beliefs for yourself -motivated by the need for approval and the fear of being rejected -distinct from obedience because this comes from those with no real authority over the individual

Concave mirrors are ___________ mirrors, while convex mirrors are ___________

Concave mirrors are converging mirrors because they cause parallel incident light rays to converge after reflection Convex mirrors are diverging mirrors because they cause parallel incident light rays to converge after reflection *The reverse is true for lenses!*

Concordance rates and twin studies

Concordance rates refer to the likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait --MZ twins are genetically identical, whereas DZ twins share approximately 50 percent of their genes

Esterification

Condensation reaction that occurs when an alcohol and carboxylic acid are made to react --occurs most rapidly with primary alcohols in acidic solution, which facilitates protonation

Condensation

Condensation results from pressure exerted by ambient pressure or a closed container that forces some gaseous molecules into the liquid phase -the pressure that the gas exerts over the liquid is called the vapor pressure, and increases as temperature increases because more molecules have sufficient kinetic energy to escape into the gas phase

Designating R/S in Fischer projections

In the molecule shown, start by putting the horizontal molecules on bars and the vertical molecules on dashes --if the lowest priority (lowest atomic number) element is on a vertical (dash), count the other three and draw a line --if the lowest priority (lowest atomic number) element is on a horizontal (bar), count the other three, find an R/S designation, and the true designation is the opposite

What are confidence intervals used for and how are they calculated

Confidence intervals are used to estimate population means from a sample data set --how sure are we that a mean value represents a more general mean? For instance, an author's study determines that the mean glucose reading of subjects in their study is 120mg/dl ± 5mg/dl --this means that if we were to repeat their study, that 95% of the time, the mean that we find for our subjects under similar experimental conditions to their's would fall between 115-125mg/dl Calculation: CI₉₅ = Mean ± 1.96*SEM --standard error of mean = SD/square root of the number of samples

Confounding

Confounding is a data analysis error that results in the characterization of an incorrect relationship, usually the result of a variable not taken into account during the study For example, the assertion that data shows that having natural red hair leads to decreased pain tolerance --according to current research, there is no likely causality, but a third variable, such as a gene mutation could potentially cause both natural red hair and decreased pain tolerance --this is an example of a confounding variable

Two methods of determining whether a force is conservative

Conservative forces are those that are path independent and do not dissipate energy 1. Have the object in question return to its starting position after initially undergoing a displacement -if the net change in energy is zero regardless of path taken, the forces acting on the object are conservative 2. Have the object in question undergo a displacement -if the energy change is equal regardless of path taken, then the forces acting on the object are conservative forces

Bomb calorimeter

Constant-volume calorimeter -a sample is placed in the decomposition vessel, which is filled with pure oxygen and placed in an insulated container holding a known mass of water -the material is then ignited and combusts in the presence of the oxygen, and the heat that is released when all of the sample has burned is the heat of the combustion reaction -because W=P∆V, no work is done -the system is the sample + oxygen + vessel, while the surroundings is the water ∆U(system) = -∆U(surroundings) ---> q(system) = -q(surroundings) m(vessel)c(vessel)∆T + m(oxygen)c(oxygen)∆T = -m(water)c(water)∆T

Cleavage

In the process of moving from the ampulla region to the uterus for implantation, the zygote undergoes rapid mitotic cell divisions, called cleavage --the first cleavage results in a multi-celled unit that is no longer a zygote but an embryo Although several rounds of mitosis occur, the total size of the embryo remains unchanged during the first few divisions --by dividing into progressively smaller cells, the cells increase the nuclear-to-cytoplasmic and surface area-to-volume ratios, allowing for increased gas and nutrient exchange relative to overall volume --there is both determinate and indeterminate cleavage

Initiation of muscle contraction

Contraction starts at the neuromuscular junction, where the nervous system communicates with muscles via motor neurons --this signal travels down the neuron until it reaches the nerve terminal, where acetylcholine is released into the synapse --ACh binds receptors on the sarcolemma, causing depolarization --depolarization triggers an action potential, which spreads down the sarcolemma to the t-tubules --t-tubules travel into the muscle tissues to the sarcoplasmic reticulum --when the action potential reaches the sarcoplasmic reticulum, Ca²⁺ is ultimately released, which binds a regulatory subunit on troponin, triggering a conformational change in tropomyosin to which it is bound --this frees actin to bind with myosin

Disulfide bridge formation

Contributes to tertiary structure

Describe the two stages of of the conventional morality phase of Kohlberg's moral reasoning model

Conventional morality phase: Stage 3: conformity --the self enters society by conforming to social standards, and is receptive to approval or disapproval from others as it reflects society's views Stage 4: law and order -it is important to obey laws, dictums, and social conventions because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society

Path of light through the eye

Cornea Anterior chamber Pupil Posterior chamber Lens Vitreous humor Retina Note the eye is supplied by the choroidal and retinal vessels

Cortical sex steroids

Cortical sex steroids include androgens and estrogens secreted by the adrenal cortex --females are much more sensitive to disorders of cortical sex hormone production because males secrete large quantities of testosterone from the testes --for example, enzyme deficiencies in the synthetic pathways of other adrenal cortex hormones result in excess androgen production in the adrenal cortex, which would not affect a male fetus but would cause a genotypic female to be born with ambiguous or masculinized genitalia due to the presence of excess cortical sex hormones

Component method of adding/subtracting vectors

In this method, each vector is broken down into its x- and y-components, which are then added or subtracted as desired. These components are found using the equations below -conversely , if we know the components, we can find the magnitude of the vector using the pythagorean theorem Vx = Vcosθ Vy = Vsinθ

Mechanism of action of cortisol

Cortisol is a glucocorticoid released from the adrenal cortex in response to stress, exercise and hypoglycemia --inhibits glucose uptake in most tissues and increases hepatic output of glucose via gluconeogenesis, particularly from amino acids --it also enhances the activity of glucagon, epinephrine and other catecholamines --long-term exposure to glucocorticoids such as cortisol cause persistent hyperglycemia which stimulates insulin and actually causes fat storage, rather than lipolysis as expected

Vector cross products -how are magnitude and direction determined? -when are they useful?

Cross products are determined through multiplying the magnitudes of the two vectors of interest and the sin of the angle between them: AxB = |A||B|sinθ Once the magnitude of the resultant vector is determined, the right-hand rule can be used to determine its direction -point index finger in the direction of the first vector and the middle finger in the direction of the second: the direction the thumb is pointing is the direction of the vector

Method-of-action of hallucinogens and effects

Include drugs such as LSD that act according to unknown mechanisms through to be related to serotonin Effects: --increased HR/BP, pupil dilation, sweating, hyperthermia --distortions of reality --enhancement of sensory experiences --introspection

Distinguish between independent and dependent events in terms of probability

Independent events have nothing to do with each other --rolling die Dependent events do have an impact on one another --selecting a red ball from a container of red and blue balls

Differences in standard deviation

Data sets with smaller standard deviations are more tightly-oriented (taller, narrow distributions), while those with larger standard deviations are more spread out (shorter, wider distributions)

Freud's defense mechanisms

Defense mechanisms are a response by the ego to relieve anxiety caused by the clash of the id and superego -repression, regression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, sublimation, suppression

Deindividuation

Deindividuation describes the dramatic difference in individual behavior in social environments that provides anonymity and loss of individual identity -this can lead to antinormative behavior, in which people are more likely to act in a manner that is inconsistent with their normal self

Delusions of persecution

Delusions of persecution are a specific type of delusion that involve the belief that the person is being deliberately interfered with, discriminated against, plotted against or threatened

Delusions of reference

Delusions of reference are a specific type of delusion that involves the belief that common elements in the environment are directed toward the individual --for example, the belief that characters in a TV show are talking to one directly

Distinguish between demographic shift and demographic transition

Demographic shift is a general term referring to changes in population makeup over time, while demographic transition refers to a specific type of demographic shift that refers to changes in birth and death rates in a country transitioning from a preindustrial to industrial economic system

Principal quantum number (n)

Denotes the energy level and radius of the electron's shell --a large value indicates a larger radius and higher energy Difference in energy between two shells decreases as the distance from the nucleus increases (E = hf= hc/λ = -Rh (1/ni^2 - nf^2))

Gravitational potential energy

Depends on an object's position with respect to ground or some zero potential energy position

Amino acid-derivative hormones mechanism of action -what are they derived from? -water soluble or insoluble? -method of action?

Derived from 1-2 amino acids, usually with a few additional modifications --include epinephrine, norepinephrine, T₃ and T₄ --can either utilize second messenger systems like peptide hormones (catecholamines) or bind intracellularly like steroid hormones (thyroid hormones T₃+T₄)

Steroid hormones -what are they derived from? -water soluble or insoluble? -method of action?

Derived from nonpolar molecules and can easily cross the cell membrane --their receptors are usually intracellular/intranuclear Steroid hormones are not water-soluble and thus must be carried by proteins in the bloodstream to be able to travel around the body --note that hormones are generally inactive while attached to a carrier protein and must dissociate from the carrier to function (thus, levels of carrier proteins can change the levels of active hormone) Upon binding their receptor, steroid hormone-receptor complexes undergo conformational changes --the receptor can then bind directly to DNA, resulting in either increased or decreased transcription of particular genes depending on the hormone --the effects of steroids hormones are slower but longer-lived than peptide hormones because they cause alterations in the amount of mRNA and protein that is present in the cell

Detection bias

Detection bias occurs when there appears to be a trend in data that is instead caused by methods in detecting the data --higher rates of cancer being the product of prevalence of cancer increasing, rather than in an increase in our ability to detect what is already there

Diencephalon --area of the brain --subdivisions/associated structures

Diencephalon --one of two components of the prosencephalon (forebrain) Associated structures: Thalamus --relay station for incoming sensory information to the cortex, including all senses except for smell Hypothalamus --homeostatic functions including metabolism, temperature and water balance (endocrine and autonomic influences) --key role in emotional experiences during high arousal states, aggressive behavior and sexual behavior Posterior pituitary --ADH and oxytocin Pineal gland --melatonin (circadian rhythm)

Graham's law of diffusion

Diffusion is defined as the movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration -generally, this law is used to compare the difference in rates between between two different gases: gas 1 and gas 2 --the more massive the gas particle, the slower their average speed

Dishabituation

Dishabituation is defined as the recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred, often when a second stimulus interrupts the habituation process --usually temporary and the result of changes in response to the original stimulus, not the new one

Disjunction and Mendel's first law (of segregation)

Disjunction refers to the separation of homologous chromosomes in anaphase I, and explains Mendel's first law (of segregation) --during disjunction, each chromosome of paternal origin separates from its homologue of maternal origin, and either chromosome can end up in either daughter cell --thus, the distribution of homologous chromosomes to the two intermediate daughter cells is random with respect to paternal origin --this separating of the two homologous chromosomes is called segregation

Disorganized speech

Disorganized speech is characterized by loosening of association -often manifests as incomprehensible word salads and neologisms -one of the possible positive symptoms of psychotic disorders including schizophrenia

Display rules

Display rules describe the cultural expectations of emotion and govern which emotions can be expressed to what degree -may differ as a function of culture, gender or family background -for example, in Inuit society, anger is rarely expressed, and individuals who do are considered social pariahs

Are distance and displacement scalar or vector quantities? -how do they relate to speed and velocity, respectively?

Distance is a scalar quantity Displacement is a vector quantity Speed is distance/time and accounts for path taken Velocity is displacement/time and does not account for path taken

Distinctiveness cues

Distinctiveness cues refer to the extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios --if a person's behavior varies in different scenarios, we are more likely to form a situational attribution to explain it

Divergent evolution

Divergent evolution refers to the independent development of dissimilar characteristics in two or more lineages sharing a common ancestor --for example, seals and cats are both mammals in the order carnivora, yet they differ markedly in appearance, live in different environments, and in general adapted to different selective pressures while evolving

Dopamine functions in the body

Dopamine is a catecholamine that plays an important role in movement and posture (think Parkinson's) It has been argued that the delusions, hallucinations and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or an oversensitivity to it in the brain

Doppler ultrasound

Doppler ultrasound combines standard ultrasound with a doppler mode that is used to determine the flow of blood within the body by detecting frequency shifts associated with movement toward or away from the receiver

Dot products and vectors -how are they determined? -when are they useful?

Dot products are used to generate scalar quantities like work -results in a scalar number -found through multiplying individual vectors that have the same dimensions

Which reaction type is generally not found to be a redox reaction?

Double displacement reactions are generally not redox reactions - they usually involve switching counterions, and generally all of the ions retain their oxidation states

Concrete operational stage of cognitive development --duration? --characterized by?

Duration: --ages 7-11 (stage 3) Characterized by: --conservatism --perspectives of others --logical thought with concrete objects and information that is directly available

Sensorimotor state of cognitive development --duration? --characterized by? --ended by?

Duration: --birth - 2 years Characterized by: --child learning to manipulate environment for physical needs --primary and secondary circular reactions Ended by: --development of object permanence, which is the understanding that objects continue to exist after they exit view, which marks the beginning of representational thought (creating mental pictures of external objects and events)

Anaphase I of meiosis

During anaphase I, homologous pairs separate and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell in a process called disjunction --during disjunction, each chromosome of paternal origin separates from its homologue of maternal origin, and either chromosome can end up in either daughter cell --thus, the distribution of homologous chromosomes to the two intermediate daughter cells is random with respect to paternal origin --this separating of the two homologous chromosomes is called segregation

Anaphase of mitosis

During anaphase, the centromeres split so that each chromatid has its own distinct centromere, thus allow sister chromatids to separate --the sister chromatids are pulled toward opposite poles of the cell by the shortening of the kinetochore fibers

Indicator trait mechanism of mate choice

Indicator traits signify overall good health and well-being of an organism, increasing its attractiveness to mates -may or may not be genetic -dirty/dull coats may be related to an underlying genetic problem, or malnutrition/infection

Distinguish between individual and institutional discrimination

Individual discrimination refers to one person discriminating against a particular person or group, while institutional discrimination refers to the discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire insititution

Group conformity

Individuals are compliant with the group's goals, even when the group's goals may be in direct contrast to the individual's goals -compliance in order to be accepted by the group

Reliance on central traits

Individuals tend to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target that are most relevant to the perceiver

Inducible systems

Inducible systems are characterized by operators constitutively bound by repressors, which act as a roadblock -to remove that block, an inducer must bind and release the repressor protein from the operator, allowing RNA polymerase to transcribe the gene -thus, inducible systems operate on a principle analogous to competitive inhibitors

What does each of the following on a titration curve represent? Initial pH <<< 7 Initial pH slightly > 7 Initial pH >>> 7 Initial pH slightly < 7

Initial pH <<< 7 --titrant is a strong acid Initial pH slightly > 7 --titrant is a weak base Initial pH >>> 7 --titrant is a strong base Initial pH slightly < 7 --titrant is a weak acid

Titration of strong base in weak acid

Initial pH of the weak acid solution is greater than the initial pH of the strong acid solution because weak acids do not dissociate to the same degree --pH curve for the strong acid/strong base titration shows a steeper, more sudden rise in pH at the equivalence point --while the equivalence point for a strong acid/strong base titration occurs at pH=7, the equivalence point for a weak acid/strong base titration is above 7

Define Km in terms of rate kinetics

Km is defined as the substrate concentration at which half of the reaction's enzyme active sites are full -[S] = Km at 1/2Vmax -recall Vmax is the reaction rate at which all of the enzyme active sites are occupied -the Km is an intrinsic property of the E-S system and cannot be altered by changing the concentration of substrate or enzyme

Labeling theory

Labeling theory is the theory of how the self-identity and behavior of individuals may be determined or influenced by the terms used to describe or classify them -associated with the concepts of self-fulfilling prophecy and stereotyping -this can lead to the channeling of behavior into deviance or conformity

Latent learning

Latent learning is a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned -experiments where rats were carried through the maze and then incentivized with a food reward did just as well, if not better, than those that were trained to run the maze while being rewarded along the way -presents a challenge to the view that reinforcement is necessary for learning to occur

Latent stage of Freud's psychosexual development model and the associated fixation -which stage is this? -period of development?

Latent stage -fourth stage (lasting from the age of 5 until puberty) -period during which the libido is sublimated, and serves as one of relative calm between the phallic and genital phases

Learned helplessness

Learned helplessness is the diminishment of self-efficacy (belief in our ability to succeed) past a point of no return, a possible model of clinical depression

Multiple lens systems in contact

Lenses in contact are a series of lenses with negligible distances between them and behave as a single lens --contact lenses sitting right on the eye is a good example

Describe the actions of leptin

Leptin is a hormone secreted by fat cells that decreases appetite by suppressing orexin production --genetic variations in the leptin molecule and its receptors have been implicated in obesity

Role of culture in cognitive development

Lev Vygotsky proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is the child's internalization of their culture, including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols and language --with help from other children and adults, skills and abilities in the formative stages can develop further

Prolonged fasting (starvation)

Levels of glucagon and epinephrine are markedly elevated during starvation --increased levels of glucagon relative to insulin result in the rapid degradation of glycogen stores in the liver --as liver glycogen stores are depleted, gluconeogenesis becomes increasingly important to maintaining blood glucose levels during prolonged fasting (after about 24 hours, gluconeogenesis is the predominant source of glucose in the body --lipolysis is rapid, resulting in excess acetyl-CoA that is used in the synthesis of ketone bodies --once levels of fatty acids and ketones are high enough in the blood, muscle tissue will utilize fatty acids as its major fuel and the brain will adapt to using ketones for energy --after several weeks of fasting, the brain derives approximately two-thirds of its energy from ketones and one-third from glucose --the shift from glucose to ketones as the major fuel reduces the amount of essential amino acids that must be degraded to support gluconeogenesis, which spares proteins that are vital for other functions --cells that have few if any mitochondria, like RBCs, continue to rely on glucose for energy

Describe the two types of instincts postulated by Freud

Life instincts are referred to as Eros and promote an individual's quest for survival through thirst, hunger and sexual need Death instincts are referred to as Thanatos and represent an unconscious wish for death and destruction

Rh factor

Like AB, Rh factor is also a surface protein expressed on red blood cells --Rh-positivity follows autosomal dominant inheritance Most relevant in Rh⁻ women during childbirth whose baby is Rh⁺ --this is not a problem for the first child, but exposure to the antigen at childbirth arms the immune system for future exposure --any subsequent pregnancy in which the fetus is Rh⁺ will present a problem because maternal anti-Rh antibodies can cross the placenta and attack the fetal blood cells, resulting in erythroblastosis fatalis --there is less concern with ABO mismatching between mother and child because the maternal antibodies are IgM, which do not readily cross the placenta

Ferromagnetic materials and magnetic fields

Like paramagnetic materials, these have unpaired electrons that are randomly-oriented Unlike paramagnetic materials, these will be become strongly magnetized when exposed to a magnetic field -permanent magnets (materials that can be magnetized by an external magnetic field and remain magnetized after the external field is removed) are ferromagnetic --iron, nickel, cobalt and most of their alloys

Distinction between heat and temperature

Like temperature, thermal energy (enthalpy) is related to the average kinetic energy of the particles of a substance -but because we must also consider how much substance is present in order to calculate total thermal energy, the most we can say about temperature is that when a substance's thermal energy increases, its temperature also increases

What is a Lineweaver-Burk plot and what does the following represent on the graph? --x-intercept --y-intercept --slope

Lineweaver-Burk plots are double reciprocal graphs of the Michaelis-Menten equation -y-axis is 1/reaction rate -x-axis is 1/[S] y-intercept = 1/Vmax x-intercept = -1/Km slope = Km/Vmax

Lipid digestion

Lipids enter the small intestine essentially intact --upon entry into the duodenum, emulsification, the mixing of the fat and water, occurs, increasing the surface area of the lipid available for enzymatic interaction and processing The pancreas secretes lipase, colipase and cholesterol esterase, which hydrolyze the lipids to 2-monoacylglycerol, free fatty acids, and cholesterol, which form micelles --bile salts are actively reabsorbed and recycled in the ileum

Relative densities of the various lipoproteins

Lipoproteins are named according to their density, which increases in direct proportion to the percentage of protein in the particle chylomicron (highest fat-to-protein ratio) < VLDL < LDL < HDL Chylomicrons and VLDL carry triacylglycerols primarily, while LDL and HDL are primarily cholesterol transport molecules

Lysine Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Lysine Polar side chains Positively-charged side chains at physiologic pH Nonaromatic Hydrophilic

Relationship between centripetal and magnetic force

Magnetic forces can cause charged particles to move in circular or spiral paths -in this case, we can set the magnetic force equal to the centripetal force equations: mv²/r = qvBsinθ To determine the direction of the magnetic field, use the right-hand rule - the force of the magnetic field will always point toward the center of the circle -place thumb in the direction of the velocity vector, and fingers toward the center -for positive charges, the direction of the magnetic field is the direction of the palm, while for negative charges, it is in the direction of the back of the hand

Prodromal phase of schizophrenia

Marked by clear evidence of social withdrawal, inappropriate affect and unusual experiences --the quicker and more intense the onset of symptoms/development of active schizophrenia, the better the prognosis

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Maslow was a humanist who theorized that if the lowest level of need is not met, motivation to meet that need will be the highest priority --once that need is met, if additional needs exist, they will be satisfied based on priority as described in the pyramid

Describe material support

Material support is any kind of material or financial contribution to another person -donating money -making a meal for a friend who has lost a loved one

Digestion in the oral cavity -what types of digestion occur here? -what digestive enzymes are found here?

Mechanical digestion -begins the breakdown of chemical bonds in the macromolecules that make up food -relies on saliva from three pairs of salivary glands under autonomic control Chemical digestion -salivary amylase which hydrolyzes starch into smaller sugars like maltose and dextrose -salivary lipase hydrolyzes lipids

Medicare covers patients who ______________, while medicaid covers patients who ________________

Medicare covers patients over 65, have end-stage renal disease and those with ALS. Medicaid covers patients with significant financial need

Which sleep stage does meditation resemble on an EEG?

Meditation resembles stage 1 of sleep on an EEG, characterized by theta waves

Meissner corpuscles --stimulus? --deep or shallow? --rapid or slow adaptation?

Meissner corpuscles --stimulated by stroking --shallow (small receptive field) --rapid adaptation

Mendel's first law

Mendel's law of segregation describes the effects of separation of homologous chromosomes during anaphase I of meiosis and includes four basic tenets: 1. Genes exist in alternative forms (alleles) 2. An organism has two alleles for each gene, one inherited from each parent 3. The two alleles segregate during meiosis, resulting in gametes that carry only one allele for any inherited trait 4. If two alleles for a given trait are different, only one will be fully express and the other will be silent --codominance and incomplete dominance are exceptions

Merkel discs --stimulus? --deep or shallow? --rapid or slow adaptation?

Merkel discs --stimulated by pressure --shallow (small receptive field) --slow adaptation

Mesencephalon --area of the brain --subdivisions/associated structures

Mesencephalon is also called the midbrain Associated structures: Superior colliculus --receives visual sensory input Inferior colliculus --receives auditory sensory input Each of these are associated with involuntary reflex responses triggered by these stimuli

Methionine Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Methionine Nonpolar side chain Neutral side chain at physiologic pH Nonaromatic Hydrophobic

Molality

Method of measuring concentration -most commonly used seen in equations for boiling point elevation and freezing point depression

Absorption of lipids

Micelles containing free fatty acids, cholesterol, 2-monoacylglycerol and bile salts diffuse into the brush border of the intestinal mucosal cells where they are absorbed --the digested lipids pass through the brush border and are re-esterified to form triacylglycerols and cholesteryl esters --they are then packaged with certain apoproteins, fat-soluble vitamins, and other lipids into chylomicrons, which leave the intestine via lacteals and re-enter the bloodstream via the thoracic duct --the more water-soluble short chain fatty acids can be absorbed by simple diffusion directly into the bloodstream

Mineralocorticoids

Mineralocorticoids are secreted by the adrenal cortex and serve primarily to maintain salt/water homeostasis Aldosterone, the most noteworthy, increases sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts of the nephron --water follows the sodium cations into the bloodstream, increasing blood volume and pressure (increasing blood pressure without affecting osmolarity --also decreases the reabsorption of potassium and hydrogen in the same segments of the kidney, promoting their excretion

Mirror neurons

Mirror neurons are located in the frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex and fire both when an individual performs and action and when that individual observes someone else performing that action --involved in motor as well as empathetic processes - some mirror neurons fire when we experience an emotion and also when we observe another experiencing the same emotion

Distinguish between missense and nonsense mutations

Missense mutations are point mutations that result in one amino acid being substituted for another, while nonsense mutations are point mutations that result in a premature stop codon

Mixed inhibition

Mixed inhibition results when an inhibitor can bind allosterically to either the enzyme or the enzyme-substrate complex, but has different affinity for each (distinct from noncompetitive inhibitors, which have equal affinity for each) Mixed inhibition can either increase or decrease Km, depending on which they bind -when the mixed inhibitor binds the enzyme in the absence of substrate, Km increases (enzyme binds substrate less well, left side of picture) -when the mixed inhibitor binds the enzyme-substrate complex, Km decreases (enzyme binds substrate more tightly, right side of picture) In either case, Vmax decreases (1/Vmax increases)

Mixed-order reactions

Mixed-order reactions refer to those that change order over time Broken-order reactions are another type of mixed-order reaction that refers to those with non-integer orders (fractions) -seen less commonly

What are "morally relevant differences" in terms of scientific research?

Morally relevant differences are defined as those between individuals that are considered an appropriate reason to treat them differently --for example, all else being equal, a transplant that is as likely to benefit a young child or an elderly adult may be given to the child with a longer life expectancy --contributes to our notions of justice in scientific research

Morphogens and gradients

Morphogens, or molecules that cause determination of cells, diffuse throughout the organism --locations closer to the origin of the morphogen will be exposed to higher concentrations, while areas further away will have less exposure --multiple morphogens are secreted simultaneously, resulting in unique combinations of morphogen exposure throughout the organism, which can thereby induce the differentiation of specific cell types --common morphogens including TGF-β and Shh

Movable joints

Movable joints are strengthened by ligaments, which are pieces of fibrous tissue that connect bones to one another and consist of a synovial capsule which encloses the joint cavity --a layer of soft tissue called the synovium secretes synovial fluid, which lubricates the movement of structures in the joint space --the articular cartilage contributes to the joint by coating the articular surfaces of the bone so that impact is restructured to the lubricated joint cartilage, rather than to the bones

Motor unit

Muscle contraction starts at the neuromuscular junction, where the nervous system communicates with muscles via motor neurons -each nerve terminal controls a group of myocytes -- this is called a motor unit

Myencephalon --area of the brain --subdivisions/associated structures

Myencephalon --one of two components of the rhombencephalon (hindbrain) Associated structures: Medulla oblongata --regulates vital functions such as breathing, heart rate and blood pressure

People who are myopic require _________ lenses, while those who are hyperopic need ____________ lenses

Myopia is another name for nearsightedness and is corrected with a diverging (concave) lens Hyperopia is another name for farsightedness and is corrected with a converging (convex) lens

Describe the structure and function of myosin

Myosin is the primary motor protein that interacts with actin --in addition to its role as the thick filament in a myofibril, myosin can be involved in cellular transport --each myosin subunit has a single head and neck - movement at the neck is responsible for the power stroke of sarcomere contraction

Write out the visual pathway once the optic nerve is stimulated

Nasal portions of eye cross over at the optic chiasm --note that the temporal visual fields (lateral to the eyes) hit the nasal part of the retina, while light from the nasal visual fields hits the temporal part of the retina Optic tract Lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus Optic radiations Visual cortex in the occipital lobe --superior colliculus receives stimuli as well

Natural killer cells

Natural killer cells are a type of nonspecific agranulocyte that are able to detect downregulation of MHC utilized by certain viruses, and induce apoptosis in these virally-infected cells

Secondary alcohols in the presence of Na2Cr2O7 reagent form..

Na₂Cr₂O₇ K₂Cr₂O₇

Describe network support

Network support is the type of social support that gives a person a sense of belonging through group activities and shared experiences

Network

Networks are observable patterns of social relationships among individuals or groups

Neurulation and alar/basal plate formation

Neurulation occurs when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds --cells at the leading edge of the neural fold are called neural crest cells, and will migrate throughout the body to form disparate tissues The remainder of the furrow closes to form the neural tube, whiel will ultimate form the CNS --the neural tube has an alar plate, which differentiates into sensory neurons, and a basal plate which differentiates into motor neurons --over time, the neural tube folds on itself to form three swellings that will give rise to the embryonic brain

Nickel-cadmium battery

Ni-Cd batteries are a type of rechargeable cell --consists of two half-cells connected by a conductive material When discharging: Cd(s) + 2OH⁻(aq) --> Cd(OH)₂(s) + 2e⁻ (oxidized = anode) --Ered = -0.86V 2NiO(OH)(s) + 2H₂O + 2e⁻ --> 2Ni(OH)₂(s) + 2OH⁻ (reduction = cathode) --Ered = 0.49V As in other rechargable batteries, charging reverses the electrolytic cell potentials

During which part of the sleep schedule do night terrors and somnambulating typically occur?

Night terrors and somnambulating typically occur during slow-wave sleep (stages 3+4) --difficult to arouse someone in these stages

Write out the molecular formulas for the following: Nitrite Sulfite Nitrate Sulfate

Nitrite --> NO₂⁻ Sulfite--> SO₃²⁻ Nitrate --> NO₃⁻ Sulfate --> SO₄²⁻ *Note that nitrite starts at 1-, while sulfite starts at 2-*

Nonverbal communication

Nonverbal communication refers to how people communicate without words -can be intentional or unintentional -facial expressions, tone, gestures, body position

Weight of any volume of a given substance with a known density

Normally applied to liquids and is also known as the buoyant force

Societal norms

Norms are collective representations of acceptable group conduct as well as individual perceptions of particular group conduct -govern our lives by giving us implicit and explicit guidance on what to think and believe, how to behave, and how to interact with others -learned in a variety of settings and from various actors, including our families, from teachers and peers in school, through the media, and simply by interacting with others as we go about our daily business -include mores, taboos, folkways and laws

Societal mores

Norms that are widely observed and are considered to have greater moral significance than others -determine what is considered moral and ethical behavior and structure the difference between right and wrong -people feel strongly about mores, and violating them typically results in disapproval or ostracizing -as such, mores exact a greater coercive force in shaping our values, beliefs, behavior, and interactions than do folkways -religious views on living together before marriage, or the belief that forms of discrimination and oppression like racism and sexism are unethical

Societal taboos

Norms that outline vehement prohibition of an action based on the belief that such behavior is either too sacred or too accursed for ordinary individuals to undertake, under threat of supernatural punishment

Societal folkways

Norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular contexts -shaking hands after a sports match -mark the distinction between rude and polite behavior, so they exert a form of social pressure on us to act and interact in certain ways, but they do not have moral significance, and there are rarely serious consequences or sanctions for violating one

Anatomy of the upper respiratory system

Nose ➙ nasal cavity ➙ pharynx ➙ larynx ➙ trachea The pharynx resides behind the nasal cavity and at the back of the mouth --it is a common pathway for both air destined for the lungs and food destined for the esophagus The larynx lies below the pharynx and is a pathway only for air --to keep food out of the respiratory tract, the glottis (opening of the larynx) is covered by the epiglottis during swallowing --the larynx also contains two vocal cords After the larynx, air passes into the trachea, which is supported by rings of cartilage, and one of two mainstem bronchi

Magnetic force on a charge moving through a magnetic field

Note that the magnetic force is a function of the sine of the angle between the moving charge and magnetic field vectors -this means that the charge must have a perpendicular component of velocity in order to experience a magnetic force -sin0 and sin180 = 0

Law of reflection

Note that the normal line is drawn perpendicular to the boundary of the medium, and all angles in optics are measured from the normal, not the surface of the medium

Write out Bernoulli's equation

Nothing more than a statement of energy conservation -more energy dedicated toward fluid movement means less energy dedicated to static fluid pressure, and vice versa

Obedience

Obedience is the act of following orders without question because they come from a legitimate authority -there are many legitimate authorities in a person's life from their parents to teachers at school and even spiritual leaders -this is in contrast to compliance, which deals with requests made by people without actual authority over an individual -most of these authority figures that have been named are given their authority by society

Objects more dense than the fluid they are in will __________, while those that are less dense will _____________

Objects more dense than the fluid they are in will sink to the bottom, while those that are less dense (or have equal density) than the fluid they are in will stop sinking and float once the volume of displaced fluid exerts a force equal to the weight of the object *The specific gravity of the object gives how much of the floating object will sit below the surface* -a specific gravity of 1 indicates that 100% of the object will submerge, but the object will not sink

Define the following: Obligate anaerobes Facultative anaerobes Obligate aerobes Aerotolerant anaerobes

Obligate anaerobes are those that cannot survive in an environment containing oxygen Facultative anaerobes can use oxygen for aerobic metabolism if present, and anaerobic metabolism when it is not Obligate aerobes require oxygen for metabolism Aerotolerant anaerobes are unable to use oxygen for metabolism, but are not harmed by its presence in the environment

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

Obsessive-compulsive disorder is an anxiety disorder characterized by obsessions (persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses) which produce tension, and compulsions (repetitive tasks) that relieve tension but impair a person's life Obsessions raise the person's stress level, and the compulsion relieves it -not to be confused with obessive-compulsive personality disorder

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) is characterized by perfectionism and inflexibility -inability to discard worn-out objects, lack of desire to change, excessive stubbornness, maintenance of careful routines -OCD is has obsessions and compulsions and is ego-dystonic, while OCPD is about rule and order and is ego-syntonic

Molecular geometry for molecules with 6 regions of electron density as follows: -6 atoms bonded to the central atom with 0 lone pairs

Octahedral

Pluripotency

Once cell differentiate into the three germ layers, they are no longer totipotent but pluripotent cells --these can differentiate into an cell type except those found in placental structures

Osmotic pressure

Osmotic pressure is that generated by solutions in which water is drawn into a solution -formally, this is the amount of pressure that must be applied to counteract this attraction of water molecules for the solution -i = Van't Hoff factor, the number of particles into which a compound dissociates in solution

Paramagnetic vs. diamagnetic materials

Paramagnetic material are those with unpaired electrons that orient their spins in alignment with a magnetic field upon being placed in one, with the result that they are weakly attracted to the magnetic field Diamagnetic materials have all paired electrons and will be slightly repelled by a magnetic field

Distinguish between paramagnetic and diamagnetic in terms of magnetic fields

Paramagnetic materials have unpaired electrons that are randomly oriented and so will not create a magnetic field itself --will become weakly magnetized in the presence of an external magnetic field and align with the external field, but become randomly oriented once the external field is removed Diamagnetic materials have no unpaired electrons, and thus neither create nor align with external magnetic fields --wood, water, glass

Microfilaments

Part of the cell cytoskeleton, microfilaments are made up of actin filaments organized into bundles and networks that provide protection through resistance to both compression and fracture --actin filaments can also use ATP to generate force for movement by interacting with myosin, such as in muscle contraction Microfilaments also play a role in cytokinesis --during mitosis, the cleavage furrow is formed from microfilaments, which organize as a ring at the site of division between the two new daughter cells --as the actin filaments within this ring contract, the ring becomes smaller, eventually pinching off the connection between the two daughter cells

Paternalistic stereotypes -warmth/competence?

Paternalistic stereotypes are those in which the group is looked down upon as inferior, dismissed, or ignored -those not in direct competition with the in-group for resources, who do not hold a high place in society -elderly and disabled people

Peer pressure

Peer pressure is influence on a peer group, observers or individual exerts that encourages others to change their attitudes, values, or behaviors to conform to groups -peer groups are made up of those with similar interests, ages, backgrounds, and social statuses

Penetrance in terms of genetics

Penetrance is defined as the proportion of individuals in the population carrying the gene who actually express the phenotype --in other words, the probability that given a particular genotype, a person will express the phenotype

Describe David McClelland's need for achievement trait

People rated high in N-Ach tend to be concerned with achievement and have pride in their accomplishments --tend to avoid high risks to avoid failing and low risks because easy tasks bring no sense of achievement

Peptide hormones -what are they derived from? -water soluble or insoluble? -method of action?

Peptide hormones are all derived from larger precursor polypeptides that are cleaved during posttranslational modification --these are further modified and activated in the Golgi, which directs it to the correct location in the cell and released by exocytosis They are generally water-soluble and thus do not require carriers in the blood These act by binding to an extracellular receptor and triggering a signaling cascade --at each step there is a possibility of amplification (like one hormone binding multiple receptors), intensifying the signal --these effects are usually rapid but short-lived because these hormones act through transient second messenger systems

Perceptual organization

Perceptual organization refers to the ability to use top-down and bottom-up processing to create a complete picture or idea -relevant to gestalt principles

How is persistent depressive disorder diagnosed?

Persistent depressive disorder is diagnosed in those with dysthymia - depressed mood that is not severe enough to meet the criteria of a major depressive episode - for two years --individuals with major depressive disorder for two years can also be given this diagnosis

Phallic stage of Freud's psychosexual development model -which stage is this? -period of development? -associated fixation?

Phallic (Oedipal) stage -third stage (3-5 years) -gratification is gained through physical curiosity by undressing and exploring each other and their genitals -Oedipal (male) and Electra (female) conflicts are normally resolved -Oedipal fixation can lead to a choice of a sexual partner who resembles one's parent

Phenol and trends in acidity with additional subsituents

Phenol is the most acidic of the alcohols due to resonance stabilization of the negative charge --additional electron-withdrawing groups will thus increase acidity (Cl⁻, Br⁻) , while additional electron-donating groups decrease acidity (-CH₃)

Phenylalanine Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chain at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Phenylalanine Nonpolar side chain Neutral side chain at physiologic pH Aromatic Hydrophobic

Phonology

Phonology is the component of language that deals with actual sound --in development, children must learn to produce and recognize sounds of language, separating them from environmental noise and other sounds produced by humans, like coughing

What is pitch?

Pitch is our perception of the frequency of sound -for our purposes, sound frequencies are usually within the normal range of human hearing (20-20,000Hz) -sound waves with frequencies below 20 Hz are called infrasonic waves, while those with frequencies above 20,000 Hz are called ultrasonic waves

Plane-polarized light and optical activity

Plane-polarized light is that in which the electric fields of all the waves are oriented in the same direction (parallel) -the optical activity of a compound, the result of the presence of chiral centers, causes plane-polarized light to rotate clockwise or counterclockwise by a given number of degrees related to its concentration (specific rotation) Thus, enantiomers will have opposite specific rotations

Residential segregation

Poor neighborhoods (bad schools, high crime rate, poor healthcare, cheap housing) vs rich neighborhoods (good schools, low crime rate, good healthcare, expensive housing) Relocation is difficult both ways (poor people can't afford to relocate, rich people don't want to relocate), so segregation occurs

Distinguish between positive and negative controls

Positive controls are those that ensure a change in the dependent variable when it is expected, while negative controls ensure no change in the dependent variable when no change is expected --in the development of a new assay for detection of HIV, administering the test to a group of blood samples known to contain HIV would be an example of a positive control, while administering the test to a group of samples known not to contain HIV could constitute a negative control --negative controls are often used to assess for placebo effect

Define the following parameters of operant conditioning: Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Positive punishment Negative punishment

Positive reinforcement increases a behavior by adding a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behavior Negative reinforcement increases a behavior by removing something unpleasant following the desired behavior Positive punishment decreases a behavior through adding an unpleasant consequence in response to that behavior Negative punishment decreases a behavior by removing a desired item when a behavior is performed

Positive and negative selection in T cells

Positive selection refers to the maturing only of those cells that can respond to the presence of MHC --cells that cannot respond to MHC undergo apoptosis because they will not be able to respond in the periphery Negative selection refers to the induction of apoptosis in cells that are activated by proteins produced by the organ itself

Distinguish between positive and negative types of schizophrenia symptoms

Positive symptoms are behaviors, thoughts or feelings added to normal behavior such as delusions, hallucinations and disorganized speech, while negative symptoms involve absence of normal behavior and include things like disturbance of affect and avolition (lack of motivation)

Activation-synthesis theory of dreaming

Posits that dreams are caused by widespread random activation of neural circuitry that can mimic incoming sensory information and include memories/desires that are synthesized in the cortex to create a bizarre dream that is somewhat familiar

Nativist theory of language acquisition

Posits the existence of a language acquisition device that is innate in each of us, which facilitates from an early age the ability to effortlessly change word order while retaining the same meaning (transformational grammar) --critical period for language is another tenet of the nativist theory --Chomsky

Pragmatics component of language

Pragmatics is the fifth component of language, dealing with the dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge --formal vs informal manner of address --prosody - cadence, rhythm and inflection

Primary and secondary alcohols in the presents of CrO₃, H₂SO₄ and acetone gives...

Primary and secondary alcohols in the presents of CrO₃, H₂SO₄ and acetone gives carboxylic acids and ketones, respectively --this is known as Jones oxidation

Describe primary appraisal

Primary appraisal is the initial evaluation of the environment and determination of the associated threat as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful -if primary appraisal reveals a threat, the secondary appraisal stage is initiated

Primary group

Primary groups involve direct interactions, with close bonds that provide warm and intimate relationships to other members -last a long period of time and may include a core group of friends, tightly-knit family or members of a team

When do primary oocytes undergo replication and at what phase are they arrested at until menarche? What phase are secondary ooctyes arrested in until fertilization?

Primary oocytes are arrested in prophase I until menarche, after which one primary oocyte per month will complete meiosis I, producing a secondary oocyte and a polar body due to unequal cytokinesis 3. Secondary oocytes (haploid) remain arrested in metaphase II until fertilization occurs

Distinguish between the primary and secondary antibody response

Primary response: Initial activation of naive (mature but not yet exposed to antigen) B-cells takes approximately 7-10 days Secondary response: If the same microbe is encountered again, the memory cell jumps into action and produces antibodies specific to that pathogen much more rapidly

Primary socialization

Primary socialization occurs during childhood, when one learns the attitudes, values and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture

Prions

Prions are infectious proteins smaller than viruses that cause disease by triggering misfolding of other proteins, usually involving the conversion of a protein from an α-helical to a β-pleated sheet --this reduces the solubility of the protein, as well as its ability to be degraded, causing it to aggregate and reduce the function of the cell --mad-cow disease, familial fatal insomnia are examples

Describe the differences in proactive and retroactive interference

Proactive interference describes the tendency of old information to interfere with new learning, while retroactive interference is marked by new information causing forgetting of old information

Distinguish between proactive and reactive social movements

Proactive social movements are those that promote social change, while reactive social movements resist social change

Describe problem-focused strategies to stress management

Problem-focused strategies involve working to overcome a stressor through reaching out to friends and family for social support, confronting the issue head-on, and creating a plan of problem-solving actions

Describe the action of prolactin in target tissues

Prolactin is a direct hormone released by the anterior pituitary when disinhibited from doing so by decreased PIF secretion When secreted, prolactin acts on the mammary glands to stimulate milk production --note that high levels of estrogen/progesterone in pregnancy allow for the development of milk ducts in preparation for lactation, but it is not until shortly after the expulsion of the placenta (and thus levels of estrogen/progesterone/dopamine drop) that the block on milk production is removed and lactation begins

Prospective memory and senescence

Prospective memory involves remembering to perform a task at some point in the future --remains intact when it is primed by a trigger event (event-based) --experiences senescence when it is time-based (remembering to take a medication at 5o'clock)

Punctuated equilibrium

Punctuated equilibrium suggests that changes in some species occur in rapid bursts rather than evenly over time -proposed in order to explain discoveries that little evolution would occur within a lineage of related lifeforms for long periods, followed by a massive explosion in evolutionary change

Pyloric glands -where are they found? -what cells make up these glands?

Pyloric glands are typically found in the antrum/pylorus and are made up mostly of G cells --G cells secrete gastrin, a peptide hormone that induces parietal cells to secrete more hydrochloric acid, as well as the stomach to contract and churn its contents

Quaternary structure of proteins

Quaternary structure is present only in proteins that contain more than one polypeptide chain -hgb, ab's

Diphenols mixed with oxidizing agents produces...

Quinones --note that the quinone shown does not have an aromatic ring, though others may

Naming esters

R' group first, then R group in chain If R = ethyl group and R' = ethyl group, the name for this molecule would be ethyl propanoate

Describe the unique step in erythrocyte glycolysis

RBCs have bisphosphoglycerate mutase, which produces 2,3 bisphosphoglycerate (2,3 BPG) from 1,3 BPG in glycolysis --this binds allosterically to the β-chains of hemoglobin A, decreasing affinity for oxygen to allow oxygen unloading at tissues

Locations and functions of the three eukaryotic RNA polymerases

RNA polymerase I -located in the nucleolus and synthesizes rRNA RNA polymerase II -located in the nucleus and synthesizes hnRNA (pre-processed mRNA) and snRNA RNA polymerase III -located in the nucleus and synthesizes tRNA and some rRNA

Reaction between a strong acid and weak base

Reaction I: HCl(aq) + NH₃(aq) --> NH4⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq) Reaction II: NH4⁺(aq) + H₂O(l) --> NH₃(aq) + H₃O⁺(aq) In these reactions, the conjugate acid of the weak base will always be stronger than the conjugate base of the strong acid, and will react with aqueous water, resulting in an increase in the concentration of hydronium ions in solution -this causes the system to shift away from autoionization (below), reducing the concentration of hydroxide ion: H​₂​​O(l)+H₂O(l) ⇌ H​₃O​⁺​ (aq) + OH​⁻​ (aq) -thus, the concentration of hydronium ion will be greater than that of the hydroxide ion at equilibrium, and as a result the pH of the solution will fall below 7

Relationship between the rate of a reaction and effective collisions

Reaction rate = (Z)(f) -Z is the total number of collisions occurring per second -f is the fraction of these collisions that are effective

Average acceleration --definition --equation

Recall that acceleration is the rate of change in velocity that an object experiences as a result of some applied force -change in velocity over the change in time

How is Km related to Vmax in terms of enyzme kinetics

Recall that at 1/2(Vmax), the [S] = Km The higher the Km, the lower the affinity for substrate because a higher substrate concentration is required to be half-saturated

Origins of replication in bacterial DNA

Recall that bacterial chromosomes are circular -these have only one origin of replication with two replication forks that move away from each other, eventually meeting -this results in two identical circular molecules of DNA

Effect of complex ions on Ksp

Recall that complex ions (or coordination compound) are molecules in which a cation is bonded to at least one electron pair donor by coordinate covalent bonds -iron in hemoglobin, i.e. Like any solution, the solubility of a complex ion solution is determined by Ksp -since such complexes contain multiple polar bonds between the ligands and the central metal ion, it is able to engage in a very large amount of dipole-dipole interactions, stabilizing the complex ion -thus, such complexes tend to have very high Ksp values

Dielectric constant

Recall that dielectrics are insulating materials placed between the plates of a capacitor, causing the electric field inside the capacitor to be reduced for the same amount of charge on the plates -according to the equation V=Ed, a decrease in the electric field will decrease the voltage across the capacitor, increasing its capacitance -the higher the dielectric constant, the more the electric field (and thus voltage) is decreased and the more charge can be stored in the capacitor

UTRs in mature RNA

Recall that even once the mRNA has been formed with introns spliced out, it still contains untranslated regions due to the presence of start and stop codons, which are not part of the final chain

Describe the action of growth hormone in target tissues

Recall that growth hormone is a direct hormone released by the anterior pituitary when stimulated by GHRH stimulation from the hypothalamus When secreted, GH acts to promote growth of bone and muscle --it also prevents glucose uptake in certain tissues that are not growing, as well as the breakdown of fatty acids --all of this increases the availability of glucose overall, allowing growing muscle and bone to use it

What is genetic recombination and list the three types

Recall that prokaryotes contain plasmids which can impact some benefit to the bacterium such as antibiotic resistance or virulence factors --a subset of plasmids called episomes are capable of integrating into the genome of the bacterium through the following three processes: Transformation Conjugation Transduction

Agents of socialization

Recall that socialization refers to the lifelong process of inheriting and disseminating norms, customs, and ideologies, providing an individual with the skills and habits necessary for participating within their own society

Distinguish between instantaneous speed/velocity and average speed/velocity

Recall that speed is distance/time and accounts for path taken, while velocity is displacement/time and does not account for path taken -instantaneous speed will always be equal to the magnitude of an object's instantaneous velocity Average speed is the ratio of the total distance travelled over the change in time and is scalar, while average velocity is the ratio of displacement over the change in time and is a vector

Describe the three parts of the pharynx and its function

Recall that the pharynx is the cavity that leads from the mouth and posterior nasal cavity to the esophagus, and is part of both the respiratory and digestive systems --three parts 1. Nasopharynx --behind nasal cavity 2. Oropharynx --back of the mouth 3. Laryngopharynx --ends at the vocal cords

Fetal gas exchange

Recall that the placenta is the organ where nutrient, gas and waste exchange occurs between mother and fetus --it is crucial that the maternal and fetal blood do not mix because they may have different blood types --diffusion is the best method, but requires a gradient --recall also that fetal hemoglobin (HgF) has greater affinity for oxygen that HbA

What is the modified standard state?

Recall that ∆G° is the energy change that occurs in the standard state: 1M, 1 atm, 25°C --biochemical analysis works well under all standard conditions except one: pH --a 1M concentration of protons would correspond to a pH of 0, which is far too acidic for most biochemical reactions --therefore, in the modified standard state, [H⁺] = 10⁻⁷M, and the pH = 7 --with this additional condition, ∆G° is given the special symbol ∆G°', indicating that it is standardized to the neutral buffers used in biochemistry

Composition of prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes

Recall the large subunit also contains peptidyltransferase, which assists in peptide bond formation

Reciprocal liking

Reciprocal liking is the phenomenon whereby people like others better when they believe the other person likes them -component of attraction

Relearning

Relearning is a form of memory retrieval that allows for the reacquisition of knowledge that had been previously learned but largely forgotten over time. --learning occurs much more rapidly the second time, demonstrating that information had been previously stored

Describe religion as a social institution

Religion is considered to be a pattern of social activities organized around a set of beliefs and practices that seek to address the meaning of existence

Write out the makeup of hemiacetals/acetals and hemiketals/ketals

Remember that acetals, ketals are formed by reacting with alcohol and aldehydes, ketones respectively Hemiacetal: -OH, -OR, -H, -R Acetal: -OR, -OR, -R, -H Hemiketal: -OH, -OR, -R, -R Ketal: -OR, -OR, -R, -R

Four rules for drawing ray diagrams for concave mirrors

Remember that for concave mirrors, the center of curvature (C) and the focal point (F) lie in front of the mirror 1. Rays traveling parallel to the axis before striking the mirror are reflected back through the focal point 2. Rays passing through the focal point before hitting the mirror are reflected back parallel to the axis 3. Rays striking the mirror at the point of intersection with the axis are reflected back with the same angle measured from normal (not shown) 4. Rays passing through the center of curvature before striking the mirror are reflected back along the same path

Resonant frequency

Resonant (natural) frequency is the frequency at which a solid object vibrates when struck -if this natural frequency is within the frequency detection range of the human ear (20-20,000Hz) the sound will be audible -the quality of sound (timbre) is determined by the natural frequency, which may produce pure tones that sound musical, or more random tones that don't

Restriction endonucleases

Restriction enzymes are those that recognize specific double-stranded DNA sequences --sticky ends are advantageous in facilitating the recombination of a restriction fragment with the vector DNA --the vector of choice can also be cut with the same restriction enzyme, allowing for the fragments to be inserted directly into the vector --the vector requires an origin of replication and at least one gene for antibiotic resistance that will allow for selection of colonies with recombinant plasmids (by using an antibiotic to kill off the others)

Single crossover

Results in genetic recombination -chromatids involved in this single crossover exchange alleles at a given locus -results in 2/4 recombinants

Describe Roger's theory of person-centered therapy

Rogers theory of person-centered therapy helps patients reflect and generate solutions to problems, rather than provide diagnoses and solutions, and stems from his idea that people have the freedom to control their own behavior, and are not slaves to the unconscious (psychodynamics) or conditioning (behaviorists) -from the humanist school of personality -also called client-centered or nondirective therapy

What is role conflict?

Role conflict is the difficulty in satisfying the requirements or expectations of the multiple roles one may hold -single parent with a full-time job are roles that carry a large set of expectations which are often at odds with each other

What is role performance?

Role performance refers to carrying out the behaviors associated with a given role --how well doctor's simplify medical language for their patients, for example --thus, individuals can vary in how successful they are at performing a role

SN2 Reactions One step or two? Are they first order or second order? Rate - limiting step? Product? What needs to be true for both to proceed?

SN2 Reactions One step: --nucleophile attacks the compound at the same time that the leaving group leaves Second-order reaction: --the concentration of both the nucleophile and the substrate have a role in determining the reaction rate Products: --inversion of relative configuration --if the leaving group and nucleophile have the same priority, this will also result in a change in absolute configuration Conditions: --the less substituted the carbon of the substrate to be attacked, the better

Sleep cycle characteristics

SWS sleep predominates earlier in the night, while REM sleep predominates later on --~75% of dreaming occurs during REM, where dreams tend to be longer and more vivid The sleep cycle lengthens from 50 minutes in children to 90 minutes in adults

Second-order reactions --define --describe the concentration vs. time graph

Second order reactions have rates proportional to either the concentrations of two reactants or the square of the concentration of one reactant --rate = k[A]¹[B]¹ or rate = k[A]² --suggests physical collisions Concentration vs. time plot with respect to a single reactant reveals a nonlinear graph (not shown) that shows that the rate of product formation is dependent on the concentration of reactant -plotting 1/[A] vs. time reveals a linear curve with a slope = k

Secondary socialization

Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is the appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger society -behavior necessary to thrive in school, what is acceptable on the sports field -typically occurs in adolescents and adults -includes smaller changes and refinements to behavior that was established in primary socialization

Secure attachment -reaction to caregiver's departure and return -reaction to strangers

Secure attachment is seen when a child has a consistent caregiver and is able to explore knowing that they have a secure base to return to -vital to a child's social development The child will be upset at the departure of the caregiver and will be comforted by their return The child engages with and can be comforted by strangers, but will clearly prefer the caregiver

Semantic memory

Semantic memory is the form of explicit (declarative long-term) memory that refers to general world knowledge that we have accumulated throughout our lives --makes possible acquisition, retention, and use of factual information in the broadest sense --general knowledge (facts, ideas, meaning and concepts) is intertwined in experience and dependent on culture

Sensory bias mechanism of mate choice

Sensory bias refers to the development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in the population --female guppies prefer males who are more orange because both sexes evolutionarily associate orange with food sources

Sensory memory

Sensory memory is the first and most fleeting kind of memory storage, capturing incredibly detailed representation of our surroundings for generally under one second --iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) aspects

Skeletal muscle features -innervation? -striated or no? -mono- or multi-nucleated? -red/white fibers?

Skeletal muscle is responsible for voluntary movement and is therefore innervated by the somatic nervous system --due to the arrangement of actin and myosin into repeating units called sarcomeres, it appears striped or striated when viewed microscopically --multinucleated (formed as individual muscle cells that later fuse) --can be either red or white skeletal muscle fibers

Behaviorist theory of personality

Skinner reasoned that personality is simply a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced over time, and that theory should focus on learning skills and change behaviors through operant conditioning

Narcolepsy

Sleep disorder characterized by a lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep --can also involve cataplexy, the loss of muscle control --sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger

Social capital

Social capital can be considered the investments people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards --the greater the investment, the higher the level of social integration and inclusion

Social constructionism approach to sociology

Social constructionism is a theory of knowledge that examines the development of jointly constructed understandings of the world. --a major focus is uncovering the ways in which individuals and groups participate in the construction of their perceived social reality --how a society defines honor and justice, for example, or assigning value to coins and paper (money)

Social exchange theory of sociology

Social exchange theory is a model for interpreting society as a series of interactions between people that are based on estimates of rewards and punishments. According to this view, our interactions are determined by the rewards or punishments that we expect to receive from others, which we evaluate using a cost-benefit analysis model (whether consciously or subconsciously)

Social exclusion

Social exclusion can arise from a sense of powerlessness when poor individuals feel alienated from society -results from being excluded/blocking off someone or a group of people from society's opportunities, rights and resources that other groups have access to. -this attitude can create further obstacles to achieving self-help, independence, and self-respect

Define social facilitation

Social facilitation is the notion that people naturally exhibit a performance response when they know they are being watched --this reflects the idea that performance is not solely influenced by individual ability, but also by social environment and the performer's awareness of that environment

Social mobility

Social mobility is the result of an economic and occupational structure that allows one to acquire higher-level employment opportunities given proper credentials and experience requirements -including in this idea are the concepts of intergenerational and intragenerational mobility, meritocracy and vertical/horizontal mobility

What two types of social inequality can social networks help bring about?

Social networks can bring about situational (socioeconomic advantage) and positional (based on how connected one is within the network) inequality -inequality in networks creates and reinforces inequality in opportunity

Social stigma

Social stigma is the extreme disapproval of (or discontent with) a person or group on socially characteristic grounds that are perceived, and serve to distinguish them, from other members of a society -obesity, HIV, dwarfism, for example

Social support -five types

Social support is the perception or reality that one is cared for -includes emotional, esteem, material, informational, and network support

Social trust comes from what two primary sources?

Social trust comes from social norms of reciprocity as well as social networks

Socialization

Socialization refers to the lifelong process of inheriting and disseminating norms, customs, and ideologies, providing an individual with the skills and habits necessary for participating within their own society -involves primary and secondary components

Which two types of status may socioeconomic status depend on?

Socioeconomic status may depend either on ascribed or achieved status --caste systems are stratified by ascribed SES, while class systems stratify by achieved SES

Sociology overview and two main branches

Sociology is the study of how society is created, how we interact within it, how we define what is normal/abnormal, and how we institutionalize those ideas -macrosociology focuses on large groups and social structure -microsociology focuses on small groups and the individual

SDS-PAGE

Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) starts from the premise of native PAGE but adds SDS, a detergent that disrupts all noncovalent interactions --it binds to proteins and creates large chains with net negative charges, thereby neutralizing the protein's original charge and denaturing the protein. --as the proteins move through the gel, the only variable affecting their velocity is f, the frictional coefficient which depends only on mass

Define solubility

Solubility is the maximum amount of a substance that can be dissolved in a particular solvent at a given temperature -for example, at 25°C, a maximum of 909g glucose will dissolve in 1L of H₂0 --> the solubility of glucose is 909g/L -when this maximum amount of solute has been added, the dissolved solute is in equilibrium with its undissolved state, and we say the solution is saturated

Define a solution

Solutions are homogenous mixtures of two or more substances that combine to form a single phase (usually liquid phase) --gases "dissolved" into other gases are more properly termed mixtures because they do not interact much chemically

Somatic symptom disorder

Somatic symptom disorder is a diagnosis requiring symptoms of physical illness or injury which cannot be explained fully by a general medical condition, the direct effect of a substance, nor attributable to another mental disorder -this must be accompanied by disproportionate concerns about its seriousness, excessive time and energy commitment, or elevated levels of anxiety regarding it

What are somatic symptom disorders?

Somatic symptom disorders are marked by bodily symptoms that cause significant stress or impairment -include somatic symptom, illness anxiety, and conversion disorders

Somatostatin functions -where is it secreted? -two main effects?

Somatostatin is produced by pancreatic δ-cells as well as the hypothalamus Effects 1. Inhibitor of both insulin and glucagon secretion --secretion from the pancreas is stimulated by both high blood glucose and amino acid concentrations 2. Decreases GH secretion when secreted from the hypothalamus

Nephron reabsorption

Some compounds that are filtered/secreted may be taken back up via reabsorption --certain substances like glucose, amino acids and vitamins are almost always reabsorbed --in addition, hormones such as vasopressin and aldosterone can alter the quantity of water reabsorbed within the kidney in order to maintain blood pressure

Source amnesia

Source amnesia is the inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge --often manifests when a person hears a story of something happening to someone else, and later recalls the story happening to them --involves confusion between semantic and episodic memory

Spatial inequality

Spatial inequality focuses on social stratification across territories and their populations -includes residential segregation and environmental justice

Splitting

Splitting represents a defense mechanism in which one views others either as all good or all bad -commonly associated with borderline personality disorder

Stabilizing selection

Stabilizing selection keeps phenotypes within a specific range by selecting against extremes --for instance, fetuses that weight too little may not be healthy enough to survive, while fetuses that weight too much can experience trauma during delivery, and require more resources from the mother

Slow-wave sleep

Stages 3+4 of sleep are known as slow-wave sleep and are important for: --cognitive recovery --memory consolidation --increased growth hormone release

What does one use standard conditions versus standard temperature and pressure?

Standard conditions are used in kinetics, equilibrium and thermodynamics problems, while STP is used in gas law equations

Distinguish between the two components of starch --what kind of bonds are these made up of?

Starches are linked α-D-glucose monomers Amylose are linked via α-1,4 glycosidic bonds Amylopectin are linked via α-1,4 AND α-1,6 glycosidic bonds

Distinguish between state and process functions

State functions are thermodynamic properties that are a function only of the current equilibrium state -TVPHUGS D Process functions describe the path taken to get from one state to another -heat, work

Define a state function and write out the pneumonic to remember the important ones

State functions describe the system in an equilibrium state -TV PHUGED Temperature Volume Pressure Enthalpy (∆H) Internal Energy Gibbs free energy Entropy Density

Status definition -three types

Statuses are positions in society that are used to classify individuals -ascribed, achieved, master

Stem cells

Stem cells are those that have no yet differentiated, or which can give rise to other cells that will differentiate --stem cells exist in embryonic as well as adult tissues

Converting a Newman projection into a straight-chain drawing

Step 1: Redraw the given Newman Projection such that it has a staggered conformation (bottom to top) Step 2: Redraw the staggered Newman Projection such that the groups that make up the longest carbon chain in the molecule are the vertical bonds -not shown here Step 3: Draw the carbon skeleton first, then use the newman projection to add in groups on dashes and wedges as shown in the top picture

Stereoisomers

Stereoisomers have the same molecular formula, molecular weight, and connectivity, differing only how the atoms are arranged in space --includes conformational and configurational isomers

Stereotype threat

Stereotype threat refers to the concept of people being concerned or anxious about confirming a negative stereotype, causing reduced performance and lowering personal investment in an activity -black students at prominent education institutions

Long-term potentiation

Stimuli cause activation of neurons, which release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft --as the stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and at the same time receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase, increasing receptor density

Stratum basale

Stratum basale -deepest layer of the epidermis -contains stem cells responsible for proliferation of keratinocytes (hair and nails) -melanocytes are found here as well -similar numbers are found in all people , but differences in the level of activity are what give rise to differences in skin color

Stratum corneum

Stratum corneum -most superficial layer of the epidermis -flattened keratinocytes with openings for sweat/sebaceous glands and hair follicles

Stratum granulosum

Stratum granulosum -middle layer of the epidermis -in this layer, keratinocytes produced in the stratum basale layer die and lose their nuclei

Stratum lucidum

Stratum lucidum -second-most superficial layer of the epidermis -only present in thick hairless skin such as sole of the foot or palms

Stratum spinosum

Stratum spinosum -second-deepest layer of the epidermis -the layer in which the keratinocytes produced in the stratum basale below become connected --langerhans cells are also found in this layer

Rules for waves produced by strings fixed at either end (3)

Strings are secured at both ends -the first harmonic (n=1) is known as the fundamental frequency -the second harmonic (n=2) is known as the first overtone, which continues according to this pattern 1. the distance between nodes is always half of a wavelength 2. the number of antinodes will always be equal to the harmonic 3. there will always be one more node than antinode

Distinguish between strong and weak ties that join communities together

Strong ties refer to peer group and kinship contacts, which are small but powerful, while weak ties refer to superficial social connections with a large range of individuals -those without multiple weak ties, such as disadvantaged groups may find it extremely difficult to contribute to and access social capital

Cholesterol synthesis --rate-limiting step?

Synthesis of mevalonic acid in the SER is the rate-limiting step of cholesterol synthesis and is catalyzed by HMG-CoA reductase --NADPH provides reducing equivalents --up-regulated by insulin --down-regulated by increased cholesterol levels --HMG-CoA reductase gene expression participates in regulation as well

T cells Where are they produced? Where do they mature? Involved in cell-mediated or humoral immunity?

T cells Produced in the bone marrow Mature in the thymus Involved in cell-mediated immunity

Telophase of mitosis

Telophase is essentially the reverse of prophase - the spindle apparatus breaks down, the nuclear membrane reforms around each set of chromosomes, and the nucleoli reappear --the chromosomes uncoil to resume their interphase form --both daughter cells have received a complete copy of the genome identical to the original genome and to each other (2n --> 2n + 2n) --at the end of telophase, cytokinesis is the separation of the cytoplasm and organelles so that each daughter cell has sufficient supplies to survive on its own Each cell undergoes a finite number of divisions before programmed cell death - 20-50 for human somatic cells

Test cross

Test crosses are used to determine an unknown genotype --the organism with an unknown genotype is crossed with an organism known to be homozygous recessive --if all 100% of offspring are phenotypically dominant, then the unknown genotype is likely to be homozygous dominant --if there is a 1:1 distribution of dominant to recessive phenotypes, then the unknown genotype is likely to be heterozygous Because a test cross is used to determine the genotype of the parent based on the phenotypes of its offspring, test crosses are sometimes called back crosses

What occurs in the E site during the elongation phase of translation?

The E site is where the now inactivated (uncharged) tRNA pauses transiently before exiting the ribosome -signal sequences direct the ribosome to move to the ER so that proteins destined to be secreted can be sent to the golgi apparatus -other signal sequences direct proteins to the nucleus, lysosomes or cell membranes

Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion

The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) separates individuals on a continuum based on how they process persuasive information -ranges from central route processing that uses high elaboration (analyzing and scrutinizing over information) to peripheral route processing that uses low elaboration (superficial details)

The Gemeinschaft-Gesellschaft dichotomy

The Gemeinschaft-Gesellschaft dichotomy was used by Max Weber to accentuate the key elements of a historic/social change -social ties can be categorized, on one hand, as belonging to personal social interactions or, on the other hand, as belonging to indirect interactions, impersonal roles, and formal values

Golgi apparatus

The Golgi apparatus consists of stacked membrane-bound sacs --materials from the ER are transferred to the Golgi apparatus in vesicles, where they may be modified by the addition of various groups, including carbohydrates, phosphates and sulfates --the Golgi apparatus may also modify cellular products through the introduction of signal sequences, which direct the delivery of the product to a specific cellular location --after modification and sorting, the cellular products are repackaged in vesicles, which are subsequently transferred to the correct cellular location --if the product is destined for secretion, then the secretory vesicle merges with the cell membrane and its contents are released via exocytosis

Finding outliers using IQR

The IQR can be used to determine outliers --any value that falls more than 1.5 interquartile ranges below the first quartile or above the third quartile is considered an outlier

James-Lange theory of emotion

The James-Lange theory of emotion posits that a stimulus results first in physiological arousal, which leads to a secondary response in which the emotion is labeled. -thus, feedback from peripheral organs drives the emotional response in the brain

Michelangelo phenomenon

The Michelangelo phenomenon observed by psychologists is one in which interdependent individuals influence each other to develop toward what they themselves consider as their 'ideal selves' -analogous to Michelangelo's belief that the ideal self can be sculpted with help from others

What occurs in the P site during the elongation phase of translation?

The P site holds the tRNA that carries the growing polypeptide chain -a peptide bond is formed as the polypeptide is passed from the tRNA in the P site to the tRNA in the A site -this peptide bond requires peptidyl transferase, an enzyme that is part of the large subunit, as well as GTP -this is also where the first amino acid (methionine) binds because it is starting the chain

Schachter-Singer theory of emotion

The Schachter-Singer theory of emotion posits that to feel an emotion, one must consciously analyze the environment in relation to the nervous system arousal in response to a stimulus --emotion experienced follows and is based on physiological arousal as well as environment and cognitive processing

Z line of the sarcomere

The Z lines define the boundaries of each sarcomere -distance between Z lines shortens during contraction

Describe the alarm stage of general adaptation syndrome

The alarm stage is the initial reaction to the stressor and involves hypothalamic stimulation of the pituitary to secrete ACTH, which stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol --the hypothalamus also activates the adrenal medulla to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine to activate the SNS

Allele frequency

The allele frequency refers to how often an allele appears in a population --for example, if we took a one-cell sample from 50 of Mendel's plants, we would have collected 100 copies of the alleles for flower color - two from each cell --if 75 of these alleles were the dominant allele, we could say that the allele frequency of this is 75% --this says nothing of homo-/heterozygosity, only the representation of the allele across all chromosomes in the population

Faraday's laws governing the behavior of electrochemical cells

The amount of chemical change induced in an electrochemical cell is directly proportional to the number of moles of electrons that are exchanged during the redox reaction --in general, for a reaction that involves the transfer of n electrons per atom M --> Mⁿ⁺ = ne⁻ --> M(s) The electrodeposition equation shown summarizes this process and helps determine the number of moles of element being deposited on a plate

Electrodeposition equation

The amount of metal ion deposited at a specific electrode in an electrolytic cell is given by this equation. --I is the current in amps (C/s) --t is the time in seconds --n is the number of moles of electrons needed for a specific ion (for CuSO₄, n=2) --F = faraday's constant, 10⁵C (C/mol e⁻ required)

Describe the role of the amygdala in emotion

The amygdala is associated with implicit memory -implicit memory is also referred to as emotional memory - the storage of the actual feelings of emotion associated with an event -when experiencing a similar event later on, these emotions may be retrieved

Arousal theory of motivation

The arousal theory of motivation states that people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal, seeking to increase arousal when it falls below their optimal level, and decreasing their arousal when it rises above their optimum level

Ascending limb of the loop of Henle

The ascending limb of the LOH is permeable only to salt --salt concentrations are high at the deepest part of the medulla but decrease as the ascending limb rises toward the cortex --thus, increasing amounts of salt are removed from the filtrate as it travels up the loop of Henle The diluting segment begins at the transition from the inner to outer medulla, at which time the ascending limb becomes thicker --this is due to mitochondria present in these cells that allow for active reabsorption of further amounts of salt -indeed, so much salt is reabsorbed that the filtrate actually becomes hypotonic to the interstitium --this segment of the tubule is thus the only segment of the nephron that can produce urine more dilute than blood, important in times of overhydration

Strong nuclear force

The attraction felt between protons and neutrons that holds them together in the nucleus --the bound system is at a lower energy level than the unbound constituents, and the difference in energy must be radiated away in the form of heat, light or other electromagnetic radiation that results in mass defect --the weak nuclear force also contributes to the stability of the nucleus, but is about one-millionth the strength of the strong nuclear force

Describe the role of the autonomic nervous system in emotion

The autonomic nervous system is related to specific physiological reactions associated with specific emotions, such as changes in skin temperature, HR, RR, and blood pressure -heart rate variability is another factor used to determine emotion - a decrease in this is associated with stress and anger

Distinguish between the dominant and non-dominant hemispheres of the brain

The dominant hemisphere is typically defined as the one more heavily stimulated during language reception and production and is primarily analytic in function, while the nondominant hemisphere is associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition and spatial processing --95% of right-handed individuals/82% of left-handed individuals are right brain-dominant

Door-in-the-face technique

The door-in-the-face technique is a compliance method in which the persuader attempts to convince the respondent by making a large request that the respondent will most likely turn down -the respondent is then more likely to agree to a second, more reasonable request

Doppler effect wave sources

The doppler effect assumes wave sources are at rest or moving at speeds slower than the speed of the sound -note that in wave sources that are moving, crests of sound waves in front of the source are compressed together, causing an increase in frequency (pitch), while behind the wave source, crests of sound waves are stretched apart, decreasing their frequency

Describe the role of the dorsal prefrontal cortex in emotion

The dorsal prefrontal cortex is associated with attention and cognition and does not play a significant role in emotional responses

Fetal development and the umbilical cord

The embryo is connected to the placenta by the umbilical cord, which consists of two arteries and one vein encased in a gelatinous substance --the vein carries freshly oxygenated blood rich with nutrients from the placenta to the embryo, while the umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood and waste to the placenta for exchange

Endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is a series of interconnected membranes that are actually contiguous with the nuclear envelope --the rough ER is studded with ribosomes, which permit the translation of proteins destined for secretion directly into its lumen --the smooth ER lacks ribosomes and is utilized primarily for lipid synthesis, detoxification of certain drugs and poisons, and protein transport form the RER to the golgi

Energy of an electron (E)

The energy of an electron increases (becomes less negative) as it moves further from the nucleus (as n increases) -- a value of zero energy is assigned to the state in which the proton and electron are separated completely, with no attractive force between them

Potential energy stored in a capacitor

The function of capacitors is to store an amount of energy in the form of charge separation, which we can think of as potential energy

What is the isoelectric point and how is it calculated for amino acids that are negatively-charged at physiologic pH?

The isoelectric point is the pH at which the molecule is electrically neutral --tend to be much lower for the acidic amino acids: aspartic acid/aspartate, glutamic acid/glutamate

What is the most important controller of insulin secretion?

The most important controller of insulin secretion is plasma glucose --above a threshold of 100mg/dL, or about 5.6mM glucose, insulin secretion is directly proportional to plasma glucose --increased ATP promotes exocytosis of insulin through several ion- and voltage-gated channels --also affected by glucagon and somatostatin

Need-based theory of motivation

The need-based theory of motivation posits that motivation is the result of how we wish to allocate our energy and resources to best satisfy needs

Development of the resting membrane potential

The negative resting potential is generated by both negatively charged proteins within the cell and the relatively greater permeability of the membrane to K⁺ compared with Na⁺ --since K⁺ is positively charged and more likely to move out of the cell ([K⁺in] > [K⁺out]), its movement results in a cell interior that is negative --in addition, remember that the ATPase moves three Na⁺ out and two K⁺ in

Nucleus structure

The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane or envelope, a double membrane that maintains a nuclear environment separate from the cytoplasm --nuclear pores in the nuclear membrane allow for selective, two-way exchange of material between the cytoplasm and the nucleus Linear DNA is wound around organizing proteins called histones, which are then further wound into linear strands called chromosomes There is a subsection of the nucleus called the nucleolus, where rRNA is synthesized --this takes up approximately 1/4 of the volume of the nucleus and is often seen as a darker spot there

Opponent-process theory

The opponent-process theory theory posits that when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will physiologically counteract the effects of the drug, in ways that result in manifestations of withdrawal when the drug is not being consumed that are the complete opposite of the drug's effect --alcohol, for example, is a depressant, and alcohol withdrawal symptoms include increased arousal such as anxiety and jitteriness --used to explain continued drug use, which explains the motivation to continue taking a harmful drug as well as tolerance

Female reproductive anatomy

The ovaries are located in the pelvic cavity, each consisting of thousands of follicles - multilayered sacs that contain, nourish, and protect immature ova (eggs) --between puberty and menopause, one egg per month is ovulated through the peritoneal sac into the fallopian tube (oviduct) lined with cilia to propel the egg forward --the external anatomy is known collectively as the vulva

Properties of α-carbons/hydrogens

The oxygen in the carbonyl group pulls some of the electron density away from the bonds between the α-carbon and α-hydrogens, making these hydrogens relatively acidic and thus easy to remove --this acidity is augmented by resonance stabilization of the conjugate base between the α-carbon, the carbonyl carbon, and the carbonyl oxygen

Explain the p-value

The p-value represents the chance that the null hypothesis is correct --calculated from the collected data and compared to the α error determined from the study design --a p-value less than 0.05 means that there is less than a 5% chance that there is not a statistically significant difference between the two groups, and thus we reject the null hypothesis and state that the difference in means is statistically significant

Parathyroid hormone -where is it produced/secreted? -what are its three effects?

The parathyroids are four pea-sized structures that sit on the posterior surface of the thyroid and secrete parathyroid hormone which serve three purposes: 1. Raises blood calcium levels through decreasing its excretion in the kidney, increasing its absorption in the gut via vitamin D activation, and increasing bone resorption -works antagonistically to the hormone calcitonin 2. Affects phosphorus homeostasis by resorbing phosphate from bone and promoting its excretion in the urine as well as promote its absorption via vitamin D activation, which cancel each other out --1. is its main effect

Parietal lobe --area of the brain --associated structures and functions

The parietal lobe is located just posterior to the frontal lobe Associated structures: Somatosensory cortex --involved in processing of somatosensory information including touch, pressure, temperature and pain signals --located on the postcentral gyrus Central region --spatial processing including spatial orientation skills such as reading a map

Explain the physiologic response associated with emotion

The physiologic response is one of three experiences associated with emotion -arousal is stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system, and includes changes in heart rate, skin temperature and blood pressure

Pineal gland -where is it located? -what is its main effect?

The pineal gland is located deep within the brain and is responsible for the secretion of the hormone melatonin --blood levels of melatonin are at least partially responsible for the sensation of sleepiness, though the precise mechanism of action is unclear

Power of a resistor -define -3 equations

The power of a resistor is the name given to the rate at which energy is dissipated by a resistor

Freezing point depression

The presence of solute particles in a solution interferes with the formation of the lattice arrangement of solvent molecules associated with the solid state, and thus more energy must be removed from the solution in order for the solution to solidify i = Van't Hoff factor, the number of particles into which a compound dissociates in solution

Write out how to calculate probability for independent events occurring simultaneously or independently

The probability of two or more such events occuring at the same time is product of their probabilities alone The probability of at least one of two events occurring is equal to the sum of their initial probabilities, minus the probability that they will both occur

Cultural assimilation

The process by which an individual's or group's behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group -this integrates new aspects of a society and culture with old ones, changing the culture itself -cultural melting pot of different cultures into a single homogenous one

The products of a reaction between equal concentrations of a strong acid and a strong base are..?

The products of a reaction between equal concentrations of a strong acid and a strong base are equimolar amounts of salt and water, with a resulting pH of 7

Self-discrepancy theory

The self-discrepancy theory states that people compare themselves to internalized standards called "self-guides" -these different representations of the self can be contradictory and result in emotional discomfort -self-discrepancy is the gap between two of these self-representations -theory states that people are motivated to reduce the gap in order to remove disparity in self-guides

Semilunar valves

The semilunar valves have three leaflets, and serve to separate the ventricles from the vasculature --the valve that separates the RV from the pulmonary circulation is known as the pulmonary valve --the valve that separates the LV from the aorta is known as the aortic valve

Third trimester

The seventh and eighth month are characterized by continued rapid growth and further brain development --during the 9th month, antibodies are transported by active transport from the mother to the fetus for protection in preparation for delivery --the growth rate slows and the fetus becomes less active

Describe the seventh conflict of Erikson's psychosocial development model and its onset

The seventh conflict of Erikson's psychosocial development model is that of generativity and stagnation -occurs between 40-65 years --generativity brings a productive member of society, while stagnation brings boredom and self-centeredness

Social cognitive theory in relation to attitude formation

The social cognitive theory postulates that people learn how to behave and shape attitudes through observing and replicating the actions of others in tandem with personal factors and the environment in which we observe the behavior

Intersectionality

The study of having more than one of racism, ageism, sexism -person is discriminated based on multiple factors -a black woman being discriminated by being black and also a woman

Conservation of total mechanical energy

The sum of an object's potential and kinetic energies is its total mechanical energy -in the absence of nonconservative forces such as friction, the sum of the kinetic and potential energies will be constant

Target component of social perception

The target refers to the person about which the perception is made -knowledge of the target can include past experiences or specific information that affects perception -when little information is available, there is a need for greater observation and interpretation by the perceiver

Group polarization

The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group, which come about through discussion within the group -the hypothesis underlying polarization is that initial ideas tend not to be extreme, but through discussion within the group, these ideas tend to become more and more extreme

Theory of mind

The theory of mind describes the ability to sense how another's mind works, and is important to understanding the perspectives and roles of others during the development of one's identity

Objects relations theory

The theory suggests that the way people relate to others and situations in their adult lives is shaped by family experiences during infancy -object refers to the representation of parents or caregivers based on subjective experiences during this time

Describe the third conflict of Erikson's psychosocial development model and its onset

The third conflict of Erikson's psychosocial development model is that of initiative vs. guilt -occurs between 3-6 years --Initiative brings a sense of purpose and the ability to initiate activities, while guilt brings overwhelming fear of punishment or showing off to overcompensate

Third phase of Kohlberg's moral reasoning model -when does it develop? -what is emphasized? -name the two stages involved

The third of Kohlberg's moral reasoning model is known as the postconventional morality phase -develops in adulthood if ever -morality of one's actions are judged based on their own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice -rules are viewed as useful but changeable mechanisms—ideally rules can maintain the general social order and protect human rights, but they are not absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question -stage 5 is social contract, stage 6 is universal human ethics

What are the three basic types of traits according to the trait theorist Gordon Allport

The three basic types of traits according to Allport: cardinal, central, secondary --not everyone will develop a cardinal trait, but everyone has the other two

Dalton's law partial pressures

The total pressure of a gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual components (top equation) The partial pressure of each individual gas is related to its mole fraction

Tidal volume

The volume of air inhaled/exhaled in a normal breath

Expiratory reserve volume

The volume of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation

Convex/concave surfaces in spherical mirrors

The word spherical implies that the mirror can be considered a spherical cap or dome taken from a much larger spherically-shaped mirror --if we were to look from the inside of a sphere to its surface, we would see a concave surface, while looking from the outside, we would see a convex surface --for a concave surface, the center of curvature and the radius of curvature are located in front of the mirror, while for a convex surface, the center of curvature and the radius of curvature are behind the mirror

β-oxidation overview

The β-oxidation is a repetition of four steps - each four-step cycle releases one acetyl-CoA and reduces NAD⁺ and FAD to NADH and FADH₂, respectively, which are oxidized in the ETC to produce ATP --the acetyl-CoA enters the CAC in the muscle and adipose tissue, while that produced in the liver stimulates gluconeogenesis In the fasting state, the liver produces more acetyl-CoA from β-oxidation than is used in the CAC, which is used to synthesize ketone bodies - essentially two acetyl-CoA molecules linked together

The Ksp of AgI in aqueous solution is 1x10⁻¹⁶. If a 1x10⁻⁵M solution of AgNO₃ is saturated with AgI, what will be the final concentration of the iodide ion?

This is an example of the common ion effect The concentration of Ag⁺ in the original AgNO₃ solution will be 1x10⁻⁵M because the AgNO₃ will fully dissociate. Some amount of AgI will dissociate into the solution. If this amount is called x, the silver concentration will become (1x10⁻⁵M + x). Because no iodide was present in solution until the AgI began dissociating, the concentration of iodide will be x Thus, the Ksp expression can be written as follows: Ksp = [Ag⁺][I⁻] = 1x10⁻¹⁶ = [1x10⁻⁵M+x][x] -the value of x is almost always sufficiently small enough to consider its addition or subtraction from another number negligible -thus, x = 1x10⁻¹¹ -this is an example of the common ion effect

Caveats to universal emotions

Though there exists the seven universal emotions recognized by societies around the world, it has been argued that they can be affected greatly by culture -culture dissimilarities in emotion include varying reactions to similar events and behavior exhibited in response to an emotion

Thought insertion

Thought insertion is a specific type of delusion that involves the belief that thoughts are being placed into one's head

Name and describe the three main categories of access to the id, ego and superego

Three main categories of access to the id, ego and superego: 1. Conscious --thoughts to which we have access 2. Preconscious --thoughts we aren't currently aware of 3. Unconscious --thoughts that have been repressed

Threonine Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Threonine Polar side chain Neutral side chain at physiologic pH Nonaromatic Hydrophilic

Thymosin -where is it secreted from? -what is its main effect?

Thymosin is released by the thymus -important for proper T-cell development and differentiation Thymus atrophies by adulthood, and thymosin levels drop accordingly

Describe Adler's creative self

To Adler, the creative power of the self, not the fulfillment of drives or conditioning, is the essential principle of human life -heredity gives us certain abilities and environment gives us certain impressions -these, along with the way we interpret and experience them, make up the bricks we use in our own creative way to construct our individual attitudes toward life and our relations to the outside world

Balancing redox reactions

To balance a redox reaction, both the net charge and the number of atoms must be equal on both sides of the equation So for the following reaction: MnO₄⁻ + I⁻ --> I₂ + Mn²⁺ 1. Write out half equations: I⁻ --> I₂ MnO₄⁻ --> Mn²⁺ 2-4. Balance atoms, using H₂0 + H⁺ if needed: 2I⁻ --> I₂ 8H+ MnO₄⁻ --> Mn²⁺ + 4H₂0 5. Balance charges: 2I⁻ --> I₂ + 2e⁻ 5e⁻ + 8H+ MnO₄⁻ --> Mn²⁺ + 4H₂0 6. Multiply in order to get the same number of electrons on each side 7. Add together these equations, canceling out whatever is present on both sides 16H⁺ + 2MnO₄⁻ + 10I⁻ --> 2Mn²⁺ + 5I₂ + 8H₂0 8. Ensure atoms and charge are still balanced

How to convert from the fischer projection of glucose to the Haworth projection and chair conformation

To draw the chair structure from this: 1. Start with C1, on which the substituent pointing down will be axial, and the one pointing up is equatorial --this will depend on whether it is alpha or beta Axial will be up on the next carbon, down on the one after that --alternating, but use the fischer projection to see which groups will be up and which will be down

Sign conventions for single lenses What does a positive or negative value indicate for the following symbols? o i r f m

To identify the real side of a lens, remember that it is where light actually goes AFTER interacting with the lens or mirror -for mirrors, light is reflected and real object are on the real side, while for lenses, the light travels through the lens and the real object is on the virtual side

Finding resultant vectors using the tip-to-tail method

To subtract vectors using this method, simply invert the negative vector -for instance, if it were A-B, A would stay the same, while B would be flipped so that it is pointing in the opposite direction

Token economies

Token economies are often used in inpatient therapeutic settings to reward positive behavior -from the behaviorist school of personality

What is Tollen's reagent and what is its significance?

Tollen's reagent is used to detect the presence of reducing sugars (monosaccharides with a hemiacetal ring) --It is an oxidizing agent in which Ag⁺ is reduced by the aldehyde to metallic silver Ag(NH₃)₂⁺ --> Ag(s)

Distinguish between angle, torsional and nonbonded strain that gives rise to ring strain

Torsional strain results when cyclic molecules must assume conformations that have eclipsed or gauche interactions Nonbonded strain, or van der Waals repulsion, is also known as steric hindrance Angle strain results when bond angles deviate from their ideal values by being stretched or compressed

Translocation mutations

Translocation mutations are a type of chromosomal mutation that occur when a segment of DNA from one chromosome is swapped with a segment of DNA from another chromosome

Transverse waves

Transverse waves are those in which the direction of particle oscillation is perpendicular to the propagation -visible light, micro- and x-rays -string attached to a fixed point is another example

Triglyceride synthesis

Triacylglycerol formation from fatty acids and glycerol-3-phosphate occurs primarily in the liver and somewhat in adipose tissue, with a small contribution directly from the diet as well --in the liver, triacylglycerols are packaged and sent to adipose tissue as VLDL, leaving only a small amount of stored triacylglycerols

Tryptophan Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Tryptophan Polar side chain Neutral side chain at physiologic pH Aromatic Hydrophobic

Describe the structure and function of tubulin

Tubulin is the protein that makes up microtubules, which are important in providing structure, chromosome separation in mitosis, and intracellular transport with kinesin and dynein --like actin, tubulin has polarity - the negative end is usually located adjacent to the nucleus, whereas the positive end is usually in the periphery of the cell

Describe type I error in hypothesis testing

Type I (α) error occurs when we report a difference between two populations when one does not actually exist --rejecting the null hypothesis (H₀) when we shouldn't have --null hypothesis is not generally rejected unless α error < 0.05

Describe type II error in hypothesis testing

Type II (β) error when we report no difference between two populations when one actually exists --accepting the null hypothesis (H₀) when we shouldn't have Having too few patients can result in type II error

State the basic tenet of the type and trait theory of personality

Type theorists seek to create a taxonomy of personality types, while trait theorists describe individual personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviors

Define the following parameters of Pavlov's experiments: Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response Neutral stimulus Conditioned stimulus Conditioned response

Unconditioned stimulus -- any such stimulus that brings about a reflexive response -meat Unconditioned response -- the reflexive response -salivation Neutral stimulus -- those that do not produce a reflexive response Conditioned stimulus -- a normally neutral stimulus that through association, now causes a reflexive response -bell Conditioned response -- the learned response -salivation

What are the concentrations of each of the ions in a saturated solution of PbI₂, given that the Ksp of PbI₂ is 8.5x10⁻⁹ at standard conditions? If 5g PbI₂ are dissolved in water to make 1L of solution at 25°C, would the solution be saturated, unsaturated, or supersaturated?

Use the following steps to find concentration of ions in solution at equilibrium (saturated solution) 1. Write out the dissociation reaction: PbI₂(s) --> Pb²⁺(aq) + 2I⁻(aq) 2. Write out the Ksp formula for this reaction Ksp = [Pb²⁺][I⁻]² 3. To find the concentrations at equilibrium, let x equal the concentration of Pb²⁺ and 2x equal the concentration of I⁻ because twice as much will be made as Pb²⁺ -then incorporate the stoichiometric coefficients: Ksp = [Pb²⁺][I⁻]² = (x)(2x)² = 4x³ 4. Solve for x and plug in values -remember that the molarity values for lead iodide at equilibrium is called the molar solubility

Strecker synthesis (2 steps)

Used to synthesize amino acids from aldehydes utilizing ammonium chloride and potassium cyanide under acidic conditions (NH₄Cl) -mix of d- and l-amino acids are generated (recall that all naturally-occurring amino acids are l-isomers)

Which reinforcement schedule has the fastest response rate?

Variable-ratio have the fastest response rate (denoted by its higher slope) --a rat will continue pressing the bar quickly with the hope that the next press is the right one --these are the most resistant to extinction (think gambling)

Gas exchange at the alveolus

Walls of alveoli are only one cell thick, which facilitates diffusion of carbon dioxide from the blood into lungs and oxygen into the blood

Distinguish between the actions of peptide and amino acid-derivative hormones

Water-soluble peptides hormones like insulin are able to rapidly adjust the metabolic processes of the cell via second-messenger cascades, while fat-soluble amino acid-derivative hormones like thyroid hormones enact longer-range effects by exerting regulatory actions at the transcriptional level

Dissociation of weak acids in solution

Weak acids will partially dissociate in water to achieve an equilibrium state: HA(aq) + H₂O(l) <−> H₃O⁺(aq) + A⁻(aq) The smaller the Ka, the weaker the acid -the weaker the acid, the less it will dissociate

Dissociation of weak bases in solution

Weak bases will partially dissociate in water to achieve an equilibrium state: BOH(aq) + H₂0 (l) <−> B+(aq) + OH⁻(aq) The smaller the Kb, the weaker the base -the weaker the base, the less it will dissociate

Boiling point elevation equation

When a nonvolatile solute is dissolved into a solvent to create a solution, the boiling point of the solution will be greater than that of the pure solvent -not as many solvent molecules are at the surface because some of the solute molecules are taking up that space -because boiling point is the temp at which the vapor pressure = atmospheric pressure, the boiling point is increased due to the vapor pressure being decreased i = Van't Hoff factor, the number of particles into which a compound dissociates in solution

Evolutionary stable strategy (ESS)

When an evolutionary stable strategy is adopted by a given population in a specific environment, natural selection will prevent alternative strategies from arising -these are thus inherited and passed down -once it is fixed in a population, natural selection alone is sufficient to prevent alternative (mutant) strategies from invading successfully

Antibody structure and function

When antibodies bind to their targets (antigens), they can cause one of three outcomes: 1. Neutralization of the antigen, making the pathogen unable to exert its effects 2. Opsonization, the marking of the pathogen for destruction by white blood cells 3. Agglutination, clumping together of ab's on the ag into large, insoluble protein complexes that can be phagocytized and digested by macrophages

Thermoregulation in heat

When body temperature rises above the set point determined by the hypothalamus, postganglionic sympathetic neurons innervating sweat glands promote the secretion of water with certain ions onto the skin --heat is then absorbed from the body as the molecules within the water undergo a phase change to evaporation At the same time, arteriolar vasodilation occurs to maximize heat loss --this brings a large quantity of blood to the skin, accelerating the evaporation of sweat by maximizing the heat energy available for the liquid-gas phase change

Discharging of a lead-acid battery

When charged, the battery behaves as a voltaic cell according to the following equations Pb(s) + HSO₄⁻(aq) --> PbSO₄(s) + H⁺ + 2e⁻ (oxidation = anode) --Ecell = -0.356V --lead anode is negatively charged attracts anionic bisulfate PbO₂(s) + SO₄²⁻(aq) + 4H⁺ + 2e⁻ --> PbSO₄(s) = 2H₂O (reduction = cathode) --Ecell = 1.685V Positively charged cathode is porous, allowing the electrolyte (sulfuric acid) to solvate the cathode into lead and oxide ions H⁺ now in solution reacts with the oxide ions to produce water, and the remaining sulfate reacts with the lead to produce electroplated lead sulfate

Charging of a lead-acid battery

When charging, the lead-acid cell is part of an electrolytic circuit --the equations are the reverse of the discharging equations (below), in which voltage from a source is provided: Pb(s) + HSO₄⁻(aq) --> PbSO₄(s) + H⁺ + 2e⁻ (oxidation = anode) PbO₂(s) + SO₄²⁻(aq) + 4H⁺ + 2e⁻ --> PbSO₄(s) = 2H₂O (reduction = cathode) --lead sulfate is broken down and combined with the oxygen from water to form PbO₂ on the positive electrode, and lead is deposited on the negative electrode

Distinguish between the solubility product constant (Ksp) and the formation constant (Kf) used when forming complex ions

When forming a complex ion, one must often use a mixture of solutions -for this reason, a distinction must be made between the Ksp of the solution and that of the complex ion itself -the dissolution of the original solution is termed the Ksp, while the subsequent formation of the complex ion in solution is termed Kf (formation constant) Consider the following reactions: AgCl(s) --> Ag⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq) --Ksp = [Ag+][Cl⁻] Ag⁺(aq) + 2NH₃(aq) --> [Ag(NH₃)₂]⁺ --Kf = [Ag(NH₃)₂]⁺/[Ag+][NH₃]² Ksp describes the dissolution of AgCl(s) into Ag(aq) and Cl(aq), while the Kf describes the formation of complex ions of Ag (aq) that result from this, with other aqueous reactants like NH₃

Dispersion and light

When light travels through a medium, different wavelengths travel at the same wavelength but different speeds --this implies that the index of refraction of a medium affects the wavelength of light passing through the medium according to n = c/v Like wave speed (v) wavelength is also affected when passing into different media according to λ = (λ₀/n) where λ₀ is the wavelength in a vacuum --thus, violet's smaller wavelength relate to red's means that it will be more affected by changed in media, resulting in its bending more *Frequency is not affected by the refractive index*

Nonconservative forces and work

When nonconservative forces are present, the total mechanical energy is not conserved -the difference in energy before and after is equal to the work done by the nonconservative forces -unlike conservative forces, nonconservative forces are path dependent - the longer the distance traveled, the larger the amount of energy dissipated -nonconservative forces include friction, air resistance, and viscous drag

Semantic networks

When storing long-term memory, the brain organizes ideas into a semantic network, in which concepts are linked together based on similar meaning --spreading activation when one node of the semantic network is activated is at the heart of priming

Torque placed on a dipole in an electric field

When the electric dipole is placed in a uniform external electric field, the equal and opposite charges experience forces exerted on them individually by the field -the torque in each direction is equal to (d/2)Fesinθ, with the positive charge moving with the field and the negative charge moving in the direction opposite the field -the two values can be added to find the net torque, equal to dFesinθ = d(qE)sinθ = pEsinθ

Calculating decibel values after changes in sound level

When the intensity of a sound is changed by some factor, one can calculate the new sound level using this equation

Solution equilibrium, dissolution and precipitation

When the solution is dilute, the thermodynamically-favored process is dissolution, and initially the rate of dissolution will be greater than the rate of precipitation -but as the solution becomes more concentrated and approaches saturation, the rate of dissolution lessens, while the rate of precipitation increases -eventually the saturation point is reached (Gibbs free energy = 0) and the solution exists in a state of dynamic equilibrium for which the rates of dissolution and precipitation are equal, and the concentration of dissolved solute reaches a steady-state value

Constructive interference

When waves are perfectly in phase, the displacements are equal to the sum of the amplitude of the two waves -partial constructive interference can occur when waves are not perfectly in phase, resulting in a displacement that is not quite equal to the sum of the wave amplitudes

Destructive interference

When waves are perfectly out of phase, the displacements are equal to the difference in the amplitude of the two waves -partial destructive interference can occur when waves are not perfectly out of phase, resulting in a displacement that is not quite equal to the difference between the wave amplitudes

Principle of superposition

When waves interact with each other, the displacement of the resultant wave at any point is the sum of the displacements of the two interacting waves

Spin quantum number (ms)

Whenever two electrons occupy an orbital, they have equal but opposite spins

Sound level equation and examples

Where Io is the threshold of hearing --1 x 10⁻¹² W/m² 1 x 10⁻¹² W/m² = 0 dB 1 x 10⁻¹¹ W/m² = 10 dB 1 x 10⁻⁵ W/m² = 70 dB

Speed of light equation

Where c is the speed of light in a vacuum --all electromagnetic waves travel at this speed in a vacuum

What is the relationship between focal length, image distance and the object distance?

Where d₀ is the distance between the object and the mirror, di is the distance between the image and the mirror, and f is the focal length and is equal to the distance from the focal point to the mirror --true for lenses as well *Remember that the focal length is equal to half the radius of curvature*

Distinguish between the psychoanalysts (Freud, Jung, Adler) in terms of intrinsic human motivation

Whereas Freud's major assumption is that behavior is motivated by inborn instincts, Jung's principal axiom is that a person's conduct is governed by archetypes, and Adler assumes that people are primarily motivated by striving for superiority

Work definition and basic equation

Work is a process by which nonconservative forces transfer energy from one system to another

Working memory

Working memory is responsible for the transient holding and processing of new and already-stored information, and is an important process for reasoning, comprehension, learning and memory updating. --often used synonymously with short-term memory, but the two concepts are different

Center of mass equation

X, Y, and Z are coordinates at any particular point in an objects path through the air -m₁, m₂, m₃ are three sample masses (three point in flight) -only for a homogenous body with symmetrical shape and uniform density should one expect the center of gravity to be located at its geometric center

Yerkes - Dodson law

Yerkes - Dodson law posits a U-shaped function between the level of arousal and performance that indicates performance is worst at extremely high and low levels of arousal and optimal at some intermediate level depending on the task -associated with the arousal theory of motivation

Michaelis-Menten formula for reaction rate kinetics

k₁ describes the rate of formation of enzyme-substrate complexes (ES) k₂ describes the rate of dissociation of enzyme-substrate complexes) k₃ describes the rate of formation of product (E + P)

log(A/B) =

log(A/B) = logA - logB

log(mx10ⁿ) =

log(m x10ⁿ) ≈ n +0.m ____________________________ log(m x10ⁿ) = log(m) + log(10ⁿ) = n log(5x10¹⁰) = log(5) + log(10¹⁰) = log(5) + 10

logA1 =

logA1 = 0

logAA =

logAA = 1

log(A^B)

logA^B = B*logA

Snell's law

n₁sinθ₁ = n₂sinθ₂ -when light enters a medium with a higher index of refraction, it bends toward the normal, and when it enters one with a lower index of refraction, it bends away from the normal *Remember that θ is measured from the normal line, drawn perpendicular to the boundary of the medium, not the surface of the medium*

Equation used to locate dark fringes for a single slit-lens system

sinθ = nλ/w --where a is the width of the slit --θ is the angle between the line drawn from the center of the lens to the dark fringe in question, and the axis of the lens --n indicates the number of the fringe in question (note that bright fringes are found halfway between dark fringes)

Free energy and electromotive force in electrochemistry

ΔG° = -nFE°cell --n is the number of moles of electrons exchanged --F is the faraday constant (10⁵ C/mol e⁻) --E°cell is the standard emf of the cell Galvanic cells have negative ΔG° and positive E°cell values, while electrolytic cells have positive ΔG° and negative E°cell values

Standard gibbs free energy and equilibrium in electrochemistry

ΔG° = -nFE°cell = -RTln(Keq) Thus, nFE°cell = RTln(Keq) --if E°cell is positive, then Keq is positive, meaning that equilibrium favors product formation --if Keq = 1 (products = reactants at equilibrium), E°cell = 0

Which two enzymes in the glycolytic intermediates are used to generate ATP via substrate-level phosphorylation?

1,3 bisphosphoglycerate and phosphoenolpyruvate

What are the three components of attitudes?

1. Affective 2. Behavioral 3. Cognitive

What are the five most common demographic categories?

1. Age 2. Gender 3. Race and ethnicity 4. Sexual orientation 5. Immigrant status

Adaptation

Adaptation refers to our detection of a stimulus changing over time Can have both physiological (sensory) and psychological (perceptual) components --in loud environments, we contract small muscles in the ear to reduce sound intensity --once we are dressed, we stop feeling clothes

Adaptive radiation

Adaptive radiation describes the rapid rise of a number of different species from a common ancestor in order to accommodate several different niches, decreasing competition for limited resources -similar to disruptive selection

Sex-linked cross

Recall that females have two X chromosomes and thus may be homozygous or heterozygous for a condition carried on an X chromosome, while males have only one X chromosome are hemizygous (one copy) for many genes carried on the X chromosome --unless otherwise stated, assume that all sex-linked traits on the MCAT are X-linked recessive

Gel electrophoresis and DNA

Recall that gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate macromolecules, such as DNA and proteins, by size and charge --all molecules of DNA are negatively-charged because of the phosphate groups in the backbone of the molecule, so all DNA strands will migrate toward the anode of the electrochemical cell

Relationship between static and kinetic friction

Recall the equations for static and kinetic friction -the maximum value for static friction will always be greater than the constant value for kinetic friction

Animal communication

Any behavior of one animal that affects the behavior of another -body language, facial expression, visual displays, scent, vocalizations, etc.

Confabulation

Confabulation is a memory disturbance, defined as the production of fabricated, distorted or misinterpreted memories about oneself or the world, without the conscious intention to deceive

Ray diagrams for concave lenses

(Bottom pictures) 1. Rays that hit the lens parallel to the axis will refract outward, at an angle equal to the focal point in front of the image as shown 2. Rays moving at an angle toward the focal point behind the mirror will refract parallel to the axis

Enthalpy change of a reaction (ΔHrxn)

+ΔH values indicate an endothermic process, while -ΔH values indicate an exothermic process

Beta decay -shielding?

Emission of a β-particle, which is an electron --during beta decay, a neutron is converted into a proton, and thus the atomic number will go up by one, while the mass number remains the same -β-particles are singly-charged and very small, and thus more likely to penetrate shielding than alpha particles

Alpha decay -shielding?

Emission of an α-particle that consists of two protons, two neutrons and two electrons -alpha particles are relatively large and react with matter easily, and thus do not penetrate shielding (like lead sheets) extensively

Gamma decay

Emission of γ-rays, high-energy photons that carry no charge and simply lower the energy of the parent nucleus without changing the mass/atomic numbers --high-energy state of the parent nucleus may be represented by an asterisk

Envious stereotypes -warmth/competence?

Envious stereotypes are those in which the group are those in which the group is viewed with jealousy, bitterness or distrust -those in direct competition with the in-group for resources, who hold a high place in society -Asians, Jews, rich people

Parietal cells -where are they found? -what do they produce?

Parietal cells are found in the gastric glands of the stomach, and secrete HCl and intrinsic factor -HCl creates the harsh environment in the stomach, and cleaves pepsinogen to pepsin -intrinsic factor is responsible for the digestion of B₁₂

Intermediate filaments

Part of the cell cytoskeleton, intermediate filaments represent a diverse group of intermediate filaments, including keratin and desmin --these are able to withstand a tremendous amount of tension, making the cell structure more rigid --in addition, they help anchor other organelles, including the nucleus

Which digestive enzyme is responsible for slowing motility in the GI tract?

Secretin slows motility in the digestive tract to allow digestive enzymes to act on chyme

Semantics

Semantics is the component of language that deals with the association of meaning with a word --for example, words that refer to entire categories (women), or one specific one (mommy)

Semilog and log-log graph

Semilog graphs are specialized representations of a logarithmic data set in which the otherwise curved nature of the logarithmic data is made linear by a change in the axis ratio (one axis maintains the traditional unit spacing while the other assigns spacing based on a ratio) --log-log graphs are those in which both axes use a constant ratio from point to point

List Piaget's stages of cognitive development

Stupid Piaget Creates Fuss --sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational --remember what happens at each step? (remember that cognitive development involves the evolution in the ability to think and solve problems across a lifespan)

Sublimation

Sublimation occurs when a solid changes directly into the gas phase -dry ice (solid CO₂) sublimes at room temperature and pressure

What occurs in the A site during the elongation phase of translation?

The A site holds the incoming aminoacyl-tRNA complex that will be added to the growing chain, and is determined by the mRNA codon in the A site

Thermogenesis in cold

In cold conditions, arrector pili muscles contract, causing the hairs of the skin to stand up -helps to trap a layer of heated air near the skin The arterioles that feed the capillaries of the skin constrict, limiting the blood reaching the skin Skeletal muscle may also begin to contract rapidly, causing shivering --requires a sizable amount of ATP, but a significant portion of this energy is lost as heat In addition to a layer of white fat just below the skin, brown fat is also present, especially in infants --brown fat has a much less efficient ETC, which means that more heat energy is released as fuel is burned

Differential association theory

In criminology, differential association is a theory proposing that through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior -it has been argued that such deviance is necessary for social order, providing a clear perception of social norms and acceptable boundaries

Define confidence in terms of hypothesis testing

In terms of hypothesis testing, confidence refers to the probability of correctly failing to reject a true null hypothesis

Inclusive fitness

Inclusive fitness is a measure of an organism's success in the population based on number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and the ability of the offspring to then support others -includes more aspects of evolutionary success than number of viable offspring, and seeks to explain the evolutionary benefit of behaviors such as altruism

Inducers

Inducers are commonly growth factors, peptides hormones that promote differentiation and mitosis in certain tissues --most growth factors only function on specific cell types or in certain areas as determined by the competence of the cells --most tissues will be exposed to multiple inducers over the course of development --induction is not always a one-way path, and reciprocal development is known to occur

Induction

Induction is the ability of one group of cells to influence the fate of other, nearby cells --this is mediated by chemical substances called inducers, which diffuse from the organizing cells to the responsive cells

Distinguish between induction and conjugation in terms of their effects on reactivity

Induction refers to the distribution of charge across sigma bonds --differences in electronegativity and dipoles, such as those in anhydrides, are part of the reason they are more electrophilic than esters or amides Conjugation refers to the presence of alternating single and multiple bonds --this makes for stable compounds because they have multiple resonance structures that allows for stabilization of a positive charge once the nucleophile has bonded, making them more susceptible to nucleophilic attack

Mechanics of inhalation

Inhalation is an active process, using our diaphragm as well as the external intercostals to expand the thoracic cavity --as the diaphragm flattens and the chest wall expands outward, the intrathoracic volume increases --this increase of volume lowers the air pressure in the alveoli to below atmospheric pressure, and air rushes in through the respiratory tract and into the alveoli --his is called negative pressure breathing, changing the pressure inside the lungs relative to the pressure of the outside atmosphere

Instinctive drift

Instinctive drift describes the phenomenon that it is more difficult to condition behaviors that go against instinctual animal behaviors

Integrins

Integrins are a group of proteins that all have two membrane-spanning chains called α and β that are important for binding to and communicating with the extracellular matrix --they also play a very important role in cellular signaling and can greatly impact cellular function by promoting cell division, apoptosis, or other processes

Kinetic/thermodynamic control of a reaction

Kinetic products are formed faster than thermodynamic products because the free energy that must be added is lower -thus, these are considered fast products, formed in reactions involving smaller heat transfers Thermodynamic products are associated with greater stability because the free energy of the products produced is much lower than those formed under kinetic control Torsional/angle/nonbonded strain contribute to stability as well

What is the most important controller of glucagon secretion?

Low plasma glucose is the most important physiological promoter of glucagon secretion --amino acids, especially basic amino acids promote secretion as well --thus, glucagon is secreted in response to the ingestion of a meal rich in protein

Low-ball technique

Low-ball technique is a persuasion technique in which an item or service is offered at a lower price than is actually intended to be charged, after which the price is raised -if a person is already enjoying the prospect of the item or idea, then backing out would create cognitive dissonance

Pattern-recognition receptors

Macrophages and dendritic cells have special receptors known as pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs), which are able to recognize the category of the invader, allowing for the production of appropriate cytokines --the best-described PRRs are toll-like receptors (TLRs)

Distinguish between manifest and latent functions

Manifest functions are those intended to help some part of a system -these sometimes have unintended positive consequences as well, which are known as latent functions -recall what a function is in the context of sociology

Measures of central tendency

Measures of central tendency are those that describe the middle of a sample --mean, median values are examples

Mechanical advantage

Mechanical advantage is the ratio of magnitudes of the force exerted on an object BY a simple machine to the force applied ON the simple machine -it is the force accomplished by using a tool, including simple machines like wedges, wheel and axles, levers, and pulleys

What are the empirical and molecular formulas of a compound that contains 40.9% carbon, 4.58% hydrogen, and 54.52% oxygen with a molar mass of 264 g/mol -TWO METHODS TO SOLVE THAT YOU NEED TO KNOW

Method 1: -divide each atom's percent composition by its molar mass -divide each of the resulting numbers by the smallest number found -the empirical formula can be found from these by using the lowest common multiple that leaves each as a whole number -the molecular formula can be found from the empirical formula and the molar mass Method 2: -for each atom, multiply their percent composition by the molecule's molar mass and divide by the atom's molar mass -this will give the molecular formula, from which the empirical formula can be found

X-ray diffraction

Method of using diffraction during protein analysis that is often combined with protein crystallography

Method-of-loci technique

Method-of-loci is a mnemonic technique that involves associating an item on a list with a location along a route through a building that has already been memorized. --later, when the person wishes to recall the list, they simply take a mental walk through the building --such associations are part of the encoding aspect of memory formation

Impact of pH on enzyme-catalyzed reactions

Most enzymes depend on pH in order to function properly, not only because pH affects the ionization of the active site, but also because changes in pH can lead to denaturation of the enzyme

Endochondral vs. intramembranous ossification

Most of the long bones of the body are created by hardening of cartilage into bone in a process known as endochondral ossification Other bones are formed through intramembranous ossification, in which undifferentiated embryonic connective tissue (mesenchymal tissue) is transformed into bone -bones of the skull, for example

Glutamate Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Glutamate Polar side chains Nonaromatic Negatively-charged side chains at physiologic pH (protonated structure is glutamic acid) Hydrophilic

Mucosal cells of the stomach -where are they found? -what do they produce?

Mucous cells are found mostly in gastric glands -produce bicarb-rich mucus that protects the muscular wall from the acidic environment

Glycogen --what kind of bonds is it made up of? --what is its main function?

Glycogen is similar to starch except that it has more α-1,6 glycosidic bonds (1 for every 10 glucose molecules, while amylopectin has 1 for every ~25) --such high levels of branching make it more soluble in solution, allowing more glucose to be stored in the body --it also allows enzymes like glycogen phosphorylase to work on many sites within the molecule simultaneously (glycogen phosphorylase cleaves glucose from the nonreducing end and phosphorylates it)

Laminar flow

Often modeled as layers of fluid that flow parallel to each other -layers closest to the wall of the pipe flows more slowly than the more interior layers of fluid

Angular frequency definition and units

Often used to describe simple harmonic motion in things like springs and pendula -measured in radians/sec

Wave sources traveling above the speed of sound

Once an aircraft attains a speed above that of sound, the region of constructive interference changes from one location at the aircraft, to a shockwave cone that is 3D -wave crests meet at this cone (think a wake on water 2D) - the faster the speed above that of sound, the narrower the cone

Posttranslational processing

One essential step for the final synthesis of the protein is proper folding -there is a specialized class of proteins called chaperones whose main function is to assist in the protein-folding process -in peptides with quaternary structure, subunits come together to form the functional protein -many proteins are also modified by cleavage events, such as insulin -other molecules may also be added to the peptide, through processes such as phosphorylation, carboxylation, glycosylation, and prenylation

Perpendicular bisector of a dipole

One very important equipotential line is that which lies halfway between +q and -q in a dipole (imagine as the charges being the 'half's in the picture) -because the angle between this place and the dipole axis is 90°, the electric potential along this plane is 0 (cos90 = 0) -we are often asked to calculate the magnitude of the electric field on a point along this bisector

Rules for open pipes (3)

Open pipes support antinodes at both ends -rules are similar to those of strings -the first harmonic (n=1) is known as the fundamental frequency -the second harmonic (n=2) is known as the first overtone, which continues according to this pattern 1. the distance between antinodes is always half of a wavelength 2. the number of nodes will always be equal to the harmonic 3. there will always be one more antinode than node

Psychosexual development stages and time period

Oral -0-1 year Anal -1-3 years Phallic -3-5 years Latency -until puberty Genital -from puberty until adulthood

Oral stage of Freud's psychosexual development model -which stage is this? -period of development? -associated fixation?

Oral stage - first stage (0-1 years of age) -during this stage, gratification is obtained primarily through putting objects into the mouth -an oral fixation in adulthood would lead to excessive dependency

Paranoid personality disorder

Paranoid personality disorder is characterized by a pervasive mistrust of others and suspicion of their motives -cluster A personality disorder

8 factors that are indicative of groupthink

Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon in which the desire for harmony or conformity within a group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome -illusion of invulnerability, collective rationalization, illusion of morality, excessive stereotyping, pressure to conform, self-censorship, illusion of unanimity, mindguards

Redox titrations

Have a known quantity of colorless solution, but want to know the concentration of Fe²⁺ ions in the solution --add purple 0.02M KMnO₄, which proceeds according to the following balanced redox reaction MnO₄⁻ + 5Fe²⁺ + 8H⁺ --> Mn²⁺ + 5Fe³⁺ + 4H₂O After a certain amount of MnO₄⁻, a faint purple color appears in the solution, indicating the endpoint of the titration because all of the Fe²⁺ has reacted and we are left with only purple Mn We determine that we have used 20ml of KMnO₄: 0.020Lx0.020M = 0.00004moles 00004moles x 5moleFe/1moleMnO₄ = 0.002molesFe present originally

Helper T-cell function

Helper T-cells (also called CD4⁺ T-cells) coordinate the immune response by secreting chemicals known as lymphokines --these molecules are capable of recruiting other immune cells such as plasma cells, cytotoxic t cells, and macrophages)] --CD4⁺ T-cells respond to antigens presented on MHC-II molecules, making them most effective against exogenous antigens like bacterial, fungal and parasitic infections

Describe the hematocrit reading in the CBC

Hematocrit is a measurement of how much of the blood sample consists of red blood cells --RBC volume/total volume

Hematopoiesis

Hematopoiesis refers to the production of blood cells and platelets --erythropoietin is secreted by the kidneys and stimulates RBC development --thrombopoietin is secreted by the liver and kidneys and stimulates platelet development in megakaryocytes

Hemiketal formation in sugars

Hemiketals are the result of intermolecular reactions in ketoses --in this process, the carbonyl carbon becomes a chiral anomeric carbon with two possible products (α or β) Results in an anomeric carbon attached to: -OR -OH -R -R

Hemoglobin and oxygen binding

Hemoglobin is a protein composed of four cooperative subunits, each of which has a prosthetic heme group that binds to an oxygen molecule --the binding of oxygen occurs at the heme group's central iron atom, representing a redox reaction --note that some oxygen diffusing into blood from the lungs dissolves in plasma, but this amount is negligible compared to the amount bound to heme --oxygen saturation is the percentage of hemoglobin molecules carrying oxygen

Describe secondary appraisal

If primary appraisal identifies a threat, secondary appraisal is used to evaluate whether the organism can cope with the stress -involves the evaluation of harm, threat and challenge (the potential to overcome and possibly benefit from the event) -evaluation of resources and options for coping

Bicarbonate buffer system and the kidneys

If the blood pH is too low (high H⁺), increasing the respiratory rate blows off more CO₂ and favors the conversion of H⁺ and HCO₃⁻ to water and CO₂ --the kidneys can also selectively excrete more H⁺ and reabsorb more HCO₃⁻ If the blood pH is too high (low H⁺), then decreasing the respiratory rate allows for buildup of CO₂, with the opposite effect --the kidneys can also selectively reabsorb more H⁺ and excrete more HCO₃⁻

How do we determine causality between the independent and dependent variables?

If the change in the independent variable (the variable being manipulated) always precedes the change in the dependent variable, (the variable being observed) and the change in the dependent variable does not occur in the absence of the experimental intervention, the relationship is said to be causal

What is the significance of mean and median values that are either close together or far apart?

If the mean and median are far from each other, this implies the presence of outliers or a skewed distribution --if the mean and median are very close, this implies a symmetrical distribution

What is true of two objects placed in a fluid that displace the same volume of that fluid?

If two objects placed in a fluid displace the same volume of fluid, they will experience the same buoyant force even if the objects have different masses

Convert between the following units of pressure: atm mmhg Pa torr

Ignore bar/psi

Illness anxiety disorder

Illness anxiety disorder is characterized by being consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition --most patients previously classified under hypochondriasis now fit into this category if they have no symptoms --they are considered to have somatic symptom disorder if they do have symptoms

Movable vs. immovable joints

Immovable joints consists of bones fused together to form sutures, such as those in the skull, while movable joints include hinge, ball-and-socket, and others that permit bones to shift relative to one another

Implicit memory

Implicit (non-declarative) memory is long-term memory in which previous experiences aid the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences --procedural memory

Describe "justice" in terms of research

In a world where all individuals and all questions are ethically the same, the only way to determine the selection of a research question to maintain justice is through random chance --thus, justice in research applies to both the selection of a research topic and the execution of the research (such as seeking a diverse group for a study)

Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes' main function is the breakdown of very long chain fatty acids via β-oxidation --peroxisomes contain hydrogen peroxide, which aids in this purpose --they also participate in the synthesis of phospholipids and contain some of the enzymes involved in the PPP

Phase diagram overview

Phase diagrams are graphs that show the temperature and pressure at which a substance will be thermodynamically stable in a particular phase Phase boundaries are the lines on the diagram, which indicate the temperature and pressure values for the equilibria between phases

Mating system

A mating system describes the organization of a group's sexual behavior -in most animal species, there is one dominant mating system - humans show more flexibility -i.e., monogamy, polygamy, promiscuity

Admiration stereotypes -warmth/competence?

Admiration stereotypes are those in which the group is viewed with pride and other positive feelings -those not in direct competition with the in-group for resources, who hold a high place in society -allies of the in-group

Self-presentation

Also called impression management, self-presentation is the process of displaying oneself to society through culturally-accepted behaviors

Describe Freud's rationalization defense mechanism

According to Freud, rationalization is a defense mechanism the ego uses to justify questionable behaviors in a way that is acceptable to self and society

Calculating electrical potential at some distance from a source charge

Electrical potential is a scalar quantity!

Enamine formation

Enamines are double bonds adjacent to a C-N bond Once formed, an imine (molecule with a nitrogen atom double-bonded to a carbon atom) can undergo tautomerization to form an enamine in a manner analogous to keto-enol tautomerization

Describe the action of endorphins in target tissues

Endorphins are direct hormones released by the anterior pituitary that decrease the perception of pain

Preoperational stage of cognitive development --duration? --characterized by?

Duration: --ages 2-7 (stage 2) Characterized by: --symbolic thinking (ability to pretend and use imagination) --egocentrism (inability to imagine what another person may think or feel) --centration (tendency to focus on one salient aspect of a situation and neglect other, possibly relevant aspects)

Characteristics of REM sleep

During REM sleep: --most muscles are paralyzed --heart rate, breathing and body temperature become unregulated --this is the stage where dreaming is most likely

Metaphase I of meiosis

During metaphase I, homologous pairs (tetrads) align at the metaphase plate --while each chromosome in mitosis is lined up via a kinetochore from each pole, each pair of homologous chromosomes in meiosis is connected via one kinetochore from its respective pole

Prophase I of meiosis

During prophase I, the chromatin condenses into chromosomes, the spindle apparatus forms, and the nucleoli and nuclear membrane disappear --unlike prophase in mitosis, homologous chromosomes then come together at the chiasmata and intertwine in a process called synapsis --crossing over occurs

Enteropeptidase

Enteropeptidase is secreted from the walls of the duodenum and cleaves trypsinogen from the pancreas to trypsin --it also actives procarboxypeptidases A and B to their active forms

What are the codons that every protein starts with, and the three stop codons?

Every protein starts with a methionine, whose codon is AUG The three stop codons are: UAA UGA UAG

Vitamin absorption in the small intestine -fat-soluble vs. water-soluble

Fat-soluble vitamins (DAKE) dissolve directly into chylomicrons to enter the body Water-soluble vitamins (all others) are absorbed along with water, amino acids, and carbohydrates across the endothelial cells of the small intestine

Prosencephalon --area of the brain --subdivisions/associated structures

Forebrain = prosencephalon --divided into the telencephalon + diencephalon during embryonic development --remember the structures associated with these?

Do carboxylic acids or anhydrides have higher boiling points?

Anhydrides usually have higher boiling points than their related carboxylic acids, based solely on their much greater weight

Genetic compatibility mechanism of mate choice

Genetic compatibility is the creation of mate pairs that have complementary genetics, reducing the frequency of recessive disorders in the population -attraction to others who have starkly different genetic makeups reduces the probability of offspring being homozygotic for a disease-carrying allele

Histrionic personality disorder

Histrionic personality disorder is characterized by constant attention-seeking behavior -dramatic, exceptionally extroverted and use of seductive behavior to gain attention -cluster B personality disorder

Implicit personality theory

Implicit personality theory states that there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits and their behavior are related -making assumptions about people based on the category they are placed is known as stereotyping

In eukaryotes, mRNA is ___________, while in prokaryotes, it is _____________

In eukaryotes, mRNA is monocistronic -each mRNA molecule translates into only one protein product In prokaryotes, mRNA may be polycistronic -starting translation at different locations in the mRNA can result in different proteins

Metaphase of mitosis

In metaphase, the centriole pairs are now at opposite ends of the cell --the kinetochore fibers of the spindle apparatus align the chromosomes at the metaphase plate, which is equidistant between the two poles of the cell --remember that centrioles are made of microtubules

What proteins are used to remove RNA primers in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, respectively?

In prokaryotes, DNA polymerase I removes the RNA primer, while in eukaryotes, this is performed by RNAse H -these are also called 5'-3' exonucleases

Bundles of axons in the PNS

In the PNS, multiple neurons may be bundled together to form a nerve --these nerves may be sensory, motor or mixed --the cell bodies of neurons of the same type are clustered together into ganglia

What is used to remove protecting groups once their purpose has been served?

Protecting groups can be removed by aqueous acid

Pyruvate is activated by what glycolytic intermediate via feed-forward mechanism?

Pyruvate is activated by fructose-1,6-bisphosphate via a feed-forward activation

Distinguish between in-groups and out-groups

In-groups are those to which an individual belongs, while out-groups are those an individual competes with or is in opposition to

Distinguish between determinate and indeterminate cleavage

Indeterminate cleavage results in cells that can still develop into complete organisms, while determinate cleavage results in cells that terminally differentiated --monozygotic twins have identical genomes because they originate from indeterminately cleaved cells of the same embryo

Describe informational support

Informational support refers to providing information that will help someone -discussing potential treatment options with a patient

Ingratiation as an impression management strategy

Ingratiation involves the use of flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over -complimenting a friend before asking for a favor

Insertion mutations

Insertion mutations are a type of chromosomal mutation that occur when a segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another --small insertion mutations are considered frameshift mutations

Distinguish between association and projections areas of the brain

Association areas of the brain integrates input from diverse brain regions, while projections areas perform more rudimentary perceptual or motor tasks --the prefrontal cortex is an example of an association area --motor cortex, which sends out motor commands to muscles, is an example of a projection area

Define associative learning and list the two types to know

Associative learning is the creation of a pairing (association) either between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response --the two types of associative learning are classical and operant conditioning

Kirchhoff's junction rule

At any junction in a circuit, the sum of currents directed into that point equals the sum of currents directed away from that point --conservation of electrical charge

Deviation in real gases due to pressure (2)

At moderately high pressures, a gases volume is less than would be predicted by the ideal gas law due to intermolecular attraction At extremely high pressures, the size of the particles becomes large relative to the distance between them, causing them to take up a larger volume than would be predicted by the ideal gas law

Explain the two extremes on the continuum of processing persuasive information according to the elaboration likelihood model

At one extreme are those who elaborate extensively, referred to as central route processing, while at the other extreme are those who focus on superficial details, known as peripheral route processing -most individuals fall in the middle of this continuum, and the degree to which we elaborate on information can vary depending on the specific situation

Describe "beneficence" in terms of research

It must be our intent to cause a net positive change for both the study and general populations, and we must do our best to minimize any potential harms

Long-term memory

Long-term memory allows information to be stored for long periods of time through processes such as elaborative rehearsal --can be subdivided into implicit and explicit memory

Longitudinal waves

Longitudinal waves are those in which the particles of the wave oscillate parallel to the direction of propagation through compression and rarefaction -sound waves

What is atomic weight?

Atomic weight is the weighted average of the masses of an elements isotopes and is reported on the periodic table

Automatic vs controlled processing

Automatic processing occurs without effort while controlled processing involves actively working to gain information --both are part of the encoding aspect of memory

Anxious-avoidant attachment -reaction to caregiver's departure and return -reaction to strangers

Avoidant attachment results when the caregiver has little to no response to a distressed child The child with avoid or ignore the caregiver — showing little emotion when the caregiver departs or returns Given the choice, the child will show no preference between stranger and caregiver

Describe avolition

Avolition is marked by decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions -one of the possible negative symptoms of psychotic disorders including schizophrenia

Mass hysteria

Mass hysteria refers to collective delusions of threats to society that spread rapidly through rumors and fear -Salem witch trials

Recognition-primed decision model

Matching patterns through retrieving a wide variety of information obtained through extensive experience that can be used consciously or not when making a decision --may contribute to the notion of intuition

Mate bias

Mate bias refers to how choosy members of a species are when picking a mate -selecting a mate may carry direct or indirect benefits

Culture lag

Material culture (technology) changes faster than symbolic (beliefs, values) -we can clone humans, but we feel it's unethical to do so

Modeling

Modeling refers to the phenomenon that people learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them --this is an important factor in observational behavior and in determining an individual's behavior throughout his or her lifetime

Molar solubility

Molar solubility is the molarity of a solute in a saturated solution at a given temperature -i.e., a solution at equilibrium

Monoamine theory of depression

Monoamine theory of depression holds that too much norepinephrine and serotonin at the synapse lead to mania, while too little leads to depression -know that research has shown that it is not this simple

Morphology

Morphology is the second component of language that deals with the structure of words --for instance, many words are composed of multiple building blocks (morphemes), including prefixes, root words, and suffixes

Mortality rate definition and trends

Mortality rates refer to the number of deaths in a population per unit time (usually deaths per 1000 people per year) --decreased mortality rates in the US is one contributor to the increase in the average age of the population

B-cell activation

Naive B-cells (those that are mature but not yet exposed to antigen) wait in the lymph nodes for a particular antigen to come along --upon exposure to the correct antigen, the B-cell will proliferate and produce plasma cells that produce large amounts of antibody, and memory B-cells that stay in the lymph node, awaiting re-exposure

Hypothalamus interaction with the posterior pituitary

Neurons in the hypothalamus send axons down the pituitary stalk directly on the posterior pituitary, which stimulates release oxytocin and ADH that are produced in the hypothalamus

Oedipal conflict

Notion developed by Freud that the male child envies his father's intimate relationship with his mother and fears castration at his father's hands -occurs during the phallic stage of psychosexual development, around the ages of 3-5 years

Of the three measures of central tendency, which is least likely to be affected by outliers?

Of the mean, median and mode, the mode is least likely to be affected by outliers because these are unlikely to change the most common number in the data set

Of the three kinds of nerve cells in the nervous system, which type is most abundant?

Of the three types of nerve cells, interneurons, those found between other neurons, are the most numerous (the others are motor and sensory)

Ohm's law

Ohm's law helps explain voltage drops between any two points in a circuit

Olfactory pathway

Olfactory chemoreceptions in the olfactory epithelium --> olfactory bulb --> olfactory tract

Oligodendrocytes/schwann cells -location -function

Oligodendrocytes produce myelin in the CNS, while Schwann cells produce myelin in the PNS

Instantaneous acceleration

On a velocity vs time graph, the slope of the graph at any particular moment indicates average acceleration -if the slope is positive, the acceleration is in the direction of velocity - if the slope is negative, this is deceleration, acceleration in the direction opposite that of velocity -this should be contrasted with average acceleration, given by ∆v/∆t

Gastrulation

Once the cell mass implants, it can begin gastrulation, the formation of three distinct cell layers --note the labels in the picture

Phenotypic benefits mechanism of mate choice

Phenotypic benefits are observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive to the opposite sex

Chromosomal mutations -5 types

Chromosomal mutations are larger-scale mutations than those such as silent or missense mutations -include deletion, duplication, inversion, insertion, and translocation

Circular polarization

Circularly polarized light has a uniform amplitude but continuously changing direction, which causes a helical orientation in the propagating wave --like other waves, the helix has average electric and magnetic field vectors that are perpendicular

Dependent personality disorder

Dependent personality disorder is characterized by a continuous need for reassurance and rely on one specific person such as a parent or significant other to take actions and make decisions -cluster C personality disorder

Elaborative rehearsal

Elaborative rehearsal is a means of creating long-term memories through association of new information to knowledge already stored there --those ideas that we are able to relate to our own lives are more likely to find their way into our long-term memory

Describe the structure and function of elastin

Elastin is an important component of the extracellular matrix of connective tissue --its primary role is to stretch and then recoil like a spring, which restores the original shape of the tissue

Electric dipole overview

Electric dipoles result from two equal and opposite charges being separated by a small distance, and can be either transient or permanent -most often, we are asked to calculate the electrical potential at some point P near the dipole

How to distinguish between linear, semilog and log-log graphs?

Distinguish between these three by the spacing 1. Linear (linear, parabolic, exponential, logarithmic) --traditional unit spacing for both axes 2. Semi log --one axis maintains the traditional unit spacing while the other assigns spacing based on a ratio 3. Log-log graphs --both axes use a constant ratio

Rules for convex (diverging) mirror ray diagrams

Diverging mirrors produce only virtual, upright, reduced images regardless of the position of the object --the further the object from the mirror, the smaller the virtual image

What is a reference group?

Reference groups are those that establish the terms by which individuals evaluate themselves --to determine how strong of a medical school applicant you are, you may consider yourself in relation to the reference group of all medical school applicants

Reference group

Reference groups describe the phenomena of self-concept depending on whom we are comparing ourselves to -only 11 percent of physicians considered themselves rich because they live in higher socioeconomic areas and their responses are biased by comparison to those around them -self-concept is an important part of identity

Nernst equation electrochemistry

Remember that Q, for a reaction: aA + bB --> cC + dD is given by Q = ([C]^c)([D]^d)/([A]^a)([B]^b) (only species in solutions are included!)

List the five chemicals needed in addition to the enzyme to run the pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction

The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex can be used to form acetyl-CoA for entry into the citric acid cycle through an irreversible reaction involving CoA-SH and NAD⁺, thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), lipoic acid, and FAD --PDH is activated in the liver by insulin except in the brain where it does not respond to hormones

How are range values calculated and when are they most useful?

The range of a data set is the difference between its largest and smallest values --range value are heavily affected by outliers because they do not consider the number of items of the data set, nor the placement of any measures of central tendency

Rate-limiting step of glycogenolysis

The rate-limiting enzyme of glycogenolysis is glycogen phosphorylase, which breaks α-1,4 glycosidic bonds, releasing glucose-1-P from the periphery of the granule --it cannot break α-1,6 bonds! --glycogen phosphorylase is activated by glucagon in the liver, and AMP/epinephrine in skeletal muscle --inhibited by ATP

Reaction quotient

The reaction quotient (Q) is the measurement of concentrations of reactants and products at any point during the reaction -Q is then compared to Keq as shown

Representativeness heuristic

The representativeness heuristic is used when making judgments about the probability of an event under uncertainty, involving assessing similarity of objects and organizing them based around the category --when deciding whether or not a person is a criminal, for example --an individual thing has a high representativeness for a category if it is very similar to a prototype of that category

Describe the resistance stage of general adaptation syndrome

The resistance stage is the second of general adaptation syndrome, which allows for the continuous release of hormones that allows the SNS to remain engaged against the stressor

Tertiary structure of proteins

Tertiary structures are mostly determined by hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions between R groups of amino acids -hydrophobic interactions in the interior, and hydrophilic interactions on the exterior are the result of entropy (more h-bonding increases entropy (+ΔS), making solvation spontaneous)

Transduction

Transduction is the only genetic recombination process that requires a vector - a virus that carries genetic material from one bacterium to another --bacteriophages can accidentally trap a segment of host DNA during assembly that it transfers upon infecting another bacterium --this transferred DNA can then integrate into the genome, giving the new host additional genes

Prejudice

Prejudice is defined as an irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group or thing prior to an actual experience with that entity --prejudice can form in response to dissimilarities among groups, races, ethnicities or even environments

Propaganda and its role in prejudice

Propaganda is a common way by which large organizations and political groups attempt to create prejudices in others through invoking fear and other emotions

Zeroth law of thermodynamics and calorimetry

Recall that heat is a process function because we can quantify how much thermal energy is transferred between two or more objects as a result of their difference in temperatures by measuring the heat transferred -the process of measuring transferred heat is called calorimetry

RNA polymerase and polarity

Recall that mRNA is identical to the coding/sense strand of DNA -synthesized from the non-coding/template/antisense strand in the 5' --> 3' direction

Isoelectric focusing and A+

Recall that the pI is the pH at which the protein/amino acid is electrically neutral --for polypeptides, the pI is determined primarily by the relative numbers of acidic and basic amino acids In isoelectric focusing, the mixture of proteins is placed in a gel with a pH gradient (acidic gel at the positive anode, and basic gel at the negative cathode, and neutral in the middle) --an electric field is generated across the gel, causing positively-charged proteins to migrate toward the cathode and negatively-charged proteins toward the anode A+ --> Anode has H+ rich gel and is positively-charged

Impression management

Refers to our attempts to influence how others perceive us through the regulation of information in social interactions -includes self-disclosure, managing appearances, ingratiation, aligning actions, and alter-casting

Distinguish between primary and secondary reinforcers

Reinforcers use classical conditioning to reinforce behavior --primary reinforcers generate a reflexive positive reinforcement, while secondary reinforcers do not generate a reflexive response, but a conditioned one when paired with the primary reinforcer

Three rules for drawing ray diagrams for convex mirrors

Remember that for convex mirrors, the center of curvature (C) and the focal point (F) lie behind the mirror 1. Rays traveling parallel to the axis before striking the mirror reflect in such a manner that its extension will pass through the focal point 2. Rays striking the convex mirror such that its extension will pass through the focal point reflect parallel to the principal axis 3. Rays striking the convex mirror such that its extension will pass through the center of curvature reflect back along the same path

Amount of work needed to move a charge between two points on the same equipotential line and between two different equipotential lines

Remember that in terms of electrostatics, work is equal to the potential difference multiplied by the magnitude of the test charge that is being moved between those two points --within an equipotential line, no work is needed --between equipotential lines, the amount of work needed is proportional to the potential difference between them and the magnitude of the test charge, but independent of path

Molecular dipole moments

Remember that molecules with polar bonds can either be polar or nonpolar, while those only nonpolar bonds must be nonpolar

Note about spirometry

Remember that spirometry cannot measure the amount of air remaining in the lungs after full expiration (residual volume) --also recall that the RV makes up part of the equation for TLC (VC+RV) --therefore, this number must be deduced using other values

Lagging strand synthesis

Remember that the two separated parental strands of the helix are also antiparallel to one another -while the leading strand if of the correct polarity for the polymerase, the lagging strand has a 5' --> 3' polarity --because DNA polymerase can only synthesize from a 3' --> 5' template, small strands called Okazaki fragments are produced --as the replication fork continues to move forward, it clears additional space that DNA polymerase must fill in

Electric potential at some point P near an electrical dipole

Remember the equation for the dipole moment (p) = qd, which may sometimes be used this equation

Resocialization

Resocialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior patterns and reflexes, accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life -can have a positive connotation (army training), or a negative one (indoctrination into a cult)

Describe "respect for persons" in terms of research

Respect for persons includes the need for honesty between subject and researcher, which usually prohibits deception and includes the process of informed consent and a commitment to autonomy

Keto-enol tautomerization

Results from an enolate carbanion formed as the result of deprotonation of the α-carbon by a strong base -keto tautomer much more stable (~99.99% in solution compared with 0.001% of enol form -Strong bases include: Lithium diisopropylamide (LDA) Potassium hydride (KH) OH-

Retroviruses --enveloped or non-enveloped? --DNA or RNA virus?

Retroviruses are enveloped, ssRNA viruses that usually contain two identical RNA molecules --these carry a reverse transcriptase which synthesizes DNA from ssRNA, which then integrates into the host cell genome

Rhombencephalon --area of the brain --subdivisions/associated structures

Rhombencephalon is also known as the hindbrain --divided into the metencephalon and myencephalon during embryonic development --remember the structures associated with these?

Write out the pathway of blood through circulation, including valves

Right atrium --> tricuspid valve --> right ventricle --> pulmonary valve --> pulmonary artery --> lungs --> pulmonary veins --> left atrium --> mitral (bicuspid) valve --> left ventricle --> aortic valve ---> aorta --> arteries --> arterioles --> capillaries --> venules --> veins --> vena cava --> right atrium

Path of light after striking the retina

Rods and cones connect with bipolar cells --amacrine and horizontal cells receive input from multiple retinal cells in the same area before passing the information on to ganglion cells --they can thereby accentuate slight differences between the visual information in each bipolar cell Bipolar cells are also found in the nasal cavity and inner ear, and relay sensory information related to vision, olfaction, audition and vestibular sense

Describe unconditional positive regard and to whom it is attributed

Rogers' concept of unconditional positive regard allowed therapists to accept the client completely and express empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment -the counselor helps a client to become aware of his or her true inner self, the true personality of feelings and self-concept - then the client must come to accept his or her true feelings and personality and to embrace the inner self - the client should then be ready to take the necessary steps to fulfill his or her inner needs and to bring the world of experience into line with the inner self-concept -from the humanist school of personality

What is role strain?

Role strain refers to the difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of a particular role

List the possible symptoms of a major depressive episode using the mnemonic

SIG ME CAPS Sleep disturbances Interest lost in formerly enjoyable activities (anhedonia) Guilt excess/worthlessness Mood depressed/irritability Energy decrease/fatigue Concentration difficulties Appetite/weight disturbances Psychomotor symptoms Suicidal thoughts

SN₁ Reactions One step or two? Are they first order or second order? Rate - limiting step? Product? What needs to be true for this to proceed?

SN1 Reactions Two steps: --leaving group leaves, generating carbocation --nucleophile then attacks the carbocation First-order reaction: --formation of carbocation is the rate-limiting step --thus, anything that accelerates the formation of the carbocation will increase the rate of an SN₁ reaction Product: Racemic mixture because the incoming nucleophile can attack from either side Conditions: --The more substituted the carbocation, the more stable it is and the more likely the reaction is to occur

Saponification

Saponification occurs by mixing fatty acids with lye (NaOH/KOH), resulting in the formation of a salt that we know as soap --when placed in aqueous solution, soap molecules arrange themselves into spherical structures called micelles

Double crossovers -3 scenarios

Scenario 1: results in no genetic recombination. The chromatids involved in this double crossover exchange alleles at first, but then it exchanges them back, resulting in no net recombination. Results in 0/4 recombinants -also called the 2-strand double crossover Scenario 2: results in genetic recombination. The chromatids exchange alleles during a crossover. Then, one of the crossover chromatid exchanges with a different chromatid. Results in 2/4 recombinants. -also called the 3-strand double crossover Scenario 3: results in genetic recombination. The chromatids exchange, then 2 totally different chromatids on the same chromosome exchange. Results in 4/4 recombinants. -also called the 4-strand double crossover

Schizoid personality disorder

Schizoid personality disorder is characterized by a pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression -cluster A personality disorder

Schizotypal personality disorder

Schizotypal personality disorder is characterized by odd or eccentric thinking, including magical thinking and ideas of reference (less intense delusions of reference) -cluster A personality disorder

What is seasonal affective disorder and how is it treated?

Seasonal affective disorder is best categorized as major depressive disorder with seasonal onset, though it is not a freestanding diagnosis in the DSM-V --treated using bright light therapy

Second sickness

Second sickness refers to an exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice -low-income groups are more likely to have poorer health, be uninsured, and die younger than middle or upper-class adults -poverty, in combination with a culture of inequality, leads to worse health outcomes, and this effect runs across gender, age, racial and ethnic boundaries

Define a secondary group

Secondary groups involve superficial interactions that last a short period of time with few emotion bonds -students working together on a project, or doing the SMP

Secretin

Secretin is a peptide hormone secreted in the duodenum in response to increased acidity in the tract (such as when chyme enters from the stomach) --stimulates release of pancreatic enzymes into the duodenum --regulates the pH of the digestive tract through reducing HCl secretion from parietal cells in the stomach and increasing bicarb secretion from the pancreas --slows motility in the digestive tract to allow digestive enzymes to act on chyme

Selective attention

Selective attention allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background --only when the other stimuli are particularly important, such as when overhearing someone talking about you while in conversation with someone else, do we shift our attention to them

Self-determination theory of motivation

Self-determination theory emphasizes the role of three universal needs that that are essential for psychological health and well-being of an individual -autonomy, competence and feeling accepted

Self-disclosure as an impression management strategy

Self-disclosure is the giving of information in order to establish an identity -disclosing that you are a medical student

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is the extent or strength of one's belief in one's own ability to complete tasks and reach goals

Self-esteem

Self-esteem is the degree to which the three selves posited in the self-discrepancy theory are similar to one another

Senesence

Senescence, or biological aging , occurs as changes in molecular and cellular structure accumulate --at the cellular level, this results in the failure of cells to divide normally after approximately 50 divisions, thought to be result of shortened telomeres, high G-C regions that prevent the loss of genetic information at the ends of chromosomes --some cells express telomerase, a reverse transcriptase that is able to synthesize the ends of chromosomes, preventing senescence --germ, fetal and tumor cells

Distinguish between sensation and perception

Sensation refers to the conversion of physical, electromagnetic, auditory and other information from internal and external environments to electrical signals in the nervous system, while perception refers to the processing of this information to make sense of its significance -threshold is the minimum amount of a stimulus that renders a difference in perception

Short-term memory

Short-term memory allows for storage of certain aspects of sensory memory that we focus on for around 30 seconds without rehearsal --the capacity of short-term memory can be increased by clustering information, and duration can be extended using maintenance rehearsal

Signal detection theory

Signal detection theory postulates that our perception of the same stimuli will change depending on both internal (psychological) and external (environment) context --for example, you are more likely to get someone's attention by yelling their name rather than something less specific at the same intensity of stimulus

Electrolytic conductivity

Similar to metallic conductivity, but remember that electrolytic conductivity depends on the strength of the solution --distilled, deionized water has such a low ion concentration that it may be considered an insulator, while sea water is an excellent conductor

Differentiate between simple, stratified and pseudostratified epithelia

Simple epithelia is one layer of cells, while stratified epithelia have multiple layers --pseudostratified epithelia appear to have multiple layers due to differences in cell height, but in reality consist only of one layer (note also that squamous cells are flat and scalelike, while cuboidal and columnar are as described.

Binary fission

Simple form of asexual production in prokaryotes --the circular chromosome attaches to the cell wall and replicates while the cell continues to grow in size --eventually, the plasma membrane and cell wall begin to grow inward along the midline of the cell to produce two identical daughter cells --requires fewer events than mitosis and is therefore much faster -- some strains of bacteria can replicate every twenty minutes

Bradford protein assay

Simplest and most reliable means of determining protein concentration in sample The Bradford protein assay mixes a protein in solution with CBBG dye that is deprotonated by the protein and gives up protons to the ionizable groups in the protein, turning blue --non-covalent attractions between the deprotonated dye and the protein then stabilize this blue form of the dye --thus, increased protein concentrations correspond to a larger concentration of blue dye in solution This is a very accurate method when only one type of protein is present in solution - less accurate when more than one protein is present

What are the four strategic alternatives for socially-influenced competitors and the mnemonic to remember?

Social influences apply in nature and can result in the following four possible alternatives for competitors when dealing with strategic interaction: CASS Altruism-donor provides a benefit to the recipient at a cost to himself Cooperation-both the donor and recipient benefit by cooperating Spite-both the donor and the recipient are negatively impacted Selfishness-the donor benefits while the recipient is negatively impacted

Solidification phase change -when does it occur?

Solidification is another name for freezing and occurs at the melting point

When do we use standard conditions and what are they?

Standard conditions allow state functions for different reactions to be compared under the same conditions and are used kinetics, equilibrium and thermodynamics problems --25°C (298K), 1 atm, 1M concentrations --state functions describing a reaction taking place under standard conditions are denoted with ° (∆H°, ∆G°, ∆S°, etc)

How is standard deviation calculated?

Standard deviation is calculated using the following steps: 1. Add up how far each data point is from the mean and square each value 2. Add the resulting values together 3. Divide this by the number of data points minus one 4. Take the square root of this value

Standard reduction potential (E°red)

Standard reduction potentials are measured under standard conditions --298K, 1 atm, 1M concentrations --a more positive E°red means a greater relative frequency for reduction to occur

Distinguish between state and process functions

State functions describe a system in equilibrium -remember TV PHUGED State functions should be contrasted with process functions, which describe the pathway taken from one equilibrium state to another -work and heat are the most important process functions

Drive reduction theory of motivation

The drive reduction theory of motivation posits internal states of tension that help ensure motivation to eliminate this state created by unmet needs --includes primary (food, water and sex, and homeostasis) and secondary (motivation to go to medical school) drives

Molecular geometry for molecules with 4 regions of electron density as follows: -4 atoms bonded to the central atom with 0 lone pairs

Tetrahedral

Describe Lewin's force field theory and its relation to the humanistic perspective of personality

The force field theory defines one's current state of mind according to the sum of the forces or influences on the individual at that time -those assisting one's self-realization and those blocking it

Rotational equilibrium

Rotational equilibrium exists only when the vector sum of all the torques acting on an object is zero -torques that generate clockwise rotation are considered negative, while those that generate counterclockwise rotation are positive -thus, in rotational equilibrium, all of the positive torques must cancel out the negative ones

Selectins

Selectins bind carbohydrate molecules that project from other cell surfaces --expressed on WBCs and the endothelial cells that line BVs and play an important role in host defense through facilitating inflammation and white blood cell migration

Spinal cord overview

Sensory neurons bring information from the periphery and enter on the dorsal (back) side of the spinal cord --the cell bodies of these sensory neurons are found in the dorsal root ganglia Motor neurons exit the spinal cord ventrally

Serial positioning effect

Serial positioning effect describes the tendency to remember early and late items in a list --described by primacy and recency effects, respectively

Serine Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Serine Polar side chain Neutral side chain at physiologic pH Nonaromatic Hydrophilic

Serotonin functions in the body

Serotonin is thought to aid in the regulation of mood, eating, sleeping and dreaming --like norepinephrine, low levels of serotonin are thought to produce depression, while high levels produce mania

Distinguish between sex and gender

Sex is biologically determined (XX vs. XY), while gender relates to a set of behavioral, cultural or psychological traits

Define sexual orientation and the three categories it is generally divided into

Sexual orientation can be defined as the direction of one's sexual interest towards members of the same, opposite, or both sexes

What type of cells is responsible for each visual processing component? Shape Color Motion

Shape --parvocellular cells --high spatial resolution but low temporal resolution --detect color as well Motion --magnocellular --low spatial resolution but high temporal resolution

Shaping

Shaping is the process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors --if you wanted to train a bird to spin around in place and then peck a key, you might give the bird a treat for turning slightly, then 180 degrees....etc

Distinguish between solute and solvent

Solute is the part of the solution that is dissolved in the solvent, remains in the same phase after mixing -if the two substances are already in the same phase, the solvent is the component present in greater quantity

Specific gravity

Specific gravity is the comparison of a fluid's density to that of water at 1atm and 4°C -recall that the density of water = 1g/cm³ = 1000kg/m³ = 1000g/L *Any object with a specific gravity <1 will float, >1 will sink*

Define specific heat

Specific heat (c) is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree celsius -heat capacity of a substance= cm

Name the three modes of natural selection

Stabilizing, directional and disruptive selection

Stages 3+4 of sleep

Stage 3+4 of the sleep cycle is characterized by delta waves on EEG --activity grows progressively slower, giving rise to the characterization of these two stages as slow-wave sleep

Lock-and-key theory

Suggests that the enzyme's active site is already in the appropriate conformation for the substrate to bind, with no alteration of the tertiary or quaternary structure being necessary upon binding of the substrate

Write out the molecular formulas for the following: Sulfide Nitride Phosphide

Sulfide --> S²⁻ Nitride --> N³⁻ Phosphide --> P³⁻

Affective component of attitude

The affective component of attitudes refer to your feelings or emotions linked to an object --(snakes scare me, I love my family)

Specific rotation

The amount of rotation of plane-polarized light that a molecule causes to rotate is related to the concentration of the molecule and the length of the tube through which the light is passed

Titration of a strong acid in a weak base

The appearance of the titration curve for a weak base titrand and a strong acid titrant will look like an inversion of the curve for the weak acid titrand and strong base titrant --the initial pH will be in the basic range and will demonstrate a fairly steep drop in pH with the addition of strong acid --the equivalence point will be in the acidic pH range because the reaction between the weak base and strong acid will produce a stronger conjugate acid and weaker conjugate base

Peg-word system

The association numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers --part of the encoding aspect of memory formation

Cochlea and frequency

The basilar membrane of the cochlea changes thickness depending on its location --the highest-frequency pitches causes vibrations of the basilar membrane very close to the oval window, whereas low-frequency pitches causes vibrations at the apex, away from the oval window

A band of the sarcomere

The A band contains thick filaments in their entirety, and any overlap with thin filaments -remains constant during contraction

Define the FINER method and list each letter

The FINER method is used to determine whether the answer to one's question will add to the body of scientific knowledge in a practical way, within a reasonable time period Feasible --is the necessary research study feasible? Interesting --do other scientists find this question interesting? Novel --Is the particular question novel? Ethical --Would the study obey ethical principles? Relevant --Is the question relevant outside of the scientific community?

Distinguish between transmission and diffusion of culture

Transmission = vertical = passing culture down from generation to generation Diffusion = horizontal = spreading culture to other places -westernization of the world

Verbal communication

Transmission of information via the use of words, whether spoken, written or signed -often dependent on nonverbal cues for the receiver to understand the sender's full meaning

Describe the anima/animus archetypes espoused by Jung's theory of psychoanalytic personality

The anima and animus can be identified as the totality of the unconscious feminine psychological qualities that a man possesses or the masculine ones possessed by a woman, respectively

How does one form acetals from hemiacetals with regard to carbohydrates?

The anomeric hydroxyl group is transformed into an alkoxy group when reacted with alcohol, yielding a mixture of α- and β-acetals with water as a leaving group

Transposons

Transposons are genetic elements capable of inserting and removing themselves from the genome --if one is inserted within a coding region of a gene, that gene may be disrupted --seen in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Appraisal model of emotional expression

The appraisal model of emotional expression posits that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced -in-keeping with the Darwin's basic model, but asserts that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression

Griffith experiment and the transforming principle

Two strains of S. pneumoniae (a bacteria that causes pneumonia) were identified: virulent and non-virulent strains --Griffith noted that mice injected with both dead virulent and live nonvirulent bacteria died, leading him to theorize that the live, nonvirulent bacteria must have acquired the ability to form smooth capsules from the dead virulent bacteria --this became known as the transforming principle --later experiments confirmed that transformation was the result of DNA and not proteins

Daniel cell

Type of galvanic cells with the following half-reactions according to the picture: Zn(s) --> Zn²⁺(aq) + 2e⁻ (oxidation = anode) --Ecell = -0.762V Cu²⁺(aq) + 2e⁻ --> Cu(s) (reduction = cathode) --Ecell = 0.340V As the spontaneous reaction proceeds toward equilibrium, the movement of electrons results in a conversion of electrical potential energy into kinetic energy, and we are able to harness this energy and use it to do work by connecting various electrical devices into the circuit between the two electrodes --the salt bridge contains an electrolyte like KCl, which permits the exchange of cations and anions but will not react with the electrodes or with the ions in solution

Social construction model and emotion

Unlike Darwin's basic model, the social construction model assumes no biological basis for emotion, asserting that emotions are based on experiences and situational context alone --in this model, one must be familiar with social normals for a certain emotion to perform the corresponding emotional behaviors in a given social situation

Atomic radius periodic trends

The atomic radius of an element decreases as effective nuclear charge increases from left to right across a period, because electrons are held more tightly by an increasing number of protons As one moves down a group, the increasing principal quantum number implies that the valence electrons are further away from the nucleus, increasing the atomic radius

Metabolism in cardiac muscle

Unlike other tissues of the body, cardiac myocytes prefer fatty acids as their major fuel, even in the well-fed state --ketones present during prolonged fasting can be used as well --thus, cardiac myocytes most resemble skeletal muscle during extended exercise --in a failing heart, glucose oxidation increases and β-oxidation falls

Autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system is the part of the PNS that manages involuntary muscles and functions, such as heart rate, pupil dilation and temperature --while motor neurons in the somatic nervous system send one neuron from the spinal cord to the target tissue, in the ANS, two work in series to transmit information from the spinal cord --these are called preganglionic and postganglionic neurons

Availability heuristic

The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision

Distinguish between the axial and appendicular skeleton

The axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column, ribcage and hyoid bone (used for swallowing) and provides the basic central framework for the body The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the limbs, pectoral girdle (scapula/clavicle), and pelvis

Behavioral component of attitude

The behavioral component of attitudes refer to past behaviors or experiences regarding an attitude object or object -based on the idea that people might infer their attitudes from their previous actions -avoiding snakes, spending time with family

Explain the behavioral response associated with emotion

The behavioral response is one of three experiences associated with emotion -includes facial expressions and body language

What makes the best leaving group?

The best leaving groups will be able to stabilize extra electrons gained when they leave --conjugate bases of strong acids like I⁻, Br⁻, Cl⁻ --this can be augmented by resonance and inductive effects from electron-withdrawing groups that help stabilize negative charge

Implantation

The blastula moves through the fallopian tube to the uterus, where it burrows into the endometrium The trophoblast cells are specialized to create an interface between the maternal blood supply and the developing embryo and will give rise to the chorion, an extraembryonic membrane that develops into the placenta --these cells form chorionic villi, which are fingerlike projections into the endometrium to promote maternal-fetal gas exchange

Bystander effect

The bystander effect is a social psychological phenomenon that refers to cases in which individuals do not offer any means of help to a victim when other people are present - the likelihood and timeliness of a response to help victims is inversely related to the number of bystanders, among other factors

How does one calculate the position of the third quartile (Q₃)?

The calculate the position of the third quartile, multiply n by 0.75 --if this is a whole number, take the mean of this number and the next --if it is a decimal, round up to the next whole number and take that as the quartile position

Collecting duct

The collecting duct is the portion of the tubule that responds to ADH as well as aldosterone, and the permeability here largely determine the final concentration of the urine --the collecting duct almost always reabsorb water, but the amount if variable

Water dissociation constant

The concentrations of the hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions are always equal in pure water at equilibrium --unless the temperature is changed, the value of Kw cannot change --In situations of temperature changes, know that autoionization is an endothermic reaction (+heat on the left side)

Description and equation for the critical angle

The critical angle is the incidence angle at which the refracted angle is equal to 90° from normal, and the refracted light ray passes along the interface between the two media

Descending limb of the loop of Henle

The descending limb of the LOH is permeable only to water --as filtrate moves deeper into the medulla, the osmolarity in the interstitium can range from isotonic to blood (when trying to excrete water) to four times as concentrated (when trying to conserve water) --if the concentration is the same in the tubule as in the interstitium (as when hydration is normal) , there is no driving force and the water will be retained in the tubule and lots as urine --this is aided by the countercurrent flow of the vasa recta, allowing for constant exposure of the filtrate to hypertonic blood, allowing maximal reabsorption of water

Differentiation and cell-cell communication

The determination and differentiation of a cell depends on the location of the cell itself as well as the identity of the surrounding cells --surrounding tissues can induce a developing cell to become a particular cell type via inducers --the cell that is induced is called a responder, which must be competent to respond to the inducing signal

Oxygen debt

The difference between the amount of oxygen needed by the muscles and the actual amount present is known as oxygen debt --after the cessation of strenuous exercise, the body must metabolize all of the lactic acid it has produced - most is converted back to pyruvate which can enter the CAC --this process requires oxygen, and the amount of oxygen required to recover from strenuous exercise is equal to the oxygen debt

Vital capacity

The difference between the maximum (TLC) and minimum volume of air (RV) in the lungs --TLC-RV

Distal convoluted tubule

The distal convoluted tubule is the first portion of the nephron that responds to aldosterone --blocking of these channels is the method of action of some diuretics Waste product secretion can occur here as well

Wavelength and frequency definitions for a transverse wave

The distance from one wave maximum to the next is called the wavelength, while the frequency is the number of wavelengths passing a fixed point per second

Describe the exhaustion stage of general adaptation syndrome

The exhaustion stage is the third and final stage of general adaptation syndrome, in which the body can no longer maintain an elevated response with SNS activity -at this point, individuals become more susceptible to illness, organ systems begin to deteriorate, and in extreme cases, death can result

Expectant-value theory of motivation

The expectant-value theory of motivation states that the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of expectation of success as well as the degree to which one values succeeding at the goal

Describe the functional theory of attitudes and list the four functions of attitudes that it posits

The functional view of attitudes suggests that in order for attitudes to change (e.g., via persuasion), appeals must be made to the function(s) that a particular attitude serves for the individual -knowledge, ego-expressive, ego-defensive, and adaptive are all functions that attitudes provide for us

Gate theory of pain

The gate theory of pain posits that the spinal cord is able to preferentially forward the signals from other touch modalities (pressure, temp) to the brain in order to reduce the sensation of pain

Halo effect

The halo effect is a cognitive bias in which judgments about a specific aspect of an individual can be affected by one's overall impression of that individual -this explains why people are often inaccurate when evaluating people that they either believe to be generally good, or those that they believe to be generally bad -attractiveness can also produce the halo effect

Describe the role of the hippocampus in emotion

The hippocampus is associated with explicit memory, which is the memory of experiencing an emotion at an event -remembering you were happy at your high school graduation or sad when you lost a loved one -this is different from implicit memory, the storage of the actual emotion, which occurs in the amygdala

Distinguish between the independent and dependent variables

The independent variable is the one that the experimenter is manipulating, while the dependent variable is the one being observed

4 pillars of the information processing model

The information processing model is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli 1. Thinking requires sensation, encoding and storage of stimuli 2. Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain, rather than responded to automatically, to be useful in decision-making 3. Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems 4. Problem-solving is dependent not only on the person's cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem

Distinguish between the membranous and bony labyrinths

The inner ear sits within a bony labyrinth containing the cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals --these structures are continuous with each other and form the membranous labyrinth The membranous labyrinth is suspended within the bony labyrinth by a thin layer of fluid called the perilymph, which transmits vibrations while also cushioning the inner ear --the membranous labyrinth is filled with endolymph

The _____ side of the prefrontal cortex is associated with positive emotions, while the _____ side of the prefrontal cortex is associated with negative emotions

The left side of the prefrontal cortex is associated with positive emotions, while the right side of the prefrontal cortex is associated with negative emotions

Spacing effect

The longer the amount of time between sessions of re-learning, the greater the retention of information later --spacing out our studying is thus more effective than cramming --aids memory retrieval

Magnetic quantum number (ml)

The magnetic quantum number specifies the particular orbital within a subshell where an electron is located, with possible values between +l --> -l including 0

T-cell maturation is facilitated by the secretion of what hormone?

The maturation of T cells is facilitated by thymosin, a peptide hormone secreted by thymic cells Like B-cells, T-cells are mature upon leaving the thymus, but remain naive until they encounter antigen, when they also undergo clonal selection so that only those with the highest affinity for a given antigen proliferate

Significance of the mesolimbic reward pathway

The mesolimbic reward pathway is normally involved in motivation and emotional responses, and its activation accounts for the positive reinforcement seen in substance use --this addiction pathway is activated by all substances that produce psychological dependence, as well as things like gambling and falling in love

Misinformation effect

The misinformation effect happens when a person's recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate because of post-event information --participants are shown several pictures including one of a car stopped at a yield sign, and after later being presented with written descriptions of the pictures, some of which including a car stopped at a stop sign, they insisted on having seen a stop sign in the picture

The most common type of error in basic science research is _____________

The most common type of error in basic science research is measurement error

Relationship between pH and pKA in terms of amino acids

The pKa of a group is the pH at which, on average, half of the molecules of that species are deprotonated and have protonated --if pH is less than pKa, a majority of the species will be protonated --if pH is higher than pKa, a majority of the species will be deprotonated

Layers of the dermis

The papillary layer is more superficial, and sits adjacent to the stratum basale in the epidermis -consists of loose, connective tissue The reticular layer sits deep to the papillary layer -blood vessels, sweat glands and hair follicles originate here

Depersonalization/derealization disorder

These are characterized either by feelings of detachment from body and mind (depersonalization) or from surroundings (derealization), which can occur together or independently -dissociative disorders

Distinguish between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems in terms of the following: 1. Neurotransmitters used 2. Pre- and postganglionic neurons 3. Functions

The parasympathetic nervous system -long preganglionic, short postganglionic fibers -acetylcholine as its neurotransmitter at both neurons, and is responsible for functions such as pupil and bronchi constriction, sexual arousal, and contracting the bladder The sympathetic nervous system -short preganglionic, long postganglionic fibers -acetylcholine at the preganglionic neuron, epinephrine/norepinephrine at postganglionic neuron --responsible for functions such as sweat stimulation and piloerection, glucose production and release, orgasm and the inhibition of bladder contraction

Describe the structure and function of kinesin and dynein --polarities?

These are motor proteins associated with microtubules --kinesins play a key role in aligning chromosomes during metaphase, and depolymerizing microtubules during anaphase of mitosis --dyneins are involved in the the sliding movement of cilia and flagella Both are also important for vesicle transport in the cell, but have opposite polarities - kinesins bring vesicles toward the positive end (cell periphery), and dyneins bring vesicles toward the negative end (nucleus)

Cognitive process theory of dreaming

Posits that dreams are simply thoughts or sequences of thoughts that occur during sleep-states. Dreams express conceptions of self, family members, friends, and social environment

Describe the two stages of of the postconventional morality phase of Kohlberg's moral reasoning model

Postconventional morality phase Stage 5: social contract -laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts -those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people Stage 6: universal human ethics -laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws

VLDL

VLDL is produced and assembled by liver cells --similar to chylomicrons in many ways, including its main function in the transport of triacylglycerol to other tissues --VLDLs also contain fatty acids that are synthesized from excess glucose or retrieved from chylomicron remnants

Three phases of childbirth

Vaginal childbirth is accomplished by rhythmic contractions of uterine smooth muscle, coordinated by prostaglandins and the peptide hormone oxytocin 1. Cervix thins out and the amniotic sac ruptures 2. Strong uterine smooth muscle contractions 3. Placenta and umbilical cord are expelled (afterbirth)

What are the four types of reinforcement schedules?

Variable-ratio have the fastest response rate and are the most resistant to extinction --hardest to break out of, think gambling Both fixed schedules will see pauses after reward is given, once the animal knows how much it needs to press to get the reward

Veins

Veins are thin-walled, inelastic vessels that allow stretch to accommodate larger quantities of blood --3/4 of our total blood volume may be in venous circulation at any one time Given that the heart is located in the chest, blood flow in most veins is upward from the lower body back to the heart against gravity --since pressures at the bottom of this column can be as high as 200mmHg, veins have valves and use skeletal muscle contraction to push blood toward the heart

Regulation of breathing

Ventilation is regulated primarily by a collection of neurons in the medulla oblongata called the ventilation center --these neurons contain chemoreceptors that are sensitive to carbon dioxide concentration (hypercarbia causes respiratory rate to increase) --these cells also respond to changes in oxygen concentration, though this tends to have significance only during periods of significant hypoxia

Viroids

Viroids are small plant pathogens consisting of very short strands of circular ssRNA that can bind to a large number of RNA sequences and will silence genes in the plant genome, preventing synthesis of necessary proteins and can subsequently cause metabolic and structural derangements in the plant cell --HDV can cause such silencing in human hepatocytes as well, if co-infected with HBV

Equilibrium position of a wave

Waves oscillate about a central point called the equilibrium position -maximum displacement from the equilibrium position is called the amplitude

Electrical potential energy and work

We define electrical potential energy for a charge at a point in space in an electric field as the amount of work necessary to bring the charge from infinitely far away to that point ΔU = W = Fdcosθ = Fr*1 = [kQq/r²][r] = kQq/r --in the equation for work, we define d as the distance r that separates the two charges, and assume the force and displacement vectors to be parallel

Heisenberg uncertainty principle

We now understand that electrons move rapidly and are localized within regions of space around the nucleus called orbitals --according to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, it is impossible to determine both the momentum and position of an electron within an orbital at the same time

Weber's law

Weber's law states that there is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus needed to produce the just-noticeable difference and the magnitude of the original stimulus --thus, if the just-noticeable difference is 3 Hz, and the original stimulus was 440 Hz, then the jnd is more accurately quantified to be (3/440 = 0.68%), and will be higher than 3 Hz for higher-magnitude stimuli

Distinguish between the three types of personality disorders

Weird, Wild, Worried Cluster A personality disorders are all marked by behavior that is labeled as odd or eccentric by others Cluster B personality disorders are all marked by behavior that is labeled as dramatic, erratic or emotional by others Cluster C personality disorders are all marked by behavior that is labeled as anxious or fearful by others

Describe the three subunits of the G protein

When a ligand binds to the GPCR, the receptor becomes activated and engages the corresponding G protein --once GDP is replaced with GTP, the α subunit is able to dissociate from the β and γ subunits and alter the activity of AC --Once GTP on the activated α subunit is dephosphorylated to GDP, the α subunit will rebind to the β and γ subunits, rendering the G protein inactive

Elastic potential energy

When a spring is stretched or compressed from its equilibrium length, the spring has elastic potential energy -k is the spring constant that is intrinsic to a particular spring -x is the magnitude of displacement from equilibrium

Wave sources traveling at the speed of sound

When a wave source travels at the same speed as the wave, all of the wave crests meet at the wave source, producing very strong constructive interference at the source location -in the case of an aircraft, these are high-pressure sound waves

Initial steps in fatty acid oxidation

When fatty acids are metabolized, they first become activated by attachment to CoA, catalyzed by fatty-acyl-CoA synthetase --while short- and medium-chain fatty acids (2-12C) diffuse freely into the mitochondria to be oxidized, long-chain fatty acids (12C+) require transport into the mitochondria via a shuttle to be oxidized --this is accomplished by carnitine acyltransferase I, the rate-limiting enzyme of fatty acid oxidation

Describe the second conflict of Erikson's psychosocial development model and its onset

The second conflict of Erikson's psychosocial development model is that of autonomy vs. shame and doubt -occurs between 1-3 years -autonomy breeds feelings of control over the world, while shame brings a sense of doubt and external locus of control

How do personality and identity differ?

While identity is the way we define ourselves, personality describes the set of thoughts, feelings , traits and behaviors which are characteristic of an individual across time and different locations

What is the major function of the jejunum/ileum segments of the small intestine?

While the duodenum is primarily involved in digestion, the jejunum and ileum are involved in the absorption of nutrients --In addition to villi and microvilli to aid absorption, each villus contains both a capillary bed for absorption of water-soluble nutrients as well as a lacteal, a lymphatic channel that takes up fats for transport into the lymphatic system

Impact of salinity on enzyme-catalyzed reactions

While the effect of salinity (osmolarity) is not generally of physiologic significance, altering the concentration of salt can change enzyme activity in vitro --increasing levels of salt can disrupt hydrogen and ionic bonds, causing a partial change in the conformation of the enzyme, and in some cases denaturation

Relate frequency and wavelength with energy on the electromagnetic spectrum

While wavelength increases from left to right on the electromagnetic spectrum, energy is proportional to frequency and increases right to left

Method-of-action of opiates and effects

These bind opioid receptors in the PNS and CNS, causing a decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria --opioids are synthetic opiates

Torque equation for a dipole in an electric field

qdEsinθ Remember the equation for the dipole moment (p) = qd, which may sometimes be used this equation

Ribosomal RNA

rRNA is synthesized in the nucleolus and functions as a part of the ribosomal machinery used during protein assembly in the cytoplasm -many rRNA molecules function as ribozymes (enzymes made of RNA rather than peptides) -help catalyze the formation of peptide bonds -splices out its own introns within the nucleus

Vertical and horizontal mobility

Vertical mobility = moving up and down the socioeconomic ladder Horizontal mobility = changing jobs within your own socioeconomic class

Write out the auditory pathway once sound is transmitted through the inner ear

Vestibulocochlear nerve Medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus Auditory cortex in the temporal lobe --superior olive and inferior colliculus receive input as well

Define Vmax in terms of rate kinetics

Vmax is defined the reaction rate when the enzyme present is saturated with substrate -this is the maximum rate of the reaction because it can run only as fast as the enzyme can form product -thus, the only way to increase Vmax is by increasing the enzyme concentration

How are x- and y-components of a vector determined given only its magnitude and angle (θ)?

Vx = Vcosθ Vy = Vsinθ

Which has contributed more to protein structure discovery, X-ray crystallography or NMR?

X-ray crystallography is the most reliable method of determining protein structure --75% of protein structures were analyzed through this method --generates an x-ray diffraction pattern that can be interpreted to determine the protein's structure

X¹ × X² =

X¹ × X² = X¹⁺²

X¹ ÷ X² =

X¹ ÷ X² = X¹⁻²

X¹/Y¹ =

X¹/Y¹ = (X/Y)¹

X⁻¹ =

X⁻¹ = 1/X¹

Exponential decay equation

where n₀ = the number of undecayed nuclei at t = 0

Michaelis-Menten equation

where v represents the maximum rate achieved by the system, at saturating substrate concentration Km and Vmax values are also used in the context of transmembrane channels as well!

Equation for the change in Gibbs free energy of an electrochemical cell with varying concentrations

ΔG = ΔG° + RTlnQ --25°C (298K), 1 atm, 1 molar

List three elements of emotion

1. Physiological response 2. Behavioral response 3. Cognitive response

Important substrates for gluconeogenesis

1. glycerol-3-phosphate (from triacylglycerols in adipose tissue) 2. lactate (from anaerobic glycolysis) 3. glucogenic amino acids (from muscle proteins)

Specific heat values of water

1cal/g*K = 4.184 J/g*K

Density values for water -three to know

1g/cm³ = 1000kg/m³ = 1000g/L

Maximum number of electrons within a shell?

2n²

Maximum number of electrons within a subshell

4l+2 l=0 --> s subshell l=1 --> p subshell l=2 --> d subshell l=3 --> f subshell

Huckel's rule

4n+2 --if any integer can give the number of pi electrons in the ring, then it is aromatic

List the five components of language and describe each

5 components of language 1. Phonology -actual sound 2. Morphology -word structure 3. Semantics -word meaning 4. Syntax -sentence structure 5. Pragmatics -prosody, cadence

Bottleneck

A bottleneck is a severe reduction in population size. This can be caused, for example, by a natural disaster that wipes out a majority of the population

What is a family group?

A family group joins members of various ages, sexes and generations through emotional ties

What is a peer group?

A peer group is one that is defined by association of *self-selected* equals around similar interests, ages and statuses

Solution dilution

A solution is diluted when solvent is added to a solution of higher concentration to produce a solution of lower concentration --the concentration of a solution after dilution can be determined using this equation, where M is molarity and V is volume

What does it mean for a thermodynamic process to be adiabatic?

A thermodynamic process is adiabatic when no heat exchange occurs -thus, ∆U = -W for these processes

Atrial natriuretic peptide -where is it secreted from? -what is its main effect?

ANP is released by the heart in response to atrial stretch due to excess blood volume, and serves to promote excretion of sodium and therefore increases urine volume --functional antagonist of aldosterone

Criteria for manic episode

Abnormal, persistently elevated mood lasting at least one week -at least three of seven symptoms that characterize the disorder

Distinguish between relative and absolute configuration

Absolute configuration is concerned with whether a molecule retains R/S configuration during a reaction Relative configuration will remain the same if only one subsitutent is changed while the other three molecules remain in the same configuration, even if the absolute configuration changes

Internalization conformity

Accepting the belief or behavior and conforming both publicly and privately -this has the deepest influence on people, and it will affect them for a long time

Acidity periodic trend

Acidity increases from left to right and up-->down on the periodic table Basicity trend is from right to left and down-->up --less electronegative, willing to let go of electrons

MHC class I presentation and the endogenous pathway

All nucleated cells in the body display MHC class I molecules --these molecules can hold any protein produced within the cell it is displayed on --thus, the MHC-I pathway is often called the endogenous pathway because it binds antigens from inside the cell --cells that have been invaded by intracellular pathogens can then be killed by a certain group of T cells to prevent infection of neighboring cells

Alpha waves on EEG

Alpha waves are seen on EEG when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed --lower-frequency than beta waves

Cell diagram for a Daniel cell

Anode | Anode solution (concentration) ‖ Cathode solution | Cathode

Anomie

Anomie refers to a lack of social norms, or the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and society that helps to explain accelerating social inequality --excessive individualism, social inequality and isolation are examples which erode social solidarity

Antibody structure

Antibodies are Y-shaped molecules made up of two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains --disulfide linkages and noncovalent interactions hold the heavy and light chains together Each antibody has an antigen-binding region at the end of the variable domain --within this region, there are specific polypeptide sequences that will bind one specific antigen sequence The remaining part of the antibody molecule is known as the constant domain --it is this region that cells such as NK cells, macrophages, monocytes and eosinophils have receptors for, and that can initiate the complement cascade

Anticipatory socialization

Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person rehearses for future positions, occupations, and social relationships -a couple living together in preparation for married life

Differences between B- and Z-DNA helices

B-DNA -right-handed (describes most DNA -major and minor grooves can be identified between the interlocking strands and are often the site of protein binding Z-DNA --this is a left-handed helix -no biological activity has been attributed to Z-DNA -high GC content or high salt concentration may contribute to the formation of this form of DNA

Molecular geometry for molecules with 3 regions of electron density as follows: -2 atoms bonded to the central atom with 1 lone pairs

Bent

Method-of-action of barbiturates and effects

Barbiturates increase GABA activity similarly to alcohol, causing a sense of relaxation --traditionally used as anxiolytics and for treating sleep problems --highly addictive and if taken with alcohol can result in death --largely replaced by benzodiazepines

Basicity periodic trend

Basicity trend is from right to left and down-->up --less electronegative, willing to let go of electrons

Beta waves on EEG

Beta waves are seen on an EEG when one is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration --high-frequency

Lacunae and lamellae in the bony matrix

Between the lamellar rings are small spaces called lacunae, which house mature bone cells known as osteocytes --the lacunae are interconnected by tiny channels called canaliculi that allow for the exchange of nutrients and wastes between osteocytes and the Haversian/Volkmann's canals

Biomedical approach to treating psychological disorders

Biomedical therapy includes interventions that rally around symptom reduction, assuming that any disorder has roots in biomedical arenas, and thus solutions should also be of a biomedical nature -narrower view of thought than other approaches because it does not take into account many of the other sources of disorders, such as lifestyle and socioeconomic status -for example, heart disease clearly has roots within the mechanisms of cardiac muscle, but the cause have as much to do with lifestyle causes as biomedical

Bipolar I disorders

Bipolar I disorders are characterized by: -presence of manic episodes -may or may not include the presence of major depressive episodes

Branching enzyme and glycogenesis

Branching enzyme is responsible for introducing α-1,6 branches into the glycogen granule --it first hydrolyzes one of the α-1,4 bonds to release a block of oligoglucose, which is then moved and added to a slightly different location where the α-1,6 bond is formed

Electric field lines

By convention, the direction of the electric field vector is given as the direction that a positive test charge would move in the presence of a source charge --where the field lines are closer together, the field is stronger, and weaker where they are further apart --because electric field and electrostatic force are both vector quantities, it is important to remember the conventions for their direction

Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) -where is it released from? -what does it stimulate?

CRF is released from the hypothalamus -stimulates ACTH secretion from the anterior pituitary, which acts in the adrenal cortex

Amide formation

Carboxylic acid + ammonia (NH3) or amines --note that loss of hydrogen from the nucleophile is required, and thus only primary and secondary amines will undergo this reaction

Carboxylic acid + carboxylic acid forms _________

Carboxylic acid + carboxylic acid form anhydrides via a condensation reaction

Configurational isomers

Configurational isomers are stereoisomers that can be interconverted only through breaking bonds, and includes diastereomers and enantiomers

Constitutional isomers

Constitutional isomers are another name for structural isomers. --same molecular formula/weight but very different connectivities

Convergent evolution

Convergent evolution refers to the independent development of similar characteristics in two or more lineages not sharing a recent, common ancestor --for example, fish and dolphins have come to resemble on another physically in adapting to the conditions of aquatic life, although they belong to different classes of vertebrates

Convex lenses are _________ lenses, while concave lenses are __________ lenses

Convex lenses are converging lenses, while concave lenses are diverging lenses This is the opposite of convex/concave mirrors

Draw the structure of D-glucose

D-Glucose --R,L,RR below aldehyde at C1 --why is it D?

Draw the structure of D-fructose

D-fructose --differs from glucose only be a ketone group at C2 (ketose)

Draw the structure of D-galactose

D-galactose --C4 epimer of D-glucose

Draw the structure of D-mannose

D-mannose --C2 epimer of D-glucose

DNA cloning

DNA cloning is used to multiply a DNA fragment to be studied -this requires that the investigator ligate the DNA of interest into a vector (typically a bacterial vector) forming a recombinant vector -depending on the investigator's goals, the bacteria can then be made to express the gene of interest (generating large quantities of recombinant protein), or lysed to re-isolate the replicated recombinant vectors, which can be processed by restricted enzymes to be released from the vector

Mass defect

Describes the difference between the sum of the masses of the protons and neutrons within the nucleus and the actual mass of that nucleus, which is somewhat smaller --the result of the strong nuclear force that allows the nucleus to stay together

Digestion/absorption of protein

Digestion of protein begins in the stomach with pepsin, and continues in the intestine with pancreatic trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidases A/B, all of which are secreted as zymogens --protein digestion is completed by the small intestine brush border enzymes dipeptidase and aminopeptidase, which result in amino acids and di/tripeptides that can move across the luminal membrane via secondary active transport linked to sodium and H+ At the basal membrane, simple and facilitated diffusion transports amino acids into the blood stream

Electron affinity definition and trends

Electron affinity refers to the amount of energy released when a gas gains an electron in its valence shell (this is always an exothermic process!) --nobel gases are the exception because they have already achieved an octet

Episodic memory

Episodic memory is the form of explicit (declarative long-term) memory of autobiographical events that can be explicitly stated --involves the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place --allows us to "time travel" through subjective time from the past to the present

Convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit

F = (9/5)C + 32

Universal circular motion and centripetal force

Fc = mv²/r

First-order reactions --define --describe the concentration vs. time graph

First order reactions have rates directly proportional to only one reactant --rate = k[A]¹ or k[B]¹ --usually indicates that a single reactant undergoes a chemical change by itself Concentration vs. time plot reveals a nonlinear graph (not shown) that shows that the rate of product formation is dependent on the concentration of a reactant -plotting lnA vs. time (shown) reveals a linear curve with a slope = -k, similar to the concentration vs. time graph for zero-order reactions

Fusion phase change -when does it occur?

Fusion is another term for melting and occurs at the melting point

Genetic leakage

Genetic leakage is a flow of genes between species --in some cases, individuals from different species can mate to produce hybrid offspring --mules are a hybrid of a male horse and a female donkey --many are not able to reproduce (such as the mule), but others may, resulting in a net flow of genes from one species to the other

Glucagon -what three things trigger its release? -main functions?

Glucagon is secreted in response to low blood glucose as well as the GI hormones cholecystokinin and gastrin -stimulates the degradation of protein and fat as well as gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis

Rate-limiting step of glycogenesis

Glycogen synthase is the rate-limiting enzyme of glycogen sythesis and forms the α-1,4 glycosidic bond found in the linear glucose chain --this is stimulated by g-6-p and insulin and inhibited by epinephrine and glucagon

Six common strong acids

HCl --> Hydrochloric acid HBr --> Hydrobromic acid HI --> Hydroiodic acid H₂SO₄ --> Sulfuric acid HNO₃ --> Nitric acid HClO₄ -- Perchloric acid

Habituation

Habituation refers to a decreased response to the same stimulus with prolonged exposure

Ksp and pressure for gases

Higher pressures favor dissolution of gas solutes -Ksp will be larger for gases at high pressures relative to low ones because higher pressures favor dissolution

Histidine Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Histidine Polar side chains Positively-charged side chain at physiologic pH (pKa of side chain ~6) Aromatic Hydrophilic

Hypothalamus-anterior pituitary interactions

Hormones released from the hypothalamus travel directly to the anterior pituitary through the hypophyseal portal system, and cannot be found in appreciable amounts in systemic circulation --once hormones have been released from the hypothalamus into this portal bloodstream, they travel down the pituitary stalk and bind receptors in the anterior pituitary, stimulating the release of other hormones

Intensity of sound equation

I = P/A P = power (W) A = area (m²)

What are the two defining traits of ideal gases?

Ideal gases have no intermolecular forces and occupy no volume

Naming amides

If R =methyl group, R' = ethyl group and R" = propyl group, the name for this molecule would be N-ethyl, N-propyl, ethanamide

Effects of pressure/volume changes on Q

If one increases the pressure of a system involving at least one gaseous molecule, it will respond by decreasing the total number of moles of gas in order to decrease the pressure -only chemical reactions that involve at least one gaseous molecule will be affected by changes in the system's pressure and volume -this is because, for our purposes, liquids and solids are incompressible

Features of the Watson-Crick model of DNA structure

In the double helix, two linear poly-nucleotide chains of DNA are wound together in a spiral orientation along a common axis --the two strands are antiparallel - one has a polarity of 5' --> 3' down the page, and the other 5'-->3' up the page --the sugar-phosphate backbone is on the outside of the helix with the nitrogenous bases on the inside

Normal distribution

In the normal distribution, the mean, median mode are the same --~68% of the distribution is within one standard deviation of the mean, 95% within two, and 99% within three --remember that the percentages outside 1,2, or 3 standard deviations is split up on either side of the graph

Distinguish between inbreeding depression and outbreeding

Inbreeding depression describes the reduced fitness that results from the loss of genetic variation through mechanisms like inbreeding and the founder effect, while outbreeding (outcrossing) is the introduction of unrelated individuals into a breeding group that theoretically could result in increased variation within a gene pool and increase the fitness of this population

Distinguish between incidence and prevalence

Incidence is defined as the number of new cases of an illness per population at risk in a given time period -for example, the number of new cases of lung cancer per 1000 at-risk people per year Prevalence is a measure of the number of cases of an illness overall -for example, the number of people with new or chronic lung cancer per 1000 people per year

What processes does insulin increase and decrease?

Insulin increases: --uptake of glucose and carbohydrate metabolism in muscle and fat --glycogen synthesis in the liver by increasing the activity of glucokinase and glycogen synthase, while decreasing activity of the enzymes that promote glycogen breakdown (glycogen phosphorylase and glucose-6-phosphatase) --triglyceride uptake by adipose cells --lipoprotein lipase activity (clears VLDL and chylomicrons from the blood) --lipogenesis in liver and adipose tissue from acetyl-CoA Insulin decreases: --lipolysis in adipose tissue --formation of ketone bodies in the liver

First law of thermodynamics and sign conventions

Internal energy (∆U) -positive value indicates increasing temperature -negative value indicates decreasing temperature Heat (Q) -positive value indicates heat is flowing into the system -negative value indicates heat is flowing out of the system Work (W) -positive value indicates work is being done by the system (expansion) -negative value indicates work is being done on the system (compression)

Define the following: Isolated systems Closed systems Open systems

Isolated systems can exchange neither energy nor matter with their surroundings Closed systems can exchange energy, but not matter with their surroundings Open systems can exchange both matter and energy with the environment

What added dichotomy is presented in the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory that is not present in Jung's theory?

Judging vs. Perceiving --orderliness vs. spontaneity

Define archetypes according to Jung's theory of psychoanalytic personality and list the four types

Jung theorized that archetypes are the components that make up the collective unconscious are universal types or propensities that we all share and that have a mythic, overarching quality -persona, anima, animus, shadow

Convert from Celsius to Kelvin?

K = C + 273

Common reagents used as oxidizing agents

KMnO₄ CrO₃ Ag₂O H₂O₂

Describe the structure and function of keratin

Keratin are intermediate filaments found in epithelial cells and contribute to the mechanical integrity of the cell and also function as regulatory proteins --primary protein that makes up hair and nails

Modern synthesis model of evolution

Known as neo-Darwinism, the modern synthesis model adds knowledge of genetic inheritance and changes in the gene pool to Darwin's original theory --when mutation or recombination results in a change that is favorable to the organism's reproductive success, that change is more likely to be passed on to the next generation, with the opposite also being true -also known as differential reproduction

State the basic tenet of Kohlberg's moral reasoning personality development model

Kohlberg's moral reasoning model of personality development focuses on development of more sophisticated cognitive abilities that changes the way we resolve moral dilemmas over time

Pathology of Korsakoff's syndrome and its effect on memory

Korsakoff's is caused by a thiamine deficiency in the brain and is marked by both retrograde and anterograde amnesia --confabulation is characteristic

Hypodermis

Layer of fat and connective tissue that joins the skin to the rest of the body

Common reducing agents used

LiAlH4 NaBH4

Maintenance rehearsal

Maintenance rehearsal refers to learning through repetition --part of the encoding aspect of memory formation

Explain the process of splicing

Maturation of hnRNA to mRNA includes splicing of the transcript to remove noncoding sequences (introns) and ligate coding sequences (exons) -this is accomplished by the spliceosome, in which snRNA molecules couple with snRNPs to form a complex that recognizes both the 5' and 3' splice sites of the introns -these noncoding sequences are excised in the form of a lariat that is then degraded -remember that alternative splicing is a thing only in eukaryotes

Total lung capacity

Maximum volume of air in the lungs when one inhales completely --usually around 6-7 liters --VC + RV

Microglia -location -function

Microglia are glial cells found in the CNS -phagocytic cells that ingest and break down waste products and pathogens

Gibbs free energy and spontaneity

Movement toward the equilibrium position is associated with a decrease in Gibbs free energy and is spontaneous, while movement away from the equilibrium position is associated with an increase in Gibbs free energy and is nonspontaneous -Q<Keq makes the reaction spontaneous in the forward direction, while Q>Keq makes the reaction spontaneous in the reverse direction

Eosinophils

Neutrophils are a type of nonspecific granular leukocyte that are primarily involved in allergic reactions and invasive parasitic infections --upon activation, these release a large amount of anti-histamine, a mediator of inflammation resulting in vasodilation --this allows additional immune cells to move out of the bloodstream and into the infected tissue

Neutrophils

Neutrophils are a type of nonspecific granular leukocyte that, like macrophages, are phagocytic --they track bacteria using chemotaxis, as well as those that have been opsonized --dead collections of these are responsible for the formation of pus during an infection

Noncompetitive inhibition --method of action --effect on Km, Vmax --draw resulting graph

Noncompetitive inhibitors bind an allosteric site instead of the active site, which induces a change in enzyme conformation that leaves less of it available to form product -because the two molecules do not compete for the same site, this type of inhibition cannot be overcome by adding more substrate and Vmax decreases -Km is not altered because unaffected enzyme maintains the same affinity for their substrate

What are nucleosides?

Nucleosides are composed of a five-carbon sugar (pentose) bound to a nitrogenous base --formed by covalently linking the base to C1 of the sugar

Osteoblasts and osteoclasts

Osteoblasts build bone, whereas osteoclasts are polynucleated resident macrophages of bone that resorb it

Four groups resulting from the stereotype content model and the mnemonic to help remember them

PACE Paternalistic Admiration Contemptuous Envious

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

PCR is an automated process that can produce millions of copies of a DNA sequence without amplifying the DNA in bacteria --the PCR reaction requires primers that are complementary to the DNA that flanks the region of interest --the reaction requires heat to cause the DNA double helix to denature - DNA polymerase does not work at high temperatures, and thus the DNA polymerase of a bacteria is used instead

Briefly distinguish between prejudices, discrimination and stereotypes

Prejudices are affective, discrimination is behavioral, and stereotypes are cognitive

Which enzyme is the rate-limiting step of glycolysis and what regulates it?

PFK-1 is the rate-limiting step of glycolysis --ATP and citrate inhibit the enzyme, while AMP activates it PFK-2 converts a tiny amount of F-6-P to F-2,6-B, which activates PFK-1 --by activating PFK-1, it allows these cells to override the inhibition caused by ATP so that glycolysis can continue even when the cell is energetically satisfied --insulin activates PFK-2 --glucagon inhibits PFK-2 by lowering the amount of F-2,6-B, diminishing activation of PFK-1

Prolactin-inhibiting factor (PIF) -where is it released from? -what does it stimulate?

PIF is also known as dopamine, which is released from the hypothalamus constitutively to inhibit prolactin secretion from the anterior pituitary -when it is time to produce breast milk, PIF secretion is inhibited, disinhibiting prolactin secretion from the anterior pituitary which acts at the mammary glands

Ideal gas law and density

PV = nRT n = mass/molar mass PV = (m/M)RT density = m/V = PM/RT

Fusiform gyrus

Part of brain's visual system; plays a role in high level visual processing and recognition --damage can result in prosopagnosia

Rational choice theory of sociology

People are often motivated by money and the possibility of making a profit, calculating the likely costs and benefits of any action before deciding what to do

Distinguish between physical and chemical properties of isomers

Physical properties of compounds include melting point, boiling point, solubility, odor, color and density Chemical properties include the reactivity of a molecule

The iron law of oligarchy

Political theory which claims that rule by an elite is inevitable as an iron law within any democratic organization as part of the tactical and technical necessities of organization -critical of bureaucracies as our society's characteristic institution

Native PAGE

Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis is a method for analyzing proteins in their native states --native PAGE is limited by the varying mass-to-charge and mass-to-size ratios of cellular proteins, because different proteins may experience the same level of migration --native PAGE is most useful when comparing molecular size or the charge of proteins known to be similar in size

Distinguish between polygyny and polyandry

Polygyny (polygamy) involves a male having exclusive relationships with multiple females, while polyandry is a female having exclusive relationships with multiple males

Social interactionist theory of language acquisition

Posits that language acquisition is driven by the child's desire to communicate and behave in a social manner --as the biological foundation for language develops and children are exposed to language, the brain groups sounds and meanings together --then, as the child interacts with others, certain brain circuits are reinforced, and others de-emphasized

Define power in terms of hypothesis testing

Power is the probability of correctly reporting a difference between two populations when one actually exists --correctly rejecting a false null hypothesis --equal to 1-β

Distinguish between primary and secondary circular reactions that characterize the sensorimotor state of cognitive development

Primary circular reactions are repetition of chance body movements that the infant finds soothing --thumb-sucking Secondary circular reactions occur when manipulations are focused outside of the body, like throwing toys from a high chair --often repeated because they get a response from the environment (mom picking up the toy)

Prokaryotic cell structure

Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that must perform all of the functions necessary for life but may live in colonies and signal with other cells to share information about the information --contain a cell wall --plasmids

Prokaryotes and plasmids

Prokaryotic DNA is carried on a single circular chromosome that is not coiled around histones --in addition, DNA acquired from external sources may also be carried on small circular structures known as plasmids, which are not crucial for survival but may confer an advantage

Protein as an energy source

Protein obtained from the diet or from the body during prolonged fasting/starvation may be used as an energy source --body protein is catabolized primarily in muscle and liver Amino acids released from proteins usually lose their amino group through transamination or deamination - the remaining carbon skeleton may be used for energy --amino acids are classified by their ability to turn into specific metabolic intermediates - glucogenic amino acids (all but leucine and lysine) can be converted into glucose via gluconeogenesis, while ketogenic amino acids can be converted into acetyl-CoA and ketone bodies --basic amino acid chains feed into the urea cycle

Real gases conform most to the ideal gas assumptions under conditions of __________ pressure and ___________ temperature

Real cases conform most to the ideal gas assumptions under conditions of low pressure and high temperature

Recall

Recall is a form of memory retrieval that involves stating previously learned information

Fertilization timeline -on what day of the menstrual cycle does ovulation normally occur? -how long is the secondary oocyte able to be fertilized once ovulation occurs?

Recall that the secondary oocyte ovulates from the follicle an approximately day 14 of the menstrual cycle --the secondary oocyte travels into the fallopian tube, where it can be fertilized up to 24 hours after ovulation

Amide hydrolysis

Requires strong acid or strong base

Ruffini endings --stimulus? --deep or shallow? --rapid or slow adaptation?

Ruffini endings --stimulated by stretch --deep (large receptive field) --slow adaptation

Runaway (fisherian) selection mechanism of mate choice

Runaway selection is a positive feedback mechanism in which a particular trait with no effect on survival becomes more exaggerated over time -this trait is deemed more sexually desirable and more likely to be passed on -this increases the attractiveness of the trait, which increases the likelihood that it continues to be passed on -peacock feathers

Satellite cells -location -function

Satellite cells provide insulation to neurons in the PNS

Selection bias

Selection bias occurs when the group being studied differs from the general population in ways other than exposure --this can be the result of people who volunteer being significant different from people who don't, or differences in age or gender profiles This is a more general term --if groups differ specifically by one factor (i.e. smoking) that affects the outcome, this is known as confounding

Cultural syndrome

Shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values and behaviors among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme -influence the rules for expressing or suppressing emotions and can even influence the ways emotions are experienced -countries like the US have more individualistic cultural syndromes, and believe happiness is infinite, attainable, and internally experienced -in countries like Japan, happiness is more of a collectivistic syndrome and generally applied to collective experiences more than individual successes

McDonaldization

Shift in focus toward efficiency, predictability, calculability and control

Absorption of simple sugars and amino acids in the small intestine

Simple sugars like glucose, fructose and galactose as well as amino acids are absorbed by secondary active transport and facilitated diffusion on the luminal intestinal lining They then diffuse across the basal surface into capillaries, whose constant flow maintains a concentration gradient favoring continued diffusion --recall that these absorbed molecules first go to the liver via the hepatic portal circulation

List the three endocrine hormones secreted by the pancreas and the cells that produce them

Small groups of hormone-producing cells are groups together into islets of langerhans throughout the pancreas, and are made up of the following cell types: α: glucagon β: insulin δ: somatostatin

Social anxiety disorder

Social anxiety disorder is characterized by persistent fear when exposed to social or performance situations that may result in embarrassment

Social institutions

Social institutions are well-established social structures that dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships -family, education, religion, government, economy, medicine

Static friction --definition --equation

Static friction exists between a stationary object and the surface on which it rests -µs is unitless and dependent on the two materials in contact -N = normal force between two objects that is perpendicular to the plane of contact -static friction ranges from 0 when an object is resting on a surface with no applied forces, to the maximum at which the object begins to move -tire rolling on a road, maintaining a constant point of static contact

Thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH) -where is it released from? -what does it stimulate?

TRH is released from the hypothalamus -stimulates TSH release from the anterior pituitary, which acts in the thyroid gland

Telencephalon --area of the brain --subdivisions/associated structures

Telencepalon --one of two components of the prosencephalon (forebrain) Associated structures: Cerebral cortex --complex perceptual, cognitive and behavioral processes Basal ganglia --coordinate smooth muscle movements and steady posture Limbic system --remember its associated structures?

Telomeres

Telomeres are repeating units at the end of the DNA to prevent losing sequences and information at the end of strands during replication --some of the sequence is lost during each round of replication, replaced by telomerase, which is highly expressed in rapidly dividing cells --telomeres also have high GC-content that helps prevent unraveling (recall GC pairs contain three hydrogen bonds!)

Overconfidence

Tendency to erroneously interpret one's decisions, knowledge and beliefs as infallible

Pentose-phosphate pathway basics

The PPP is used to produce NADPH, as well as ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis

Prokaryotic membranes

The cell wall forms the outer barrier of the cell in prokaryotes providing structure and controlling movement of solutes into and out of the bacterium --the next layer is the cell membrane, which is composed of phospholipids similar to that of a eukaryote --together, these two are known as the envelope In bacteria, there are two main types of cell wall: gram-positive and gram-negative

Current equation

The current is the amount of charge (q) passing through a conductor per unit time

Feminist theory of sociology

The feminist perspective has much in common with the conflict perspective. However, instead of focusing broadly on the unequal distribution of power and resources, feminist sociology studies power in its relation to gender -at the core of feminist sociology is the idea that, in most societies, women have been systematically oppressed and that men have been historically dominant

What are the six theories of personality to know?

The four theories of personality 1. Psychoanalytic 2. Humanistic 3. Type and trait 4. Social cognitive 5. Behaviorist 6. Biological

Describe the fourth conflict of Erikson's psychosocial development model and its onset

The fourth conflict of Erikson's psychosocial development model is that of industry vs. inferiority -occurs between 6-12 years --industry brings feelings of competence and intelligence, while inferiority brings a sense of inadequacy and low self-esteem

Distinguish between the Lyman, Balmer, and Paschen series?

The group of emision lines corresponding to transitions from energy levels: n≥2 to n=1 --> Lyman series --larger energy transitions, and therefore shorter photon wavelengths according to the equation for the energy of an emitted photon when an electron returns to a lower energy state: E = hf= hc/λ = -Rh (1/ni^2 - nf^2) n≥3 to n=2 --> Balmer series n≥4 to n=3 --> Paschen Series --smallest energy transitions

What is the isoelectric point and how is it calculated for amino acids that are neutral at physiologic pH?

The isoelectric point is the pH at which the molecule is electrically neutral --for neutral amino acids, it can be calculated by averaging the two pKa values for the carboxylic acid and amino groups as shown

Just-world hypothesis

The just-world hypothesis explains a cognitive bias that we live in a world where good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people -such a worldview denies the possibility of innocent victims

Describe the sixth conflict of Erikson's psychosocial development model and its onset

The sixth conflict of Erikson's psychosocial development model is that of intimacy vs. isolation -occurs between 20-40 years --Intimacy brings love and commitment to another, while isolation brings avoidance of commitment and alienation

Describe the social cognitive theory of personality and how it differs from the behaviorist perspective of personality

The social cognitive perspective focuses not only on how our environment influences our behavior, but also on how we interact with that environment

Standard electromotive force (E°cell)

The standard electromotive force is the voltage difference between two half-cells under standard conditions --298K, 1 atm, 1M concentrations --when subtracting standard potentials, do not multiply them by the number of moles oxidized or reduced because the potential of each electrode depends only on the identity of the material, not the size of the electrode

Explain the following components of phase diagrams: Triple point Critical point

The triple point is the temperature and pressure at which the three phases exist in equilibrium -the phase boundary that separates the solid and liquid phase extends indefinitely from the triple point The boundary between the liquid and gas phases, however, terminates at the critical point -the critical point is the temperature and pressure above which there is no distinction between phases -the heat of vaporization at this point and for all temperatures and pressures above the critical point is zero

Simplified version of the Nernst equation for use in electrochemistry problems

This assumes temperature = 298K --Q only takes into account species in solution (no solids/liquids!)

Correspondent inference theory

This theory expanded the attribution theory to attempt to explain intent when evaluating causes of another's behavior -as part of this theory, we tend to assign to intentional actions dispositional attributes

How is one diagnosed with schizophrenia?

To be diagnosed with schizophrenia, one must have at least two symptoms of a psychotic disorder for at least six months: -delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized behavior, catatonia and negative symptoms -one of these must be delusions, hallucinations or disorganized speech

Anatomy of pregnancy

Until the placenta is functional, the embryo is supported by the yolk sac The allantois is involved in early fluid exchange between the embryo and the yolk sac --ultimately, the umbilical cord forms from the remnants of the yolk sac and allantois The allantois is surrounded by the amnion, a thin, tough membrane filled with amniotic fluid that acts as a shock absorber during pregnancy

Actual voltage supplied from a source conductor

V = Ecell - ir -Ecell is the emf of the cell, and r is the internal resistance of the thing we are talking about Most voltage sources (batteries) and conductive materials have some internal resistance that reduces the voltage supplied to a circuit by some measurable amount -if the cell is not driving any current (like when the circuit is open), the internal resistance is zero, and the voltage of the cell is equal to the emf

Zone of proximal development

Vygotsky's zone of proximal development refers to those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of doing so -gaining help of these skills successfully requires the help of a more knowledgable other -he emphasized culture as a driver of cognitive development

Draw out the four inclined plane components

W = Fg

Maximum kinetic energy ejected electron

W = h*fT --known as the work function

Hidden curriculum

What schools teach kids outside the curriculum -waiting in line -how girls and boys are treated differently by teachers

Z score

Z = 0 --> mean Z = +1 --> 1SD above mean Z = -1 --> 1SD below mean If your test score is two standard deviations above the mean, your z score would be 2

Determining the equilibrium constant for reactions with multiple steps

aA +bB <--> cC + dD -if this reaction occurs in three steps, each with a forward and reverse rate, then Keq is determined as follows: Kc = k₁k₂k₃/k⁻₁k⁻₂k⁻₃ = *pictured*

a^(n/m) =

a^(n/m) = m√aⁿ

Anatomy of the lower respiratory system

bronchi ➙ terminal bronchioles ➙ respiratory bronchioles ➙ alveolar ducts ➙ alveoli In the lungs, the mainstem bronchi divide into smaller structures known as bronchioles, which divide further until they end in alveoli, the structures in which gas exchange occurs -each alveolus is coated with surfactant, a detergent that lowers surface tension and prevents the alveolus from collapsing on itself

log(1/A) =

log(1/A) = -logA

log(A*B) =

log(A*B) = logA + logB

Bond dissociation energy

measured in kj/mole of bonds broken -breaking bonds is always endothermic!

Angular momenum (L) of an electron orbiting a hydrogen nucleus

n = principal quantum number, which can be any integer h= planck's constant (6.626x10-34 J*s)

Under what conditions does pH = pOH for pure water at equilibrium?

pH = pOH = 7 only at 298K

pOH equation

pOH = log(1/[OH⁻]) = -log[OH⁻]

Heat gained or lost during phase change

q=mL --m is the mass of the substance L is the heat of transformation of the substance -heat of fusion is used for melting/freezing phase changes -heat of vaporization is used for boiling/condensation phase changes

What are the sin and cos values for θ=90°?

sin90 = 1 cos90 = 0 tan90 = undefined (y/0)

What are the sin and cos values for θ=0°?

sin0 = 0 cos0 = 1 tan0 = 0

What are the sin and cos values for θ=180°?

sin180 = 0 cos180 = -1 tan0 = 0

Viral genomes

ssRNA viruses may be positive or negative sense --positive-sense implies that the genome may be directly translated to functional proteins by host cell ribosomes, while negative-sense RNA require synthesis of a complementary strand by a RNA replicase carried in the viral particle

Transfer RNA

tRNA is responsible for converting the language of nucleic acids to the language of amino acids and peptides -found in the cytoplasm -each contains a folded strand of RNA that includes a 3-nucleotide anticodon which recognizes and pairs with the appropriate codon on an mRNA molecule while in the ribosome --to become part of a nascent polypeptide in the ribosome, amino acids are connected to a specific tRNA molecule, charging/activating the tRNA

Speed of sound equation

v = √(B/ρ) B = bulk modulus, a measure of the medium's resistance to compression ρ = density of the medium

√2 ≈

√2 ≈ 1.4

Messenger RNA

mRNA carries information specifying the amino acid sequence of the protein to the ribosome --it is transcribed from template (non-coding) DNA strand by RNA polymerase in the nucleus --following transcription, the mRNA may undergo a host of posttranslational modifications prior to its release from the nucleus

For the reaction aA + bB --> cC + dD, what is the rate equation and units?

rate = - ∆A/a∆T = - ∆B/b∆T = ∆C/c∆T = ∆D/d∆T -remember that the units for rate are always mol/L*s or M/s

Instinct theory of motivation

The instinct theory of motivation states that people are motivated to act based on instincts that they are programmed to exhibit -derived from Darwin's theory of evolution

Describe healthcare and medicine as a social institution

The institutions of healthcare and medicine are aimed at maintaining or improving the health status of the individual, family, community and society as a whole

What is the isoelectric point and how is it calculated for amino acids that are positively-charged at physiologic pH?

The isoelectric point is the pH at which the molecule is electrically neutral --tend to be much higher for the basic amino acids: arginine, lysine, histidine

List the functions of the five "classic" DNA polymerases in eukaryotic cells (α,β,γ,δ,ε)

α = leading strand synthesis β = DNA repair γ = replicates mitochondrial DNA δ = lagging strand synthesis and fills in RNA gaps ε = DNA repair --δ and ε are aided by the PCNA protein, which assembles into a trimer to form the sliding clamp

For the reaction aA + bB --> cC + dD, what is the rate law (k)?

α and β are the orders of the reaction with respect to A and B, respectively, and must be determined experimentally -these should not be confused with stoichiometric coefficients!

How does one distinguish between α-anomers and a β-anomers of a sugar?

α-anomers are characterized by the hydroxyl group below the plane of the ring, while the hydroxyl on the anomeric carbon in β-anomers is below the plane of the ring

ATP free energy change

∆G° is about -55kJ/mol --standard conditions --similar values for the hydrolysis of ADP, but AMP has a much small ∆G° of about -10kJ/mol

√3 ≈

√3 ≈ 1.7

Style of life

According to Adler, the style of life is the manifestation of the creative self and describes a person's unique way of achieving superiority -family environment is crucial in molding the person's style of life

Describe cardinal traits according to Allport

According to Allport, cardinal traits are one around which a person organizes her life -Mother Teresa and self-sacrifice -remember that not everyone develops a cardinal trait

Describe central traits according to Allport

According to Allport, central traits represent major characteristics of personality that are easy to infer, such as honesty and charisma

Describe secondary traits according to Allport

According to Allport, secondary traits are personality characteristics that are more limited in occurance, and appear only in close groups or specific social situations

Describe Freud's displacement defense mechanism

According to Freud, displacement is a defense mechanism the ego uses to satisfy an impulse with a substitute object -someone angry with her boss may hold her tongue at work but kick the dog when she gets home

Descibe Freud's regression defense mechanism

According to Freud, regression is a defense mechanism the ego uses to return to an earlier development stage seen as less demanding and safer

Amphoteric species

Amphoteric species are those that react like an acid in a basic environment, and like a base in an acidic environment --water, amino acids and partially deprotonated, polyprotic acids are the most common examples

DNA hybridization

Hybridization is the joining of complementary base pair sequences --This can be DNA-DNA recognition, or DNA-RNA recognition --this technique is a vital part of PCR and Southern blotting

What are hypnagogic/hypnopompic hallucinations?

Hypnagogic/hypnopompic hallucinations are those which occur while going to or awakening from sleep, respectively

Write out the molecular formulas for the following: Hypochlorite Chlorite Chlorate Perchlorate

Hypochlorite --> ClO⁻ Chlorite --> ClO₂⁻ Chlorate --> ClO₃⁻ Perchlorate --> ClO₄⁻

Hypomania

Hypomania is a mood state characterized by persistent disinhibition and pervasive elevated (euphoric) or irritable mood but generally less severe than full mania -feature of bipolar II disorders but not bipolar I disorders

Conversion disorder

Conversion disorder is characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory functions that generally begin soon after high levels of stress or traumatic event -symptoms may not develop for some time afterward -la belle indifference is often noted

The fundus (body) contains mostly ___________ glands, while the antrum/pylorus contains mostly _____________ glands

In the stomach, the fundus (body) contains mostly gastric glands, while the antrum/pylorus contains mostly pyloric glands

That's-not-all technique

In this method, an individual is made an offer, but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than expected -infomercials

Kinetic energy

Note its related to speed, particularly in the context of the linear motion equations -KE is the same regardless of the direction an object is traveling, and so is not related to velocity

Embryonic brain and evolution

Note that brain structures with more complex functions are located higher up --in evolutionary terms, the hindbrain and midbrain developed earlier, while the forebrain developed later --the most recent evolutionary development of the human brain is the cerebral cortex, the outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres

Hardy-Weinberg equations

Note that p² + 2pq would represent the frequency of the dominant phenotypes (genotype values are given in the picture) Remember that there will be twice as many alleles as individuals in the population being observed!

Write out the equations for wavelength and frequency of open pipes

n is equal to the harmonic -these equations are also true for strings fixed at both ends, but not for closed pipes

Closed pipe equations for frequency and wavelength

n is equal to the harmonic -these equations are distinct from those for open pipes and strings

Base-excision repair in DNA -proteins involved? -when does it occur?

A glycosylase enzyme recognizes and removes the affected base, leaving behind an apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) site --this is recognized by an AP endonuclease that removes the damaged sequence from the DNA --DNA polymerase/ligase can then fill in the gaps and seal the strand --occurs in G₁/G₂ phases

Crystallization

Also known as solidification or freezing, this is process of molecules moving from the liquid into the solid phase

Any number to the zeroth power =

Any number to the zeroth power = 1

The electromagnetic energy of a photon (E) emitted when an electron returns from an excited energy level to the ground state

At room temperature, the majority of atoms in a sample are in the ground state and can be excited to higher energy levels -- when these electrons return to the ground state (or simply a lower energy level), they will emit a photon with a wavelength characteristic of the specific energy transition it undergoes

How does role partner affect role performance?

Behaviors and expectations for a role differ depending on the role partner, or the person with whom one is interacting --when doctors interact with each other, the pertinent parts of their role are quite different than when interacting with patients

Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curve

Bell-shaped curve flattens and shifts right as temperature increases, indicating that at higher temperatures, more molecules are moving at higher speeds

Molecular geometry for molecules with 4 regions of electron density as follows: -2 atoms bonded to the central atom with 2 lone pairs

Bent

Cecum

Cecum -first section of the large intestine -outpocketing that accepts fluid exiting the small intestine through the ileocecal valve in the area of the appendix

Cyclic anhydride formation

Certain cyclic anhydrides can be formed simply by heating dicarboxylic acids

Conjugation and resonance

Conjugation requires alternating single and multiple bonds because this pattern aligns a number of unhybridized p-orbitals down the backbone of the moelcule --π electrons can then delocalize through this p-orbital system, adding stability to the molecule

Cell differentiation

Differentiation of cells is explained primarily by selective transcription of the genes needed for that particular cell type -thus, in pancreatic islet cells, the genes to produce specific hormones (insulin, glucagon, somatostatin) are turned on, while the genes for this are turned off in other cell types

Gluconeogenesis and fasting

During fasting, glycogen reserves drop dramatically in the first twelve hours, during which time gluconeogenesis increases --after 24 hours, it represents the sole source of glucose

Telophase I of meiosis

During telophase I, a nuclear membrane forms around each new nucleus --at this point, each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere --once homologous chromosomes separate, only n chromosome are found in each daughter cell (23 in humans) --these cells are thus haploid (2n = 4 --> n = 2 + n = 2

G₁ stage of the cell cycle

During the G₁ stage of the cell cycle, cells create organelles for energy and protein production (mitochondria, ribosomes, and ER), while also increasing in size --passage into the S stage is governed by a restriction point, at which certain criteria must be met before the cell can enter the synthesis state

First trimester

During the first weeks, the major organs begin to develop --the heart begins beating at 22 days --by the end of 8 weeks, most of the organs have formed, the brain is developed, and the embryo becomes known as the fetus --at the end of the third month, the fetus is about 9cm long

What are the four divisions of the cerebral cortex?

FPOT frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal --known their respective locations!

Frontal lobe --area of the brain --associated structures and functions

Frontal lobe is the most anterior of the cerebral cortex Associated structures: Prefrontal cortex --manages executive function by supervising and direction the operations of other brain regions Primary motor cortex --initiates motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles --located on the precentral gyrus Broca's area --vital for speech production --found ipsilaterally, on the dominant brain hemisphere

Hyperthyroidism

Hyperthyroidism may result from either a tumor or thyroid over-stimulation --characterized by heightened activity level, increased body temperature/RR/HR, heat intolerance and weight loss

Convection in terms of thermodynamics

In terms of thermodynamics, convection is the transfer of heat by the physical motion of a fluid over a material -because this involves flow, only liquids and gases can transfer heat by this means

Causes of jaundice (3)

Liver damage causing the inability to process or excrete bilirubin Excessive RBC destruction Blockage of the bile duct

Ethnic enclaves

Locations with a high concentration of one specific ethnicity --chinatown, i.e.

Important disaccharides

Maltose = glucose + glucose Lactose = glucose + galactose Sucrose = glucose + fructose *Pay attention to the naming!*

Decay

Memories are often lost over time as neurochemical trace of a short-term memory fades

Mole fraction

Method of measuring concentration

Distinguish morbidity and mortality

Morbidity is the burden of illness associated with a given disease, while mortality refers to deaths caused by a given disease

Penis envy

Notion developed by Freud regarding female psychosexual development, in which female adolescents experience anxiety upon realization that they do not have a penis -begins the transition from an attachment to the mother to competition with the mother for the attention, recognition and affection of the father -occurs during the phallic stage of psychosexual development, around the ages of 3-5 years

Electra conflict

Notion developed by Freud that the female child psychosexual competition with her mother for possession of her father -occurs during the phallic stage of psychosexual development, around the ages of 3-5 years

List the Big Five traits of personality

OCEAN Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism

Acid equivalents and normality

One mole of H₃PO₄ yields three moles of H₃O⁺, and thus a 1M solution would be 3N

Organizations

Organizations are entities that are set up to achieve specific goals and are characterized by having a structure and culture

Microtubules

Part of the cell cytoskeleton, microtubules are hollow polymers of tubulin proteins that radiate through the cell, providing the primary pathways along which motor proteins like kinesin and dynein carry vesicles --cilia and flagella are both composed of nine pairs of microtubules forming an outer ring, with two microtubules in the center, known as the 9+2 arrangement seen only in eukaryotic organelles of motility (bacterial flagella have a different composition)

Describe the two stages of of the preconventional morality phase of Kohlberg's moral reasoning model

Preconventional morality phase: Stage 1: obedience and punishment -individuals focus on the direct consequences of their actions on themselves Stage 2: self-interest -the right behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest but understood in a narrow way which does not consider one's reputation or relationships to groups of people

Name the three isotopes of hydrogen

Protium has one proton and no neutrons Deuterium has one proton and one neutron Tritium has one proton and two neutrons

Relative bond lengths

Relative bond lengths: Triple bond < double bond < single bond The shorter the bond, the more energy needed to break it

Residual volume

Remaining volume of air in the lungs after complete exhalation --TLC - VC

Societal anomie

Social condition in which there is a lack of cohesion and order, especially in relation to norms and values -"normlessness"

What are the sound intensity values for the threshold of hearing and threshold for pain?

Soft sound that the average human ear can hear = 1 x 10⁻¹² W/m² Intensity of sound at the threshold of pain = 10 W/m²

Power

The ability to affect others' behavior through real or perceived rewards and punishments, and is based on the unequal distribution of valued resources -defines the relationship between individuals, groups and social institutions

Distinguish between the absolute threshold and the threshold of conscious perception

The absolute threshold is the minimum stimulus energy needs to activate a sensory system, while the threshold of conscious perception is the minimum stimulus energy needed for a signal to be transduced to the central nervous system

Conformity

The act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms -recall that norms are implicit rules shared by a group of individuals that guide their interactions with others -also known as majority influence

Capacitance

The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the magnitude of charge stored on one plate (+Q on the positive plate and -Q on the the negative plate) over the potential difference across the capacitor

Disorganized behavior

The inability to carry out activities of daily living -one of the possible positive symptoms of psychotic disorders including schizophrenia

How are mean values calculated and when are they most useful?

The mean is calculated by adding up all of the individual values within the data set and dividing the result by the number of values --mean values are a good indicator of central tendency when all of the values tend to be close to one another, while outliers can shift the mean toward one end of the range

Second law of thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics states that energy spontaneously disperses from being localized to becoming spread out if it is not hindered from doing so -this increases entropy

Second phase of Kohlberg's moral reasoning model -when does it develop? -what is emphasized? -name the two stages involved

The second of Kohlberg's moral reasoning model is known as the conventional morality phase -develops in early adolescence -morality of one's actions are judged by comparing them to society's views and expectations --stage 3 is conformity, stage 4 is is law and order

Standard error of mean

The standard error mean is a measure of how precisely one knows the true population --calculated by dividing the standard deviation by the square root of the number of samples --larger standard deviations will require more samples to generate an acceptable standard error of the mean, while lower standard deviations will not require as many samples

Phase differences between waves

Waves are in phase if their troughs and peaks coincide, while waves in which the peak of one coincides with the trough of another are 180° out of phase In addition to degrees, the phase difference can be expressed in terms of wavelength 360° difference = 1λ 180° difference = λ/2 etc

Photoelectric effect

When light of a sufficiently high frequency is incident on a metal in a vacuum, the metal atoms emit electrons -when the light's frequency is above the threshold frequency, the magnitude of the resulting current is directly proportional to the intensity and amplitude of the light beam

Solubility and Gibbs free energy

When the change in Gibbs free energy for the dissolution reaction is negative at a given temperature, the process will be spontaneous and the solute is soluble --when it is positive, the process will be nonspontaneous and the solute is insoluble

Educational segregation and stratification

Poor areas have poor schools which have lower quality education -way we fund schools is through property taxes, which creates inequalities in various school districts

Estimating scale values --log(m*10⁻ⁿ) --determining pKa from Ka = 1.8 x 10⁻⁵, for example

-log(m*10⁻ⁿ) = -log(m) - log(10⁻ⁿ) = m - log(n) For example: What is the pKa if the Ka = 1.8 x 10⁻⁵? pKa = -log (1.8 x 10^-5) = 5 - log(1.8) = 5-0.18

Describe the three selves that make up identity as posited by the self-discrepancy theory

1. Actual self -the way we see ourself as we currently are 2. Ideal self -the person we would like to be 3. Ought self - our representation of the way others think we should be

List the four key tenets of medical ethics

1. Beneficence 2. Nonmaleficence 3. Respect for patient autonomy 4. Justice

Michael addition

1. Deprotonation of α-carbon with strong base results in an enolate --carbanion is stabilized by resonance 2. Carbanion attacks double bond of second enolate 3. Subsequent protonation of the α-carbon of the newly-acquired enolate

Stressors are classified into what two categories?

1. Distress occurs when experiencing unpleasant stressors 2. Eustress is a result of positive conditions like a good MCAT score

What are the five assumptions of the kinetic molecular theory of gases?

1. Gases are made up of particles with negligible volumes compared to the container volume 2. Gases exhibit no intermolecular attractions or repulsions 3. Gas particles are in continuous, random motion - undergoing collisions with other particles and the container walls 4. Collisions between any two gas particles are elastic -conservation of both momentum and kinetic energy 5. The average kinetic energy of gas particles is proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas -this is the same for all gases at a given temperature, regardless of chemical identity or mass

Write out the the table for the four possible outcomes of hypothesis testing

1. Power (1-β) --the chance of detecting a difference between the two populations 2. α --the chance of seeing a difference between the two populations that is not there 3. β --the chance of missing a difference between the two populations that is there 4. Null hypothesis correct --no difference between the two populations

What are the five types of dietary lipids?

1. triacylglycerols 2. cholesterol 3. cholesterol esters 4. phospholipids 5. free fatty acids

In addition to glycolysis, describe four additional ways to form acetyl-CoA

1. β-oxidation of fatty acids Fatty acid activation is the formation of a thioester bond between the carbonyl of a fatty acid and CoA in the intermembrane space of the mitochondrion --because fatty acyl-CoA cannot cross the inner mitochondrial membrane, the fatty acyl group is transferred to carnitine, which can cross the inner membrane with a fatty acyl group in tow --once it crosses the inner membrane, it transfers the fatty acyl group to a mitochondrial CoA-SH, where β-oxidation can occur 2. Amino acid catabolism --although acetyl-CoA is typically used to produce ketones when the PDH complex is inhibited, the reverse reaction can occur as well 3. When alcohol is consumed in moderate amounts, it is converted to acetyl-CoA by alcohol dehydrogenase and acetylaldehyde dehydrogenase --this reaction also causes NADH to build up, inhibiting the Krebs cycle - therefore, the acetyl-CoA formed through this process is used primarily to synthesize fatty acids

Write out the five stages of language development what each is characterized by

9-12 months --babbling 12-18 months --one word per month 18-20 months --explosion of language once children begin combining words and forming 1-2 word sentences 2-3 years --longer sentences of three words or more and internalization of grammar rules as a result 5 years --language rules largely mastered

What does it mean for a thermodynamic process to be isochoric?

A thermodynamic process is isochoric (isovolumetric) when there is no change in volume during the process, and thus no work done -thus, ∆U = Q for such these processes

Mnemonic for layers of the epidermis

Come, Lets Get Sun-Burned -superficial-to-deep

Astrocytes -location -function

Astrocytes are glial cells found in the CNS where they nourish neurons and form the BBB, which controls the transmission of solutes from the bloodstream into the nervous tissue

Social class

A category of people who share a similar socioeconomic position in society -identified by looking at the economic opportunities, job positions, lifestyles, attitudes, and behaviors of a given slice of society

Define a nondirectional alternative hypothesis

A nondirectional alternative hypothesis states that the null hypothesis is wrong but does not predict whether the parameter of interest is larger or smaller than the reference value specified in the null hypothesis. A researcher has results for a sample of students who took a national exam at a high school. The researcher wants to know if the scores at that school differ from the national average of 850. A nondirectional alternative hypothesis is appropriate because the researcher is interested in determining whether the scores are either less than or greater than the national average. (H₀: μ = 850 vs. H₁: μ≠ 850)

ABO blood-typing

A person with type A blood will recognize the type A protein as self by the type B protein as foreign and will make antibodies to type B -the reverse is true for those who are type B O blood cells express neither antigen variant and will not initiate any immune response, regardless of the recipient's actual blood type --this is why they are considered universal donors --however a recipient who is type O will make anti-A and anti-B antibodies, and can thus only receive blood from other type O individuals On the other hand, people with type AB blood can receive from all blood types --neither A nor B antigens are not recognized as foreign, while type O blood cells express no antigen

Charles's law

At a constant pressure and number of moles, the volume of a gas is proportional to its absolute temperature (in K): V/T=k, or V₁/T₁ = V₂/T₂

Social perception -three components

Also called social cognition, social perception provides the tools to make judgments and impressions about other people -includes the perceiver, target and situation

Caveats to the aldol condensation reaction

Aldol condensations are most useful if there is only one type of aldehyde or ketone present --if there are multiple types, we cannot easily control what acts as a nucleophile, and a mixture of products results --this can be prevented if one of the molecules has no α-hydrogens --can use two of the same aldehyde or ketone, or one type of aldehyde and ketone together

Aldosterone --two principle effects

Aldosterone is the most noteworthy mineralcorticoid 1. increases sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts of the nephron --water follows the sodium cations into the bloodstream, increasing blood volume and pressure (increasing blood pressure without affecting osmolarity 2. decreases the reabsorption of potassium and hydrogen in the same segments of the kidney, promoting their excretion

Aligning actions as an impression management strategy

Aligning actions as it relates to impression management involves making questionable behavior acceptable through excuses -blaming a bad grade on too little sleep

Do alkyl groups donate or withdraw electron-density

Alkyl groups donate electron density --as a result, their addition to a molecule decreases acidity of that molecule, though will help stabilize positive charges such as carbocations

Alter-casting as an impression management strategy

Alter-casting as it relates to impression management involves imposing an identity onto another person --"as a good medical student, you should..."

Define an adiabatic process in terms of the first law of thermodynamics -describe its associated pressure-volume curve

An adiabatic process occurs when no heat is exchanged between the system and the environment, implying that the thermal energy remains constant -(Q=0), and thus ∆U = -W An adiabatic process appears hyperbolic on a pressure-volume graph

Antinormative behavior

Antinormative behavior posits that with anonymity, people are more likely to act in a manner that is inconsistent with their normal self -aspect of deindividuation

Archaea

Archaea are a class of single-celled prokaryotes that are visually similar to bacteria, but contain genes and several metabolic pathways that are more similar to eukaryotes than to bacteria --both start translation with methionine, contain similar RNA polymerases, and associate their DNA with histones --however, Archaea contain a single, circular chromosome, divide by binary fission, and share a similar structure to bacteria --extremophiles - while some are photosynthetic, many are chemosynthetic and are able to generate energy from inorganic compounds including sulfur

Archimedes' principle --write out the equation

Archimedes' principle states that a body either wholly or partially immersed in a fluid will be buoyed upwards by a force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces -remember to always use the density of the fluid itself!

Arginine Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Arginine Polar side chains Positively-charged side chains at physiologic pH Nonaromatic Hydrophilic

Arrhenius base definition

Arrhenius bases dissociate to form an excess of OH⁻ in solution

Effective nuclear charge periodic trends

As one moves from left to right across a period, electrons and protons are both added one at a time, increasing the electrostatic attraction between them - this is known as effective nuclear charge More or less constant among the elements with in a given group, because although protons/electrons increase down a period, electrons are also increasingly separated from the nucleus as they are placed in energy levels further and further from the nucleus --they are shielded by electrons in lower energy levels as well

Action potential propagation

As sodium rushes into one segment of the axon, it will cause depolarization in the surrounding regions of the axon --the depolarization will bring subsequent segments of the axons to threshold, opening the sodium channels in those segments --after the action potential has fired in one segment of axon, that segment becomes momentarily refractory, with the consequence that information can flow only in one direction

Starling forces and capillary fluid balance

At the arterial end of a capillary bed, the hydrostatic pressure is much larger than the oncotic pressure, with net efflux of water resulting As fluid moves out of the vessels, the hydrostatic pressure drops significantly, but the osmotic pressure stays the same, allowing a net influx of water at the venule end of the capillary

Distinguish between atomic number and mass number

Atomic number (Z) is equal to the number of protons found in an atom of that element --unique identifier of each element because each has a different number of protons Mass number (A) is the sum of the protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus --atoms that share the same number of protons but differ in the amount of neutrons are called isotopes

Describe the knowledge function of attitudes posited by the functional attitudes theory

Attitudes serving a knowledge function provide meaningful, structured environment -in life, we seek some degree of order, clarity, and stability in our personal frame of reference -attitudes help supply us with standards of evaluation -via such attitudes as stereotypes, we can bring order and clarity to the complexities of human life

Explain the adaptive function of attitudes posited by the functional attitudes theory

Attitudes serving an adaptive function are to do with being a part of a social group and this helps us fit in with a social group -people seek out others who share their attitudes, and develop similar attitudes to those they like

B cells Where are they produced? Where do they mature? Where are they activated? Involved in cell-mediated or humoral immunity?

B cells Produced in the bone marrow Mature in the bone marrow --remain naive until activation Activated in the spleen or lymph nodes Involved in humoral immunity

B-cell hypermutation and clonal selection

B cells undergo hypermutation of their antigen-binding regions in order to find the best match for antigen --only those B-cells that can bind antigen with high affinity will survive --this mechanism of generating specificity is known as clonal selection

Basophils

Basophils are a type of nonspecific granular leukocyte that are involved in allergic responses --closely related to mast cells, but with smaller granules and exist in tissues, mucosa and epithelium --both basophils and mast cells release large amounts of histamine in response to allergens, leading to inflammatory responses

Do instruments introduce bias when they are inaccurate, or imprecise?

Because bias is a systematic error in data, only an inaccurate tool will introduce bias, though an imprecise tool will still introduce error

Esterification of carbohydrates

Because carbohydrates have hydroxyl groups, they are able to participate in reactions with carboxylic acids and carboxylic acid derivatives to form esters

Genetic mapping

By analyzing recombination frequencies, a genetic map can be constructed that represents the relative distance between genes on a chromosome --by convention, one map unit corresponds to a 1% chance of recombination occurring between two genes Thus, if two genes were 25 map units apart, we would expect 25% of the total gametes to show recombination somewhere between these two genes --recombination frequencies can be added in a crude approximation to determine the order of genes in the chromosome

Describe the role of the hypothalamus in emotion

By controlling the neurotransmitters that affect mood and arousal, the hypothalamus largely dictates emotional states

By convention, current is considered the flow of __________ charge

By convention, current is considered the flow of positive charge --the direction of current is thus opposite to the direction of actual electron flow

Lactate fermentation

By reducing pyruvate to lactate and oxidizing NADH to NAD⁺, lactate dehydrogenase is able to replenish the oxidized coenzyme needed for the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase enzyme (5th step of glycolysis) --remember that while forming lactate in mammalian cells requires no loss of carbon, fermentation in yeast cells forms ethanol, thus a carbon is lost as CO₂

Cluster A personality disorder characteristics and types

Cluster A personality disorders are all marked by behavior that is labeled as odd or eccentric by others -includes paranoid, schizotypal, and schizoid personality disorders

Cadherins

Cadherins are a type of cell-adhesion molecule that mediate calcium-dependent cell adhesion --cadherins often hold similar cell types together (epithelial cells use E-cadherin while nerve cells use N-cadherin)

Calcitonin -where is it produced/secreted? -what are its three effects?

Calcitonin is produced by c-cells (parafollicular cells) in the thyroid Its secretion is stimulated by high plasma calcium levels and acts to decrease plasma calcium levels in three ways: 1. Increase calcium excretion from the kidneys 2. Decreased calcium absorption from the gut 3. Increase storage of calcium in bone

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

Called the stage of paradoxical sleep because EEG shows beta waves more characteristic of alertness --this is the stage where dreaming is most likely

Electron capture

Can be considered the reverse of beta decay --a proton is converted to a neutron, resulting in an atomic number decrease while mass number remains unchanged

Cartilage

Cartilage consists of a firm but elastic matrix called chondrin, secreted by chondrocytes --differs from bone in that it is relatively avascular and not innervated

Chief cells -where are they found? -what do they produce?

Chief cells are found in the gastric glands of the stomach, and secrete pepsinogen -pepsinogen is then cleaved to pepsin by HCl secreted by parietal cells, which in turn cleaves peptide bonds near aromatic amino acids to produce shorter peptide fragments

Cholecystokinin

Cholecystokinin (CCK) is it is a peptide hormone that stimulates the release of bile from the gallbladder as well as pancreatic juices -secreted by the duodenum in response to amino acids and fat detected in chyme entering from the stomach

Chromatic abberation

Chromatic aberration occurs because lenses refractive indices decreases with increasing wavelength in degrees unique to each wavelengths of light --manifests as "fringes" of color along boundaries that separate dark and bright parts of the image, because each color in the optical spectrum cannot be focused at a single common point. Since the focal length f of a lens is dependent on the refractive index n, different wavelengths of light will be focused on different positions

Cluster B personality disorder characteristics and types

Cluster B personality disorders are all marked by behavior that is labeled as dramatic, emotional or erratic by others -includes antisocial, borderline, histrionic and narcissistic personality disorders

Cluster C personality disorder characteristics and types

Cluster C personality disorders are all marked by behavior that is labeled as anxious or fearful by others -includes avoidant, dependent and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder personality disorders

Describe cognitive appraisal and name the two stages it involves

Cognitive appraisal is the subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress and includes primary and secondary stages

Relationship between common logarithms and natural logarithms

Common logarithms are base-ten logarithms (log₁₀), while natural logarithms are based on Euler's number (loge or ln) and are related by the following equation logx ≈ (lnx)/2.3

Multiculturalism -contrast with melting pot

Communities/societies containing multiple cultures -leads to enhancement of cultural diversity and acceptance within society -creates a mosaic of culture and ethnic groups, in contrast to the melting point that results in one homogenous culture created by cultural assimilation

Distinguish between electronic and molecular gemoetries

Consider that CH₄, NH₃ and H₂O all have the same electronic geometry (four pairs of electrons surrounding a central atom) -all thus have tetrahedral electronic geometries -however, each has a different number of lone pairs, giving them different molecular geometries

Coulumb's law

Coulomb's law quantifies the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two charges at a distance r from one another

Cysteine Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Cysteine Polar side chains Neutral side chains at physiologic pH Nonaromatic Hydrophilic *only AA with "R" absolute configuration*

Malate-aspartate shuttle

Cytosolic oxaloacetate, which cannot pass through the inner mitochondrial membrane, is reduced to malate, which can with the help of cytosolic malate dehydrogenase --accompanying the reduction of malate is the oxidation of cytosolic NADH --> NAD⁺ --now that the NADH is in the matrix, it can pass along its electrons to the ETC via Complex I, generating 2.5 ATP per molecule of NADH (recovering the malate requires oxidation to oxaloacetate, which can then be transaminated to aspartate, which can cross into the cytosol and be reconverted to oxaloacetate)

Cytotoxic T-cell function

Cytotoxic T cells (also called CD8⁺ T-cells) are capable of directly killing virally-infected cells by injecting toxic chemicals that promote apoptosis into the infected cell --CD8⁺ T-cells respond to antigens presented on MHC-I molecules, making them most effective against viral and other intracellular infections

Empathy

Empathy is the ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another, and is thought to be a strong influence on helping behavior (altruism)

Dissociative amnesia

Dissociative amnesia is a dissociative disorder characterized by retrospectively reported memory gaps -these gaps involve an inability to recall personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature -dissociative fugue is now a facet of dissociative amnesia, rather than a separate diagnosis

Dissociative disorders

Dissociative disorders are conditions that involve disruptions or breakdowns of memory, awareness, identity, or perception --dissociative simply means that this escape is due to a psychological, not neurological, problem

List the symptoms of manic episodes using the mnemonic

DIG FAST Distracted easily Insomnia Grandiosity Flight of ideas Agitation/goal-directed activity Speech pressured/talkative Thoughtlessness/risky behavior

Dissociative fugue

Dissociative fugue is characterized by a sudden, unexpected, purposeless wandering away from one's home, location or usual daily activities --individuals in this state are confused about their identity and may even develop a new one with a complete backstory --now considered a facet of dissociative amnesia, rather than a separate diagnosis

What will happen if one sustains damage to their lateral hypothalamus? Ventromedial hypothalamus?

Damage to the lateral hypothalamus will cause a person to lose all interest in eating, while damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus will result in obesity

Damping

Damping is a decrease in the amplitude of a wave caused by an applied or nonconservative force -if an oscillating system were frictionless, a periodically-varying force with a frequency equal to the natural frequency of the system would continually add energy to the system, and the amplitude would increase indefinitely -however, because no system is completely frictionless, there is always damping, which affects amplitude but not frequency (pitch) of oscillation!

Double-slit diffraction -equation to determine bright fringes -equation to determine dark fringes -in notepad as well

Dark fringes shown -bright fringes are found halfway between dark fringes) d = distance between the two slits θ = angle between the line drawn from the midpoint between two slits to the dark fringe and the normal n = indicates the number of the fringe λ = wavelength of the incident light wave

Distinguish between deductive and inductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning is the process of reasoning from one or more statements (premises) to reach a logically certain conclusion --top-down Inductive reasoning is reasoning that derives general principles from specific observations --bottom-up

Deletion mutations

Deletion mutations are a type of chromosomal mutation that occur when a large segment of DNA is lost from a chromosome --small deletion mutations are considered frameshift mutations

Cellular determination

Determination is the commitment of a cell to having a particular function in the future, with multiple pathways by which it may occur --if during cleavage, the existing mRNA and protein in the parent cell has been asymmetrically distributed between daughter cells, the presence of specific mRNA and protein molecules may result in determination --special cells called morphogens can cause nearby cells to follow a particular developmental pathway

Societal deviance

Deviance describes an action or behavior that violates social norms, including a formally-enacted rule (e.g., crime), as well as informal violations of social norms (e.g., rejecting folkways and mores)

Dissociative identity disorder

Dissociative identity disorder is characterized by the presence of two or more personalities that recurrently take over a person's behavior -result from a failure of integration of the components of identity, often the result of severe physiological or sexual abuse as children

Duodenal disaccharidases

Duodenal disaccharidases are secreted into the duodenum, and are responsible for breaking down disaccharides to monosaccharides --lactase breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose --maltase breaks down maltose into two molecules of glucose --sucrase breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose

Duplication mutations

Duplication mutations are a type of chromosomal mutation that occur when a segment of DNA is copied multiple times in the genome

Formal operational stage of cognitive development --duration? --characterized by?

Duration --age 11+ Characterized by: --logical thought about abstract ideas

G₀ stage of the cell cycle

During the G₀ stage, the cell is simple living and serving its function without any preparation for division --during interphase in general, individual chromosomes are in a less condensed form known as chromatin so that the DNA is available for RNA polymerase However, it is preferable to condense the DNA into tightly coiled chromosomes to avoid losing any genetic material during cell division in M phase

Enzyme-linked receptors

Enzyme-linked receptors display catalytic activity in response to ligand binding and have three primary protein domains: 1. A membrane-spanning domain that anchors the receptor in the cell membrane 2. A ligand-binding domain that is stimulated by the appropriate ligand and induces a conformation change that activates the catalytic domain 3. Catalytic domain activation often results in a second messenger cascade RTKs are a good example, shown

Distinguish between apoenzymes and holoenzymes

Enzymes without their cofactors are called apoenzymes, whereas those containing them are holoenzymes --cofactors are attached in a variety of ways, ranging from weak noncovalent interactions to strong, covalent ones --tightly bound cofactors/coenzymes that are necessary for enzyme function are known as prosthetic groups

Ependymal cells -location -function

Ependymal cells are glial cells found in the CNS, lining the ventricles of the brain -produce CSF, which supports the brain and serves as a shock absorber

Cyclic esters are known as _____________

Esters that are cyclic are known as lactones

Experimental determination of the rate law

Experimental data for determining rate order is usually provided as a chart that includes the initial concentrations of the reactions as well as initial rates of product formation as a function of the reactant concentrations in 3-4 trials 1. Identify a pair of trials in which the concentrations of one of the reactants is changed while the concentrations of all other reactants remains the same -ant change in the rate of product formation from one trial to the next is fully attributable to the change in concentration of that single reactant Doubling B has resulted in quadrupling of the rate, 2ⁿ = 4, so the rate law = 2 -use the concentration change as the first number, and the rate change as the second number

Fertility rate definition and US trends

Fertility rate refers to the average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime --in the US, fertility rates have trended downward over time, though still above two, indicating that fertility rates continue to contribute to population growth --this decline in fertility rates is one contributor to the increase in the average age of the US population

Immune response to an extracellular infection

First, macrophages and other APCs engulf the bacteria and present antigens from the pathogen on their surfaces in MHC-II --they also release cytokines that attract inflammatory cells, including neutrophils and additional macrophages Mast cells are activated by the inflammation and degranulate, resulting in histamine release and vasodilation, allowing additional immune cells to leave the bloodstream to travel to the affected tissue The dendritic cells then leaves the affected tissue and travels to the nearest lymph node, where it presents antigen to B-cells --B-cells activated by the antigen undergo clonal selection to create plasma and memory cells --antibodies then travel through the bloodstream to the affected tissue, where they tag the bacteria for destruction At the same time, these dendritic cells also present antigen to T-cells, activating a T-cell response --in particular, CD4⁺ T-cells are activated --Th1 cells release IFN-γ which activates and potentiates macrophages, while Th2 T-cells help activate B-cells

Atomic fission

Fission is a process by which a large nucleus splits into smaller nuclei --results in the release of energy

Trp operon structure

Five genes in E. coli encode for enzymes that manufacture the amino acid tryptophan, and these are arranged in a cluster on the chromosome -by sharing a single common promoter region on the DNA sequence, these genes are transcribed as a single mRNA -operons such as this are very common in the prokaryotic cell

Bacterial flagellum structure

Flagella can move toward food or away from toxins/immune cells using chemotaxis --they are composed of a filament, a basal body, and a hook - the overall structure is similar in both gram-positive and negative bacteria, but are slightly different due to structural/chemical compositions in the envelopes of each --archea have entirely different flagellum that will not be tested The filament is a hollow, helical structure composed of flagellin The basal body is a complex structure that anchors the flagellum to the cytoplasmic membrane and is also the motor of the flagellum, rotating at a rate up to 300Hz The hook connects the filament and the basal body so that, as the basal body rotates, it exerts a torque on the filament, which can thereby spin and propel the bacterium forward or backward

Distinguish between fluid and crystallized intelligence

Fluid intelligence consists of problem-solving skills, while crystallized intelligence is more related to using learned skills and knowledge --measures of cognition that both decline with age

Fluoresence

Fluorescent substances can be excited using UV radiation, whose photons have relatively high frequencies --after being excited to a higher energy state, the electron in the fluorescent substances returns to its original state in two or more steps --by doing so, each step involves less energy and thus the photon is emitted with a lower frequency than the absorbed ultraviolet photon --if the wavelength of this emitted photon is within the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum, it will be seen as light of the particular color corresponding to that wavelength

Gene therapy

Gene therapy is intended for diseases in which a given gene is mutated or inactive --by transferring a normal copy of the gene into the affected tissues, the pathology should be fixed --for gene therapy to be realistic, efficient gene delivery vectors must be used to transfer the cloned gene into the target cells' DNA (most are modified viruses) --randomly integrated DNA poses a risk of integrating near and activating a host oncogene

Describe general adaptation syndrome and list its three stages

General adaptation syndrome outlines the sequence of physiologic in response to stress and includes alarm, resistance and exhaustion steps

Acid equivalents and gram equivalent weight

Gram equivalent weight is the amount of a compound needed to generate one equivalent of whatever we are talking about H₂SO₄ has a molar mass of 98g/mol, so 49g of H₂SO₄ is needed to generate one equivalent of H₃O⁺

Define hypothesis testing and list the three factors that influence it

Hypothesis testing involves mathematically calculating probabilities that two means are truly different and not just the result of random chance These probabilities are dependent on three factors: --difference between the means --the scatter of the data --number of subjects tested

Hypothyroidism

Hypothyroidism may result from either an iodine deficiency or inflammation of the thyroid --characterized by insufficient secretion of thyroid hormones that manifests in lethargy, decreased body temperature, slowed respiration/HR, cold intolerance and weight gain --most children are tested for appropriate levels at birth because deficiencies will result in cretinism, characterized by mental retardation and developmental delay

Intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL)

IDL exists as a transition particle between triacylglycerol transport (associated with chylomicrons and VLDL) and cholesterol transport (associated with LDL and HDL) --some IDL picks up cholesteryl esters from HDL to become LDL --some VLDL becomes IDL after triacylglycerols are removed for absorption in tissues

Naming anhydrides

If R, R' are methyl groups, this molecule would be called methanoic anhydride --symmetric If R, R' are methyl and ethyl groups, respectively, this molecule would be called ethanoic methanoic anhydride (or acetic formic anhydride) --asymmetric

Finding outliers using standard deviation

If a data point falls more than three standard deviations from the mean, it is considered an outlier

Describe forced oscillation

If a frequency of the applied force is close to that of the natural frequency of the system, the amplitude of oscillation becomes much larger --pushing a child on a swing --the amplitude is increasing because the force frequency is nearly identical to the swing's natural frequency

Single slit diffraction overview

If a lens is placed between a narrow slit and a screen, a pattern is observed consisting of a bright central fringe, with alternating dark and bright fringes on each side of this --the central maximum is twice as wide as the bright fringes on the sides, and widens more as the slit is narrowed

Tetantus

If a muscle fiber is exposed to frequent and prolonged stimulation, it will have insufficient time to relax --the contractions will combine, become stronger and more prolonged in process called frequency summation --if the contractions become so frequent that the muscle is unable to relax, tetanus results, leading to muscle fatigue over prolonged periods

Relationship between temperature and Keq

If a reaction is endothermic, heat functions as a reactant, while in exothermic reactions, it behaves like a product (as shown) -unlike the effect of changing concentrations or pressures, the result of changing temperature is not a change in Q, but in Keq

What happens if implantation occurs during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle?

If fertilization occurs, the resulting zygote will develop into a blastocyst that will implant in the uterine lining, where it begins secrete human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) --hCG is an LH analog, and serves to maintain the corpus luteum as LH levels from the pituitary fall. --thus, estrogen and progesterone secreted from the CL continue to maintain the uterine lining during the first trimester --by the second trimester, the placenta begins secreting enough progesterone and estrogen to maintain the lining itself, and hCG levels begin to decline --the high levels of estrogen and progesterone continue to serve as negative feedback mechanisms on the hypothalamus, preventing GnRH secretion

Ion product and Ksp in solution equilibria

Ion product (IP) is equivalent to Q for other chemical reactions --concentrations used in the ion product equation are the concentrations of the ionic constituents at a given moment in time, which may differ from equilibrium concentrations IP < Ksp: unsaturated, solution will continue to dissolve IP = Ksp: saturated, rates of dissolution and precipitation are the same and the solution is at equilibrium IP > Ksp: supersaturation, precipitation will occur

Ionization energy definition and trends

Ionization energy refers to the energy needed to remove an electron (this is always an endothermic process!) --the subsequent removal of a second or third electron requires increasing amounts of energy because the removal of more than one electron means that the electrons are being removed from an increasingly cationic species

Kinetic and thermodynamic enolate products are favored under what conditions?

Kinetic enolate products are formed more rapidly but are less stable: -rapid, irreversible reactions -lower temperatures -with use of a strong, sterically-hindered base Thermodynamic products are formed more slowly but are more stable: -slow, reversible reactions -higher temperatures -smaller bases

Ketogenesis

Ketogenesis occurs in the mitochondria of liver cells in the fasting state when excess acetyl-CoA accumulates 1. HMG-CoA synthase forms HMG-CoA 2. HMG-CoA lyase breaks down HMG-CoA into acetoacetate, which is often reduced to 3-hydroxybutyrate

Kinetic friction --definition --equation

Kinetic friction exists between a sliding object and the surface over which it slides -note that unlike static friction, kinetic friction will have a constant value --begins to slide on ice (not rolling on pavement)

Solubility rules

Know rules 1 + 2 (group 1, nitrates and acetates) -common insoluble exceptions are Pb²⁺ and Ag⁺

Note about empirical formulas

Know that ionic compounds such as NaCl and CaCO₃ will only have empirical formulas

Leucine Structure Polar or nonpolar side chain? Positive, negative or neutral side chain at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Leucine Nonpolar side chain Neutral side chain at physiologic pH Nonaromatic Hydrophobic

Leukocytes in blood

Leukocytes usually comprise less than 1 percent of total blood volume --categorized as either granulocytes or agranulocytes

Lewis base definition

Lewis bases are defined as electron pair donors

Umbilical arteries and veins

Like all other arteries that carry blood away from the heart, umbilical arteries carry blood away from the fetus and toward the placenta Like all other veins that carry blood toward the heart, the umbilical vein carries blood toward the fetus from the placenta

Molecular geometry for molecules with 5 regions of electron density as follows: -2 atoms bonded to the central atom with 3 lone pairs

Linear

Functions of NADPH

NADPH acts primarily as an electron donor (reducing agent) in a variety of reactions --biosynthesis, mainly of fatty acids and cholesterol --maintaining a supply of reduced glutathione to protect against reactive oxygen species --lysosomes

Physiological revolution

Name given to the fifth conflict according to Erikson's psychosocial development, that between identity and role confusion -as children enter adolescence (ages 12-20), their bodies are changing, sometimes in uncomfortable ways, and at the same time they must answer the question, "who am I?"

What is the normality of a 2M solution of Mg(OH)₂?

Normality = (molarity)(n), where n is the number of equivalents -(2M)(2 equivalents of base/mol Mg(OH)₂) -4N solution of Mg(OH)₂

What are nucleotides?

Nucleotides are formed when one or more phosphate groups are attached to C5' of the sugar moiety of a nucleoside --these are high-energy compounds because of the energy associated with the repulsion between closely associated negative charges on the phosphate groups

Explain observation studies and list the three types

Observation studies are used to study certain causal associations for which an experiment cannot be performed for ethical or practical reasons --these do not demonstrate causality, although the tendency toward casualty may be demonstrated using Hill's criteria --the three types of observational studies are cohort, cross-sectional and case-control studies

Describe the four stages of demographic transition -mnemonic

PEMP Stage 1: Preindustrial -birth/death rates high Stage 2: Early industrial -improvements in healthcare, nutrition, sanitation and wages cause death rates to drop Stage 3: Mature industrial Birth rates start to drop with shift from an agricultural to industrial economy, as well as improvements in contraception and women's rights Stage 4: Post-industrial Industrialized society: birth/death rates low

Pacinian corpuscles --stimulus? --deep or shallow? --rapid or slow adaptation?

Pacinian corpuscles: --stimulated by vibration, deep pressure --deep (large receptive field) --rapid adaptation

Panic disorder

Panic disorder is an anxiety disorder characterized by recurring panic attacks, causing a series of intense episodes of extreme anxiety during these attacks

Penetrance vs. expressivity

Penetrance is defined as the proportion of individuals in the population carrying the gene who actually express the phenotype Expressivity is defined as varying phenotypes despite identical genotypes

Henry's law

The partial pressure of a solute just above the solution's surface is directly proportional to its concentration

REM rebound

REM rebound is the lengthening and increasing frequency and depth of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep which occurs after periods of sleep deprivation

Distinguish between race and ethnicity

Race is a social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people, while ethnicity is a social construct which sorts people by cultural factors including language and religion --one can choose whether or not to display ethnic identity, while racial identities are always on display

Describe the purpose of randomization in experimental research on human subjects

Randomization is the method used to control for differences between subject groups in experimental research --once each individual is assigned to either a treatment or control group by an appropriate algorithm, the intervention is performed and the results measured

Social loafing

Social loafing is the phenomenon of people exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when they work alone

Stereotypes

Stereotypes occur when attitudes and impressions are based on limited and superficial information about a person or a group of individuals

Atrioventricular valves

The atria are separated from the ventricles by the atrioventricular valves --the valve between the RA and RV is known as the tricuspid valve --the valve between the LA and LV is known as the mitral (bicuspid) valve LAB RAT

Cognitive component of attitude

The cognitive component of attitudes refer to the beliefs, thoughts, and attributes that we would associate with an object -many times a person's attitude might be based on the negative and positive attributes they associate with an object and provides justification for the other two components of attitude -knowing snakes are dangerous and sometimes poisonous provides a reason to be afraid of them (affective component) and to avoid them (behavioral component)

Cognitive neoassociation model

The cognitive neoassociation model states that we are more likely to respond to others aggressively when we are feeling negative emotions -psychological and situational predictors, like being angry, hungry, and hot makes one more prone to aggression

Explain the cognitive response associated with emotion

The cognitive response is one of three experiences associated with emotion -subjective interpretation of the feeling being experienced -determination of one's emotion in this way is largely based on memories of past experiences and perception of the cause of the emotion

Glycerol-3-phosphate shuttle

The cytosol contains one isoform of glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase that oxidizes cytosolic NADH --> NAD⁺ while forming GAP and DHAP --on the outer face of the inner mitochondrial membrane is another isoform that is FAD-dependent - the FAD is the oxidizing agent and ends up being reduced --once reduced, FADH₂ proceeds to transfer its electrons to the ETC via complex II, generating 1.5 ATP for every molecule of cytosolic NADH that participates in this pathway

Decay constant and half-life

The decay constant is equal to ln(2) over the half life

Normative conformity

The desire to fit into a group out of fear of rejection

Electromotive force

The electromotive force is the potential difference between the two terminals of a galvanic (voltaic) cell when no charge is moving between them

Enteric nervous system

The enteric nervous system is a collection of one hundred million neurons that governs the function of the GI system --these are present in the walls of the digestive tract and trigger peristalsis, rhythmic contractions of the gut tube used to move materials through the system --this system can function independently of the brain and spinal cord, although it is heavily regulated by the autonomic nervous system

Relate the equilibrium constant Keq to the rate law, k

The equilibrium constant is equal to the rate constant for the forward reaction (k₁) divided by the rate constant for the reverse reaction (k⁻₁) for reversible reactions

Functional fixedness

The inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner --recall Duncker's candle problem

Main function of the large intestine and three divisions

The large intestine is primarily involved in water absorption and can be divided into three sections -cecum, colon, rectum -note that the small intestine actually absorbs more water than the large intestine

How are median values calculated?

The median value for a set of data is its midpoint, where half of data points are greater than the median value, and half are smaller --in data sets with an even number of values, the median wll be the mean of the two central data points [(n+1)/2] --in data sets with an odd number of values, the median will be on of the data points --the median tends to be the less susceptible to outliers, but may not be useful for data sets with very large ranges

Molecular clock model

The more similar the genomes between two species, the more recently they separated from each other evolutionarily -by comparing DNA sequences between different species, scientists can quantify the degree of similarity between two organisms

Perceiver component of social perception

The perceiver is influenced by experience, motives and emotional state

Cultural relativism

The perception of another culture as different from one's own, but with the recognition that the cultural values, mores and rules of a culture fit within that culture itself --no judgment, just different

Peripheral nervous system

The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerve tissue and fibers outside of the brain and spinal cord, such as the 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves --the PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body and can itself be subdivided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems

Describe the shadow archetype espoused by Jung's theory of psychoanalytic personality

The persona archetype is an unconscious aspect of the personality which the conscious ego does not identify in itself -because one tends to reject or remain ignorant of the least desirable aspects of one's personality, the shadow is largely negative

Describe the persona archetype espoused by Jung's theory of psychoanalytic personality

The persona archetype is the social face we present to the world -we adapt this persona through emphasizing qualities that improve our social standing, and suppressing other, less desirable qualities

Postprandial (absorptive) state

The postprandial state generally lasts for 3-5 hours after eating and is marked by greater anabolism than catabolism --just after eating, blood glucose levels rise, simulating the release of insulin The three major targets of insulin are the liver, muscle and adipose tissue --insulin promotes glycogen synthesis in liver and muscle --once glycogen stores are filled , the liver converts excess glucose to fatty acids and triacylglycerols --insulin also promotes triacylglycerol synthesis in adipose tissue and protein synthesis in muscle --after a meal, most of the energy needs of the liver are met by the oxidation of excess amino acids Remember that nerve tissue and RBCs are insensitive to the actions of insulin --nervous tissue derives energy from oxidizing glucose to CO₂ and water in both the well-fed and normal fasting states (only in prolonged fasting does this situation change) --RBCs can only use glucose anaerobically for all their energy needs, regardless of the individual's metabolic state

Somatic nervous system

The somatic nervous system is part of the PNS and consists of the sensory and motor neurons distributed through the skin, joints and muscles --sensory neurons transmit information through afferent fibers --motor impulses travel along efferent fibers

Standard enthalpy of formation

The standard enthalpy of formation of a compound is the enthalpy required to produce one mole of a compound from its elements in their standard states (298K and 1 atm) -from the chemical reaction formula, the coefficients are included in the equation as well -the standard enthalpy of formation of an element in its standard state is zero

Boiling point

The temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient pressure -vapor pressure increases as temperature increases, because more molecules have sufficient kinetic energy to escape into the gas phase -vapor pressure resists the ambient pressure

Temporal lobe --area of the brain --associated structures and functions

The temporal lobe is found most laterally of the lobes of the cortex Associated structures: Auditory cortex --primary site of most sound processing, including speech and music Wernicke's area --site of language reception/comprehension The temporal lobe also contains structures that function in memory processing and emotion

Confirmation bias

The tendency to focus on information that fits an individual's beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them

Cultural attribution

The type of culture an individual is a part of plays a major role in the types of attributions the individual makes -individualists (American/european cultures) are more likely to attribute behavior to dispositional factors, whereas collectivists (asian/african societies) are more likely to attribute behavior to situational factors

Electric field magnitude at a point in space some distance from a source charge

This does not require the presence of other (test) charges

Aldol condensation

This reaction produces an aldol (aldehyde +alcohol) from two aldehydes, two ketones, or one of each -catalytic base deprotonates α-carbon of the first aldehyde/ketone to produce an enolate ion -the enolate ion attacks the carbonyl carbon of the second aldehyde/ketone that is protonated to form the aldol The product of aldol addition is a β-hydroxy aldehyde or ketone, which readily undergoes dehydration to yield an αβ-unsaturated aldehyde or ketone -dehydration proceeds with deprotonation of the α-carbon

Self-serving bias

This refers to the fact that individuals will view their own successes based on internal factors, while viewing failures based on external factors --influenced by factors like locus of control and self-enhancement

Distinguish between internal and external loci of control

Those with an internal locus of control view themselves as controlling their own fate, while those with an external locus of control feel that the events in their lives are caused by luck or outside influences -the term locus of control refers to the way we characterize the influence in our lives

Relationship between T3 and T4 and distinguishing features

Thyroid hormone levels are kept relatively constant, and do not generally undulate with changes in metabolic state --the increase in metabolic rate by thyroxine (T₄) occurs after a latency of several hours but may last several days, while triiodothyronine (T₃) produces a more rapid increase in metabolic rate and has a shorter during of activity --T₄ can be thought of as the precursor of T₃ - deiodonases in target tissue can convert the former to the latter

How does one calculate the position of the first quartile (Q₁)?

To calculate the position of the first quartile in a set of data sorted in ascending order, multiply the number of values in the data set by 0.25 --if this is a whole number, the quartile is the mean of the value at this position and the next highest positions --if this is a decimal, round up the next whole number, and take that as a quartile position

Total internal reflection

Total internal reflection occurs when all light incident on a boundary is reflected back into the original material --this occurs when moving from a medium with a higher refractive index to one with a lower refractive index (n₁ > n₂) at any angle of incidence above the critical angle

Put the following configurational isomer newman projections in order of decreasing potential energy Gauche Eclipsed Antistaggered Totally eclipsed

Totally eclipsed (0°) > Eclipsed (120°) > Gauche (60°) > Antistaggered (180°)

Molecular geometry for molecules with 3 regions of electron density as follows: -3 atoms bonded to the central atom with 0 lone pairs

Trigonal planar

Uncompetitive inhibitor

Uncompetitive inhibitors bind the enzyme-substrate complex, preventing the release of the substrate -Km, Vmax decrease proportionally --curves for activity with and without an uncompetitive inhibitor are parallel

Urbanization

Urbanization refers to dense areas of population creating a pull for migration --most have areas that are more socioeconomically well-off and others that are more impoverished

Hybridization and molecular orbitals

Use the picture to determine the 's' character of each type of hybridization

Magnetic force that a current-carrying wire experiences when placed in a magnetic field

Use the same right hand rule used for moving charges to find the direction of the force --Thumb points in the direction of L (current), finger points in the direction of B --Force is in the direction of palm for positive charges, back of hand for negative charges

Venturi flow meter

Used to demonstrate Bernoulli's equation -as the cross-sectional area decreases from point 1 to point 2, the linear speed must increase according to the continuity equation -as the dynamic pressure increases, the absolute pressure must decrease at point 2 -with a lower absolute pressure comes less fluid in the column

Jacob-Monod Model -four basic parts to know

Used to describe the structure and function of operons -in this model, operons contain structural genes, an operator site, a promoter site and a regulator gene -the regulator gene codes for the repressor protein -the polymerase binds the promoter, when appropriate -the repressor binds the operator site -the structural gene codes for the protein of interest

Henderson-Hasselbach equations for weak acid and weak base buffer solutions

Used to estimate the pH or pOH of a buffer solution, For a weak acid buffer solution: pH = pKa + log ([A⁻/HA]) For a weak base solution: pOH = pKb + log ([B+/BOH])

What are the seven hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary?

Using the acronym, FLAT PEG FSH LH ACTH TSH Prolactin Endorphins Growth hormone Notably, the first four are trophic hormones while the latter three are direct hormones

Stanford-Binet IQ equation

Using this equation, a four-year-old with intelligence abilities at the level of a six-year-old would have an IQ of 150

Describe the termination phase of translation

When any of the three stop codons move into the A site, a protein called release factor binds to the termination codon, causing a water molecule to be added to the polypeptide chain --this allows peptidyl transferase and termination factors to hydrolyze the completed polypeptide chain from the final tRNA --the polypeptide chain will then be released from the tRNA in the P site, and the two ribosomal subunits will dissociate

Nuclear equations and atomic/mass numbers

When balancing nuclear equations, it is important to balance the number of nucleons on both sides by balancing the atomic and mass numbers

Ketolysis in the brain

When fasting for over a week, the brain begins to derive up to 2/3 of its energy from ketone bodies Here, when ketone bodies are metabolized to acetyl-CoA, PDH is inhibited, and glucose uptake in the brain decreases --this spares essential protein in the body, which otherwise would be catabolized to form glucose by gluconeogenesis in the liver, and allows the brain to indirectly metabolize fatty acids as ketone bodies

Micturition reflex

When the bladder is full, stretch receptors convey to the nervous system that the bladder requires emptying --this cause parasympathetic activation, causing the detrusor muscle lining the bladder to contract --this contraction causes the internal sphincter (under autonomic control) to relax The individual can then choose to relax the external sphincter, or maintain its tone to delay urination for a more appropriate time

Distinguish between bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals

When two atomic orbitals combine, they form molecular orbitals Molecular orbitals are obtained mathematically by adding or subtracting the wave functions of the atomic orbitals --if the signs of the wave functions are the same, a lower-energy (more stable) bonding orbital is produced --if the signs are different, a higher-energy (less stable) antibonding orbital is produced

Blunting affect

While a flat affect refers to one in which virtually no signs of emotional expression are seen, a blunting affect is one in which there is a severe reduction in intensity of expression -these are both subtypes of disturbance of affect, one of the possible negative symptoms of psychotic disorders including schizophrenia

Zero-order reactions --define --describe the concentration vs. time graph

Zero-order reactions are those in which the rate of formation of a product is independent of changes in concentrations of any of the reactants -rate = k[A]⁰[B]⁰ = k -changing temperature or adding a catalyst is the only way to change the rate of a zero-order reaction, according to the Arrhenius equation Plotting the graph on a concentration vs. time cure results in a linear graph with a slope opposite of the rate constant -indicates that the rate of formation of product is independent of the c

Zymogens

Zymogens contain a catalytic domain and a regulatory domain --The regulatory domain must be removed or altered to expose the active site --trypsinogen -->trypsin

Equation to determine speed of light in a medium

c = speed of light v = speed of light in another medium These give the index of refraction, which differ by material but are always greater than 1, indicating that the speed of light in any medium other than a vacuum will be less than c

Various types of fatty acid oxidation to be aware of

β-oxidation is the main form of fatty acid catabolism that occurs in the mitochondria, though some occurs in the peroxisome as well α-oxidation also occurs in branched-chain fatty acids, depending on the branch points ω-oxidation occurs in the ER to produce dicarboxylic acids

Resistance equation

ρ = resistivity --some materials are intrinsically better conductors of electricity than others --function of temperature as well - most conductors have greater resistance at higher temperatures

Sperm structure

--acrosomal cap that is necessary to penetrate the ovum --head consisting of the genetic material --midpiece containing mitochondria for ATP production from fructose for energy used as the sperm swims --flagellum for motility

Calculate the concentration of H₃O⁺ in a 2.0M solution of acetic acid, CH₃COOH (Ka = 1.8x10⁻⁵)

1. Write out the equilibrium equation CH₃COOH(aq) + H₂O <--> H₃O⁺(aq) + CH₃COO⁻(aq) 2. Write out the equation for Ka Ka = [H₃O⁺][CH₃COO⁻]/[CH₃COOH] = 1.8x10⁻⁵ Ka = [x][x]/[2.0M-x] = 1.8x10⁻⁵ -Because the molarity of the acid is so high, the contribution of H₃O⁺ is negligible -this will almost always be the case for your purposes Ka = [x][x]/[2.0M] = 1.8x10⁻⁵

Distinguish between positive and negative image distances for mirrors

A positive image distance means that it is a real image (located in front of the mirror), while a negative distance means it is a virtual image (located behind the mirror)

Positively-skewed distribution

A positively-skewed distribution has a tail on the right side --the mean of such distributions will be higher than the median --also known as right-skewed or right-tailed

List the analogous proteins in prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA replication that carry out the following functions: DNA synthesis Removing Primer Replacement of RNA with DNA

DNA synthesis: (P) DNA polymerase III (E) DNA polymerases α + δ work together to synthesize both the leading and lagging strands, while δ fills in the gaps once the primer is removed Removing Primer: (P) DNA polymerase I (E) RNAse H Replacement of RNA with DNA: (P) DNA polymerase I (E) DNA polymerase δ All other proteins are identical between these two

Glycogenolysis and debranching enzyme

Debranching enzyme is a two-enzyme complex that deconstructs the branches in glycogen that have been exposed by glycogen phosphorylase --it first breaks an α-1,4 adjacent to the branch point, moving the small oligoglucose chain that is released to the exposed end of the other chain, where it forms a new α-1,4 --finally, it hydrolyzes the α-1,6 bond, releasing the single residue at the branch point as free glucose

Spontaneous recovery

If an extinct conditioned stimulus is presented again, a weak conditioned response can sometimes be exhibited

Write out the doppler effect equation

If memorized in this form, the upper sign should be used when the detector (upper) or source (lower) is moving toward the other, while the lower sign should be used when either the detector or the source is moving away from the other

Narcissistic personality disorder

Narcissistic personality disorder is characterized by a grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness and are constantly concerned with how others view them -need for admiration due to low self-esteem -cluster B personality disorder

What is the critical period for language acquisition?

Nativists believe that the critical period for language is between the age of two years and puberty --later training is largely ineffective

Kinsey scale

The Kinsey scale describes sexuality on a 0-6 scale, with zero representing exclusive heterosexuality and six representing exclusive homosexuality --a significant proportion of the population falls somewhere between the two

Km and Vmax in ion channels

The Km and Vmax parameters that apply to enzymes are also applicable to transporters such as ion channels in membranes -remember what these are?

M line of the sarcomere

The M line runs down the center of the sarcomere, through the middle of the myosin filaments

Describe the fifth conflict of Erikson's psychosocial development model and its onset

The fifth conflict of Erikson's psychosocial development model is that of identity vs. role confusion -occurs between 12-20 years --Identity brings fidelity and a sense of uniqueness, while confusion brings amorphous personality that changes daily --this stage encompasses what Erikson calls the physiological revolution

Transcription of DNA to hnRNA

The first base transcribed from DNA to RNA is defined as the +1 base of that gene region -bases to the left of this start point (upstream, toward the 5' end) are given negative numbers -bases to the right (downstream, toward the 3' end are denoted with positive numbers -note where the RNA polymerase binds

Describe the first conflict of Erikson's psychosocial development model and its onset

The first conflict of Erikson's psychosocial development model is that of trust vs. mistrust -occurs between 0-1 year -if trust wins, child trusts environment and self, while if mistrust wins, child will be suspicious of the world

First phase of Kohlberg's moral reasoning model -when does it develops? -what is emphasized? -name the two stages involved

The first of Kohlberg's moral reasoning model is known as the preconventional morality phase - present in preadolescence -morality of an action is judged by its direct consequences -stage 1 is obedience, stage 2 is self-interest

Prophase of mitosis

The first step in prophase involves condensation of chromatin in the nucleus into chromosomes --centrioles move toward opposite poles of the cell Once the centrioles migrate to their respective centrosomes, they begin to form spindle fibers made of microtubules --some microtubules form asters that anchor the centrioles to the cell membrane, while others called kinetochore fibers move toward the the middle of the cell --the nuclear membrane breaks down, allowing the kinetochore fibers to contact the chromosomes

What is the first step to be done when solving any solution stoichiometric or solution equilibrium question?

The first step is to write out the balanced dissociation reaction -this is the case for every solution chemistry problem

Foot-in-the-door technique

The foot-in-the-door technique is a compliance tactic that involves getting a person to agree to a large request by first setting them up by having that person agree to a modest request -classmate asks to borrow your notes, then after you agree to this, asks you later to make copies for him because he does not have access to a copier

Thought broadcasting

Thought broadcasting is a common delusion in which there is a belief that one's thoughts are broadcast directly from one's head to the external world

Capacitance equation

= Q/V ε₀ = permittivity of free space A = area of overlap of the two plates d = distance between the plates

Hess's law

Applies to any state function (TV PHUGED)

Bilirubin

Bilirubin is a byproduct of hemoglobin breakdown and is the major pigment in bile --bilirubin travels to the liver where it is conjugated and secreted into bile for excretion

Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences

Red/orange are those most valued by Western culture

Cues -three types

Cues are used to help understand the behavior of others, contributing to the attribution theory -includes consistency, consensus, and distinctiveness cues

Distinguish between the following: Cultural capital Social capital Economic capital

Cultural capital: non-financial social assets -knowledge, skills, education Social capital: connections Economic capital: money and property

Nucleosome structure and function

Nucleosomes are composed of DNA wrapped around histone proteins -formed using two copies of the histone proteins H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 form a histone core, around which ~200bp of DNA are wrapped -together, nucleosomes create a much more organized and compacted DNA -nucleosomes are examples of nucleoproteins (proteins that associate with DNA)

Write out the equations for wavelength and frequency for waves produced by a string fixed at either end

n is equal to the harmonic -these equations are also true for open pipes, but not for closed pipes

Advantages/disadvantages of Nickel-cadmium batteries

•Advantages: •Rechargeable •Various sizes and capacities •Pretty good life cycle •higher surge currents (periods of large current early in the discharge cycle) that are important in appliances that demand rapid responses, such as a remote control •Disadvantages: •Expensive compared to lead-storage batteries •Non-eco friendly material (heavy metal cadmium) These have largely been replaced by nickel-metal hydride batteries

Standard gibbs free energy change

∆G(rxn)= ∆G°(rxn) + RTlnQ = RTln[Q/Keq] --the greater the value of Keq, the more positive the value of its natural log --if the ratio of (Q/Keq) is less than one, the natural log will be negative and the reaction will proceed spontaneously until equilibrium is reached --if the ratio is greater than one, the natural log will be positive and the free energy change will be positive, and the reaction will proceed in the reverse direction until equilibrium is reached --remember that ∆G° for any element under standard state conditions is zero

Pressure differentials in circulation

∆P = CO x TPR --think of this as a version of Ohm's law --the largest drop in pressure occurs across arterioles, necessary due to the thin-walled nature of capillaries, thus unable to withstand the pressure --arterioles and capillaries have the largest effect on TPR

Write out the first law of thermodynamics and define each parameter

∆U is the change in internal energy of a system Q is the heat added to the system -heat added to the system is positive, heat removed from the system is negative W is work done by the system -work done by the system is positive, and work done on the system is negative *note this is in relation to the negative term in the equation already*

Write out the steps of glycolysis including enzymes, NAD/NADH and ADP/ATP

Glucokinase (muscle) / Hexokinase (liver)

How does one calculate the interquartile range (IQR)?

(Remember how we find Q₃,Q₁?)

Action potential generation and repolarization

1-2. When summation is sufficient to bring the cell to threshold (~-50mV), this triggers the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels 3-4. When Vm approaches +35mV, the sodium channels are inactivated and voltage-gated potassium channels open --Na channels will have to be brought back near the resting potential to be re-activated 5. Positively-charged potassium cations are driven out of the cell, causing repolarization 6-7. Potassium efflux causes an overshoot, creating a refractory period that is first absolute and later relative 8. The Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase acts to restore the sodium and potassium gradients that have been partially dissipated by the action potential

List the six parts of the limbic system that are involved in emotion

1. Amygdala 2. Thalamus 3. Hypothalamus 4. Hippocampus/fornix 5. Septal nuclei 6. Cerebral cortex

Review the eight factors that are indicative of Groupthink

1. Illusion of invulnerability - encouragement of risk-taking 2. Collective rationalization - ignoring warnings against the ideas of the group 3. Illusion of morality - belief that the group's decisions are morally correct 4. Excessive stereotyping - the construction of stereotypes against outside opinions 5. Pressure for conformity - viewing opposition as disloyal 6. Self-censorship - withholding opposing views 7. Illusion of unanimity - false sense of agreement within the group 8. Mindguards - appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views

Bacterial growth curve

1. In a new environment, the bacteria first adapt to new local conditions, called the lag phase 2. As the bacteria adapt, growth increases, causing an exponential increase in the number of bacteria in colony during the exponential phase (log phase) 3. As the number of bacteria in the colony grows, resources are often reduced, slowing reproduction that results in the stationary phase 4. After bacteria have exceeded the ability of the environment to support the number of bacteria, a death phase occurs as resources in the environment have been depleted

Right hand rule for direction of magnetic force on a moving charge

1. Place your thumb in the direction of the velocity vector of the moving charge 2. Put your fingers in the direction of the magnetic field 3. Your palm will point in the direction of the magnetic force on the positive charge, while the back of your hand will point in the direction of the force on a negative charge

Straight, current-carrying wires and the right-hand rule

1. Point thumb in the direction of the current and wrap fingers of the right hand around the wire 2. Fingers mimic the circular field lines, curling around the wire

List the three phases of Kohlberg's moral reasoning personality development model and general timeline

1. Preconventional morality -preadolescence 2. Conventional morality -early adolescence 3. Postconventional morality -may never develop

Digestion of lipids occurs in what three locations? -enzymes?

1. Salivary lipase in the mouth 2. Pancreatic lipase in the duodenum 3. Bile micelles in the small intestine

List the three most common types of problem-solving

1. Trial-and-error 2. Algorithms (formulas, instructions, procedures) 3. Deductive/inductive reasoning

Smallest components of the following dietary staples that can be absorbed into the small intestine?

2-monoacylglycerols and fatty acids Monosaccharides -glucose, galactose and fructose Amino acids, di- and tripeptides

What are the boundaries of the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum?

400nm - 700nm

Avagadro's number and significance

6.022x10^23 (remember this is a dimensionless unit that can apply to many different things) 1 mole of carbon atoms is equal to its atomic weight (12g/mol), so 6.022x10^23 carbon atoms weighs 12 grams, for example

Southern blotting and DNA

A Southern blot is used to detect the presence and quantity of various DNA strands in a sample --often run following gel electrophoresis, the fragments are then carefully transferred to a membrane in order to retain their separation, after which the membrane is probed with many copies of a ssDNA sequence --the probe will bind to its complementary sequence and form double-stranded DNA, and are used to indicate the presence of a desired compound

Base rate fallacy

A base rate fallacy is committed when a person judges that an outcome will occur without considering prior knowledge of the probability that it will occur. They focus on other information that isn't relevant instead --imagine that I show you a bag of 250 M&Ms with equal numbers of 5 different colors. Then, I ask you what the probability is I will pick a green one while my eyes are closed? I also tell you that green M&Ms are my favorite and yesterday I picked out twice as many green M&Ms than red ones. --if you ignored the fact that there are 50 of each color, and instead focused on the fact that I picked out twice as many green M&Ms than red yesterday, you have committed a base rate fallacy because what I did yesterday is irrelevant information

Bureaucracy

A bureaucracy is a rational system of political organization, administration, discipline and control -this is considered the characteristic institution of modern society

Equation for the thermal expansion of solids

A change in the temperature of most solids results in a change in their length according to the equation shown -α is the coefficient of linear expansion, which characterizes how a specific metal's length changes as temperature changes

Directional alternative hypotheses

A directional alternative hypothesis states that the null hypothesis is wrong, and also specifies whether the true value of the parameter is greater than or less than the reference value specified in null hypothesis --the advantage of using a directional hypothesis is increased power to detect the specific effect you are interested in --the disadvantage is that there is no power to detect an effect in the opposite direction A researcher has exam results for a sample of students who took a training course for a national exam. The researcher wants to know if trained students score above the national average of 850. A directional alternative hypothesis can be used because the researcher is specifically hypothesizing that scores for trained students are greater than the national average. (H₀: μ = 850 vs. H₁: μ > 850)

Situation component of social perception

A given social situation can determine what information is available to the perceiver when making perceptions about a target

What is a group?

A group consists of two or more people who share similar characteristics and a sense of unity -includes family, peer, and reference groups -common characteristics shared by social groups include values, interests, ethnicity, social background, family ties and political representation

Subcultures

A group of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong -such as race, gender and sexuality from the whole of society overall -symbolic attachment to things such as clothing or music can differentiate the group from the majority

Define heuristics and list the two types

A heuristic is any approach to problem solving, learning, or discovery that employs a practical method not guaranteed to be optimal or perfect, but sufficient for immediate decision-making --includes availability and representativeness heuristics

Monohybrid cross --what are the genotypic and phenotypic ratios for homozygous and heterozygous crosses?

A monohybrid cross is the crossing of two individuals in which only one trait is being studied Crossing two parents homozygous for dominant and recessive alleles, respectively, would result in offspring that are 100% genotypically heterozygous, and thus 100% phenotypically dominant Note genotypic/phenotypic ratios

Dihybrid cross --what are the genotypic and phenotypic ratios for homozygous and heterozygous crosses?

A monohybrid cross is the crossing of two individuals in which two traits are being studied If we cross two parents that are heterozygous for both traits in question, then the offspring have a phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1 --9: dominant/dominant --3: dominant/recessive --3: recessive/dominant --1: recessive/recessive Note that the 3:1 phenotypic ratio that is true in monohybrid crosses is also true here, reflecting Mendel's second law --does not hold true for linked genes

Negatively-skewed distribution

A negatively-skewed distribution has a tail on the left side --the mean of such distributions will be lower than the median --also known as left-skewed or left-tailed

Explain the process of adding the 3' poly-A tail to hnRNA

A polyadenosyl (poly-A) tail is added to the 3' end of the mRNA transcript, protecting the mRNA against rapid degradation in the cytoplasm --the longer the tail, the more time the mRNA will be able to survive before being digested in the cytoplasm --the poly-A tail also assists with the export of the mature mRNA from the nucleus

Rechargable cell

A rechargeable cell is one that can function as both a galvanic (voltaic) and electrolytic cell

What is a role?

A role is a set of beliefs, values, attitudes and norms that define expectations for those who hold a particular status

What is a role set?

A role set is the various roles associated with a status --a doctor's role when with other doctors, as well as his role when with patients --recall the three types of statuses

Simple twitch

A simple twitch is the response of a single muscle fiber to a brief stimulus at or above threshold and occurs in three stages The latent period is the time between reaching threshold and the onset of contraction --it is during this time that the action potential spreads along the muscle and allows for calcium to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Teacher expectancy

A teacher's expectancy of a kid influences how that kid will perform -a teacher expects less from a minority student, lowers the bar for the kid, subsequently the kid did not develop his full potential

What does it mean for a thermodynamic process to be isobaric?

A thermodynamic process is isobaric when there is no change in pressure during the process -thus, the work done during this process will equal P∆V

What does it mean for a thermodynamic process to be isothermal?

A thermodynamic process is isothermal when temperature is held constant, resulting in no change in its internal energy -thus, Q = W for these processes

Describe the structure and function of actin

Actin is a protein that makes up microfilaments and the thin filaments in myofibrils --actin proteins have a positive and negative side - this polarity allows motor proteins to travel unidirectionally along an actin filament --most abundant protein in eukaryotic cells

Norepinephrine functions in the body

Acts similarly to epinephrine but more locally --low levels of norepinephrine are associated with depression --high levels are associated with anxiety and mania

Describe Adler's contribution to psychology

Adler broke from the psychoanalyst school by shifting the grounds of psychological determinance from sex and libido to one based on the individual evaluation of world -he gave special prominence to societal factors such as inferiority and drive for superiority

Endothelial cell functions

All blood vessels are lined with endothelial cells, which help to maintain the vessel by releasing chemicals that aid in vasodilation and vasoconstriction -allow white blood cells to pass through the vessel wall and into the tissues during an inflammatory process -release certain chemicals when damaged that are necessary in the formation of blood clots to repair the vessel and stop bleeding

Metabolism in neural tissue

Although the brain represents only two percent of total body weight, it receives 25% of the total glucose, the brain's primary fuel --fatty acids cannot cross the BBB and are not used at all here --between meals, the brain relies on blood glucose supplied by hepatic glycogenolysis or gluconeogenesis --only during prolonged fasting does the brain gain the capacity to use ketone bodies for energy, and even then, the ketone bodies only supply approximately 2/3 of the fuel

Method-of-action of amphetamines and effects

Amphetamines increase the release of dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin at the synapse, while also decreasing their reuptake Effects: --increases arousal, HR/BP --induces euphoria, hypervigilance, delusions of grandeur, paranoia --reduces appetite --decreases need for sleep

What is an attitude?

An attitude is an expression of favor or disfavor toward a person, place, thing, or event. It is a belief that includes an emotional component -includes affective, behavioral and cognitive components

Equipotential lines

An equipotential line is one on which the potential is the same at every point, and thus no work is done when moving a test charge from one point on an equipotential line to another -moving a charge between equipotential lines is proportional to the potential difference between them and the magnitude of the test charge according to the equation for electrical potential, but will be independent of the path taken to get there -note that for a positive test charge such as that pictured, potential decreases as lines move further and further from the positive source charge, while the opposite is true if this source charge is negative

Distinguish between real and virtual images

An image is said to be real if light actually converges at the position of the image, while a virtual image is one in which light only appears to be coming form the position of the image but does not actually converge there Plane mirrors create the appearance of light rays originating behind the mirrored surface --the distances between the real and virtual image and the plane mirror are always the same

B-cell isotype switching

Antibodies come in five different isotypes --IgM, IgG, IgA, IgE, IgD --cells can change which isotype of antibody they produce when stimulated by specific cytokines in a process called isotype switching --the different types can be used at different times during the adaptive immune response, for different types of pathogens, or in different locations in the body

Antioncogenes -one or both alleles required to be mutated?

Antioncogenes are another name for tumor suppressor genes which encode proteins that inhibit the cell cycle or participate in DNA repair processes -p53, Rb are examples -typically, inactivation of both alleles is necessary for loss of function

Pulleys and mechanical advantage

As we saw with the heavy create, each additional pulley lessens the effort needed by each individual pulley, but lengthens the effort distance required to lift the object the desired distance (load distance) -in the first example, the load is divided between the two pulleys, so the effort is only 1/3(w) in each -we need to pull through a length of rope that is twice the load distance In the third example, the load is divided amongst the four pulleys, but we need to pull through a length of rope that is four times the load distance

Describe the ascribed type of status

Ascribed status is given to one involuntarily, due to such factors as race, ethnicity, gender and family background

Gay-Lussac's law

At a constant volume and number of moles, the pressure of a gas is proportional to its absolute temperature (in K): P/T=k, or P₁/T₁=P₂/T₂

Strong acid/strong base titrations

Because HCl is a strong acid and NaOH is a strong base, the equivalence point of the titration will be at a pH of 7 and the solution will be neutral --in the early part of the curve, HCl predominates, so the addition of small amounts of base will not appreciably change [OH⁻]/pH --similarly, after the equivalence point when an excess of base is added, the addition of small amounts of base will not change [OH⁻] or pH significantly --the addition of base WILL alter the concentrations of H⁺ and OH⁻ near the equivalence point, and thus elicit the most substantial changes in pH in that region --remember that the equivalence point will always be at 7 for strong acids and strong bases

Peptide bond resonance

Because amide groups have delocalizable π electrons in the carbonyl and in the long pair on the amino nitrogen, they can exhibit resonance -the C-N bond has partial double bond character -as a result, rotation of the protein backbone around its C-N amide bonds is restricted, making the protein more rigid

Do isotopes exhibit similar chemical properties?

Because isotopes have the same number of protons and electrons, they generally exhibit similar chemical properties

Identify the eight metalloids on a periodic table

Boron Silicon Germanium Arsenic Antimony Tellurium Polonium Astatine These have more disparate properties than metals/nonmetals

Bronsted-Lowry acid definition

Bronsted-Lowry acids are species that donates hydrogen ions

Carboxylic acids in the presence of LiAlH₄

Carboxylic acids can be reduced to primary alcohols via nucelophilic addition of an H- from LiAlH₄ --NaBH₄ is a gentler reducing agent than LiAlH₄ and is not strong enough to reduce carboxylic acids

Cardiac muscle -innervation? -mono- or multi-nucleated? -striated or no?

Cardiac muscle contains features of both skeletal and smooth muscle -innervated by the autonomic nervous system -primarily mononucleated but cells may contain two -striated

Cell migration and development

Cells must be able to disconnect from adjacent structures and migrate to their anatomically correct location --neural crest cells, for example, form at the edge of the neural folds during neurulation and then migrate through the body to form many different structures including the sensory ganglia, autonomic ganglia, adrenal medulla and Schwann cells

Totipotency

Cells with the greatest potency are totipotent and include embryonic stem cells --totipotent stem cells can ultimately differentiate into any cell type, either in the fetus or the placental structures

Distinguish between complete and incomplete dominance

Complete dominance occurs when only one dominant and one recessive allele exists for a given gene, with the dominant allele masking the recessive allele when present (brown and blue eyes) Incomplete dominance occurs when a heterozygote expresses a phenotype that is intermediate between the two homozygous genotypes (red, white and pink flowers)

Consistency cues

Consistency cues refer to the consistent behavior of a person over time -the more regular the behavior, the more we associate that behavior with the motives of the person

RAAS

Decreased blood pressure is sensed by the juxtaglomerular cells in the kidney, which secrete renin in response --renin cleaves angiotensinogen --> angiotensin I --angiotensin I is then converted to angiotensin II by ACE in the lungs, which stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone --as blood pressure is restored, there is a decreased drive to release renin

Biological basis of Parkinson's

Decreased dopamine production in the substantia nigra in the basal ganglia, which is critical to initiating and terminating movements -can be treated with L-dopa, a precursor that is converted to dopamine in the brain to replace what is lost

Delusions of grandeur

Delusions of grandeur are a specific type of delusion that involve the belief that the person is remarkable in some significant way --for example, being an inventor, historical figure or religious icon

Diastereomers

Diastereomers are configurational isomers (a type of stereoisomer) that have different configurations at one or more (but not all) of the equivalent stereo (chiral) centers are are thus not mirror images --remember cis and trans are diastereomers and count towards stereoisomers! --these have distinct chemical and physical properties

Acidity of dicarboxylic acids

Dicarboxylic acids are more acidic than the analogous monocarboxylic acid because the other side is electron-withdrawing --Once one proton is removed, however, the remaining proton on the other side is less acidic than the analogous proton of a monocarboxylic acid due to the double negative charge that repels one another

DNA sequencing

Dideoxyribonucleotides (ddATP, ddCTP, ddGTP, ddTTP), modified to contain a 3' -H group rather than a hydroxyl, are added to a replication reaction -thus, once one of these are incorporated, the polymerase can no longer add to the chain --eventually the sample will contain as many fragments as the number of nucleotides in the sequence, each one of which terminates with one of the modified bases -these fragments are then separated by size using gel electrophoresis -the last base for each fragment can be read, and because gel electrophoresis separates the strands by size, the bases can easily be read in order

Dielectric materials

Dielectrics, insulating materials placed between the plates of a capacitor, cause the electric field inside the capacitor to be reduced for the same amount of charge on the plates -molecules of the dielectric material get polarized in the field, and they align themselves in a way that sets up another field inside the dielectric opposite to the field from the capacitor plates -according to the equation V=Ed, a decrease in the electric field will decrease the voltage across the capacitor, increasing its capacitance

Diffraction

Diffraction refers to the spreading out of light as it passes through a narrow opening

Distinguish between the direct and indirect benefits of selecting a mate

Direct benefits of selecting a mate involve material advantages, protection or emotional support, while indirect benefits involve such things as promoting better offspring -each plays a role in mate bias

Distinguish between direct and tropic hormones

Direct hormones act directly on target tissue, while tropic hormones require an intermediate to act --GnRH, LH are tropic hormones because they do not cause direct changes to physiology, but rather stimulate the production of another hormone (testosterone) by another endocrine gland (testes) that acts directly on tissues

Directional selection

Directional selection is the emergence and dominance of an initially extreme phenotype due to adaptive pressure --mosquitos that are now resistant to DDT, for example

Discrimination in terms of sociology

Discrimination occurs when prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently than others -while prejudice is an attitude, discrimination is behavior

Distinguish between lytic and lysogenic life cycles of viruses

During a lytic cycle, the bacteriophage makes maximal use of the cell's machinery with little regard for the survival of the host cell --once the host is swollen with new virions, the cell lyses, releases the virions to infect neighboring bacteria In the event that the virus does not lyse the bacterium, it may integrate into the host genome as a prophage, beginning the lysogenic cycle --although the virus may remain integrated into the host genome indefinitely, environmental factors will cause the provirus to leave the genome and revert to the lytic cycle at some point --the integration may confer some benefit for the bacterium - infection with one strain phage generally makes the bacterium less susceptible to superinfection (simultaneous infection)

Polarity of ribosomes during translation

During elongation, the ribosome moves in the 5' --> 3' direction along the mRNA, synthesizing the protein from its N --> C terminus

Define echolalia and echopraxia

Echolalia refers to repeating another's words, while echopraxia involves repeating another's actions -both are characteristic of certain types of catatonia, one of the possible positive symptoms of psychotic disorders including schizophrenia

Method-of-action of ecstasy and effects

Ecstasy is a designer amphetamine that increases release of dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin at the synapse while also decreasing their reuptake similarly to these and cocaine, but includes a hallucinogen as well --increases arousal, HR/BP, hyperthermia --induces euphoria, hypervigilance, delusions of grandeur, paranoia --reduces appetite --decreases need for sleep

Force experienced when a test charge is placed in an electric field

Electric fields are produced by source charges, and this measures the force on a test charged placed at some point within the electric field

Electrolytic cells and electrolysis

Electrolytic cells can be used to drive the electrolysis (driven by an external voltage source) of molten NaCl --Na⁺ moves toward the cathode, where it is reduced to Na(l) --Cl⁻ migrates the anode, where it is oxidized to Cl₂(g) Recall that in electrolytic cells, the cathode is considered the negative electrode because it is attached to the negative pole of the external voltage source and attracts cations from the solution

Electronegativity definition and trends

Electronegativity is a measure of the attractive force that an atom will exert on an electron in a chemical bond --nobel gases, actinides, lathiminides have no electronegativity

Electrophoresis electrochemistry

Electrophoresis uses an electrolytic cell --ΔG > 0, ΔEcell < 0 --remember which are the +/- electrodes??

Impact of temperature on enzyme-catalyzed reactions

Enzyme-catalyzed reactions tend to double in velocity for every 10°C increase in temperature until the optimum temperature is reached --after this, activity falls sharply, as the enzyme will denature at high temperatures

Epithelial tissue

Epithelial tissue covers the body and lines its cavities --to remain one cohesive unit, epithelial cells are tightly joined to each other and to an underlying connective tissue known as the basement membrane --these are a highly diverse group of cells that serve numerous functions, most notably the parenchyma, or functional parts of the organ (nephrons in the kidney, hepatocytes in the liver, etc.) --epithelial cells are often polarized, meaning that one side faces the lumen or the outside world, while the other side interacts with blood vessels and structural cells

Distinguish between euchromatin and heterochromatin

Euchromatin is the genetically active DNA that appears light under microscopy Heterochromatin refers to the small percentage of the chromatin that remains compacted during interphase --this appears dark under light microscopy and is transcriptionally silent

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Expectations of certain individuals brought about through stereotypes can create conditions leading to confirmation of those expectations

Explicit memory

Explicit (declarative) memory is long-term memory that involves conscious, intentional recollection of previous experiences and information --can be subdivided into episodic and semantic memory

Mutarotation with regard to sugars

Exposing hemiacetal rings to water will cause them to spontaneously cycle between the open and closed form --this spontaneous change of configuration about C-1 is known as mutarotation, and occurs more rapidly when the reaction is catalyzed with an acid or a base --note that the α-anomer is less favored because the hydroxyl group of the anomeric carbon is axial, adding to steric strain

Expressivity in terms of genetics

Expressivity is defined as varying phenotypes despite identical genotypes --constant expressivity occurs when all individuals with a given genotype express the same phenotype, while variable expressivity occurs when individuals of the same genotype may have different phenotypes

PEN model according to Eysenck

Eysenck used factor analysis to group behaviors that typically occur together and assigned labels to those groups: Psychoticism - a measure of nonconformity or social deviance Extraversion - measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation Neuroticism - measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations

Newton's first law

F = ma = 0 -a body at rest or in motion at a constant velocity will remain that way unless a net force acts upon it -law of inertia

Delusions

False beliefs that are discordant with reality and not shared by others in the individual's culture, maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary -include delusions of reference, persecution and grandeur -one of the possible positive symptoms of psychotic disorders including schizophrenia

Therapeutic ultrasound

Focusing sound waves from an ultrasound machine using a parabolic mirror causes constructive interference at the focal point of the mirror, creating a high-energy wave exactly at that point that can be used in lithotripsy or ablating small tumors

Muscle contraction

Following Ca²⁺ binding to troponin and subsequent conformational changes in tropomyosin that expose the myosin-binding site for actin, myosin carrying hydrolyzed ATP (ADP + Pi) is able to bind with the myosin-binding site The release of the inorganic phosphate and ADP in rapid succession provides the energy for the powerstroke and results in sliding of the actin filament over the myosin filament After the powerstroke, ATP binds to the myosin head, releasing it from actin This ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP, which recocks the myosin head so that it is in position to initiate another cross-bridge cycle --it is thus the dissociation of ADP from myosin that is responsible for the powerstroke, not the binding of ATP

P-value use in directional and nondirectional tests

For a directional test, if the p-value is less than α, we reject the null hypothesis and state that there is a statistically significant difference between the two groups For a nondirectional test, if the p-value is less than α/2, we reject the null hypothesis and state that there is a statistically significant difference between the two groups

Boyle's law

For a given gaseous sample held at a constant temperature and number of moles, the volume of the gas is inversely proportional to the pressure: PV=k, or P₁V₁=P₂V₂

Lensmaker equation

For real lenses (lenses for which thickness cannot be neglected), the focal length is related to the curvature of the lens surfaces and the index of refraction by the lensmakers equation -n = index of refraction of the lens material -r₁ = radius of curvature of the first lens surface -r₂ = radius of curvature of the seecond lens surface

What is the best method of determining the primary structure of an unknown protein?

For small sequences (up to ~70 amino acids), the Edman degradation can be used to selectively and sequentially remove the N-terminal amino acid of the protein, which can then be analyzed via mass spectroscopy Larger proteins are first digested with chymotrypsin/trypsin/cyanogen bromide/synthetic reagent at specific amino acid residues to create smaller fragments which can then be analyzed by electrophoresis or the Edman degradation Because disulfide bonds are broken using this method, we cannot determine their positions using these methods!

Free body diagrams

Free body diagrams are useful in finding net forces on objects on which many forces are acting -find x and y components of each force and add them all together

State the basic tenet of the theory of Freud's psychoanalytic personality

Freud's theory of psychoanalytic personality espouses the assumption of unconscious internal states of tension that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality

What were Freud's three major entities of personality?

Freud's three major entities of personality were the id, ego and superego

Write out the four stages of the menstrual cycle

From menarche to menopause, estrogen and progesterone levels rise and fall cyclically --in response, the endometrial lining will grow and be shed -- it is split into four events: follicular phase, ovulation, luteal phase, and menstruation

Functional autonomy

Functional autonomy is the idea that drives can become independent of the original motives for a given behavior -hunter may continue hunting after killing enough food simply for the enjoyment

GLUT 4 transporter

GLUT 4 is found in adipose tissue and muscle cells with a Km close to the normal glucose levels in the blood (~5mM), meaning that the transporter is saturated when blood glucose levels are just a bit higher than normal --thus, when a person has high blood sugar concentrations, these transporters will still permit only a constant rate of glucose influx because they will be saturated, and thus the only way to increase uptake of glucose is to increase the number of transporters, accomplished by insulin --since they are saturated so near the normal range, this follows zero-order kinetics

Gemeinschaft

Gemeinschaft translates to community -refers to groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry or geography -families and neighborhoods

Inborn errors of metabolism

Genetic diseases resulting in faulty metabolism -for example, PKU (Phenylketonuria) is an inborn error of metabolism where people can't metabolize phenylalanine

Genetic drift and the founder effect

Genetic drift refers to changes in the composition of the gene pool due to chance and tends to be more pronounced in small populations --the founder effect is a more extreme case of genetic drift in which a small population of species finds itself in reproductive isolation from other populations as a result of natural barriers, catastrophic events or other bottlenecks that suddenly and drastically reduce the size of the population available for breeding Because the breeding group is small, inbreeding, or mating between two genetically-related individuals may occur in later generations as a result --inbreeding encourages homozygosity, increasing the prevalence of both homozygous dominant and recessive genotypes Ultimately, these lead to a reduction in genetic diversity, which is often the reason why a small population may have increased prevalence of certain traits and diseases

Glycine Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic?

Glycine Nonpolar side chain Neutral side chain at physiologic pH Nonaromatic Hydrophobic *Only achiral AA*

HDL

HDL is synthesized in the liver and intestines and released as dense, protein-rich particles in the blood --contains apolipoprotein used for cholesterol recovery (cleaning up excess cholesterol from blood vessels for excretion) --like LDL, also delivers some cholesterol to steroidogenic tissues and transfers necessary apolipoprotein to some of the other lipoproteins

Hallucinations

Hallucinations are perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality -auditory are most common, followed by visual/tactile and olfactory/gustatory -one of the possible positive symptoms of psychotic disorders including schizophrenia

What is Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium refers to the notion that allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of other evolutionary influences

Hemiacetal formation in sugars

Hemiacetals are the result of intermolecular reactions in aldoses --in this process, the carbonyl carbon becomes a chiral anomeric carbon (α or β) Results in an anomeric carbon attached to: -OR -OH -R -H

Describe Karen Horney's theory of personality

Horney was a psychoanalyst who theorized that psychological disorders did not arise from fixation on psychosexual stages as Freud taught, but from poor interpersonal relationships during childhood, particularly with parents

Forced oscillation

If a periodically-varying force is applied to a system, the system will be drive at a frequency equal to the frequency of the force, known as forced oscillation -if the frequency of the applied force is close to that of the natural frequency of the system, the amplitude of oscillation becomes much larger because the force frequency is nearly identical to the natural frequency -pushing a child on a swing

Carbaldehyde

If an aldehyde is attached to a ring, the suffix -carbaldehyde is used

Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation

Illustrates the three factors that influence in each in an individual's development of behaviors and attitudes according to social cognitive theory --for instance, my work ethic (behavior) is affected by how hard colleagues work (environment) and my previous attitudes toward hard work (personal)

Migration definition and trends

Immigration vs. emigration --US continues to have larger net immigration than emigration, which also serves to increase its racial and ethnic diversity

Electrical conduction in the heart

Impulse initiation occurs at the SA node, which generates 60-100 signals per minute without neural input --located in the wall of the RA --this depolarization causes the two atria to contract simultaneously, known as atrial systole -increase in atrial pressure that forces more blood into the ventricles is known as the atrial kick The depolarization is delayed at the AV node, which sits at the junction of the atria and ventricles, to allow for the ventricles to fill completely before they contract The signal then travels down the bundle of His and its branches found in the interventricular septum and then to the Purkinje fibers, which distribute the electrical signal through the ventricular muscle

Dielectrics in circuit capacitors

In charged capacitors within a circuit connected to a voltage source, dielectric materials increase capacitance by a factor of k while the voltage remains constant because it is coming from a voltage source --the increase in capacitance in this case is due to an increased in stored charge

In general, solutes are considered soluble if they have a molar solubility above _________ in solution

In general, solutes are considered soluble if they have a molar solubility above 0.1 M in solution --solutes with molar solubility below 0.1M dissolve minimally and are called sparingly soluble salts

Ion-exchange chromatography

In ion-exchange chromatography, beads in the column are coated with charged substances so that they attract/bind compounds that have an opposite charge --after all other compounds are moved through the column, a salt gradient is used to elute the charged molecules that have stuck to the column

Distinguish between monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflex arcs

In monosynaptic reflex arcs, there is a single synapse between the sensory and motor neurons, while polysynaptic reflex arcs are characterized by at least one interneuron between them, as shown --knee-jerk reflex is an example of a monosynaptic reflex --withdrawal reflex is an example of a polysynaptic reflex

Bladder sphincters

In order to leave the body, urine must pass through two two sphincters --the internal sphincter is made up of smooth muscle and is under autonomic control --the external sphincter is made up of skeletal muscle and is under somatic control --this is the same as the anal sphincters

Ionic radius periodic trends

In order to understand ionic radii, one must assume that metal lose electrons, nonmetals gain electrons, and metalloids can go either way, depending on which side of the metalloid line they fall on --nonmetals near the metalloid line have an ionic radius that is larger than nonmetals close to the right side --metals close to the metalloid line have more electrons to lose to achieve a stable electronic configuration, so their ionic radius is smaller than that of other metals

What proteins are used to add nucleotides to the strand once the DNA primer has been digested by DNA polymerase I (prokaryotes) and RNAse H (eukaryotes)?

In prokaryotes, DNA polymerase I will add the nucleotides once it has digested the RNA primer In eukaryotes, DNA polymerase δ adds DNA nucleotides where the RNA primer had been (The ends are sealed by DNA ligase, present in both)

What does it mean to learn in terms of psychology?

In psychology, learning refers specifically to the way in which we acquire new behaviors

Respiratory quotient

In resting individuals, the respiratory quotient is generally around 0.8, indicating that both fat and glucose are consumed --the respiratory quotient changes under conditions of high stress, starvation, and exercise as predicted by the action of different hormones

Distinguish between single-blind and double-blind experiments

In single-blind experiments, either only the patient or only the assessor is blinded, while in double-blind experiments, the investigator, subject and assessor all do not know the subject's group

Size-exclusion chromatography

In size-exclusion chromatography, beads used in the column contain tiny pores of varying sizes, allowing small compounds to enter them and slow them down --large compounds cannot fit into these pores, so they will move around them and travel through the column faster --the size of the pores may be varied so that molecules with different molecular weights can be fractionated

Inclusive fitness

Inclusive fitness is a measure of an organism's success in the population based on the number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and the ability of the offspring to then support others --it also promotes the idea that altruistic behavior can improve the fitness and success of a species as a whole through self-sacrifice for the good of the young -builds on early descriptions of evolutionary success like those of Darwin, which were based solely on the number of offspring

Moro reflex

Infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting them and crying

Thin film interference

Interference patterns occur as light waves reflecting off the external surface of the film interfere with light waves reflecting off of the internal surface of the film

Interference in terms of memory

Interference refers to the loss of information from memory because of competition from additional incoming information --can be either proactive or retroactive

Distinguish between intermediate networks and distant networks

Intermediate networks are dense, with strong ties while distant networks are looser and built by weaker ties -together, these provide the most benefit to individuals, which is augmented if the networks work complementarily to provide different resources -recall that networks are observable patterns of social relationships among individuals or groups

Intermediates and reaction kinetics

Intermediates appears in individual reactions but not in the overall reaction

What are the five major factors that affect attraction?

Interpersonal attraction is based on several factors, including physical characteristics, similarity, self-disclosure, reciprocity, and proximity

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are membrane-bound structures containing hydrolytic enzymes that are capable of breaking down substrates including substances ingested by endocytosis and cellular waste products --the lysosomal membrane sequesters these enzymes to prevent damage to the cell, but during hydrolysis, the lysosome can release these enzymes, resulting in apoptosis of the cell

Mania

Mania is the mood of an abnormally elevated arousal energy level, or a state of heightened overall activation with enhanced affective expression together with lability of affect

Describe the master type of status

Master status is the status by which a person is most identified and how that person views themself --the most important one the individual holds that affects all aspects of that person's life

Distinguish between material and symbolic culture

Material culture is the exploration of the meaning of objects within a given society, while symbolic culture focuses on the ideas that represent a group of people -sociologists view culture according to these two categories

Distinguish between insulators and conductors in terms of resistance

Materials that offer almost no resistance are called conductors, while materials that offer very high resistance are called insulators --those found in between are knowns as resistors

Promiscuity

Mating system in which a member of one sex mates with a member of the opposite sex without exclusivity

Disturbance of affect

May include blunting, flat or inappropriate affect -one of the possible negative symptoms of psychotic disorders including schizophrenia

Box plot

Median = Q₂ Whiskers can either correspond to the maximum and minimum value of the data set (as shown), or to the largest and smallest values within 1.5xIQR of the median, with outliers presented as individual points

Distinguish between reductional and equatorial division during meiosis

Meiosis I undergoes results in homologous chromosomes being separated, generating haploid daughter cells in a process known as reductional division --REDUCTIONal from 2n --> n Meiosis II results in the separation of sister chromatids, similar to mitosis this is known as equatorial division --EQUATORIAL division n-->n + n

Meiosis II

Meiosis II proceeds in a manner similar to mitosis --at its completion, up to four haploid daughter cells are produced Mitosis: 2n -->2n Meiosis I: 2n --> n x 2 Meiosis II: n x 2 --> n x 4

Alcohols mixed with methylsulfonyl chloride or p-Toluene sulfonyl chloride in the presence of a base gives

Mesylates and Tosylates --these make hydroxyl groups of alcohols into better leaving groups for nucleophilic substitution reactions, and also serve as protecting groups

Normality solution

Method of measuring concentration -only one that is reaction-dependent Normality = (molarity)(n), where n is the number of equivalents -(2M)(2 equivalents of base/mol Mg(OH)₂) = 4N solution of Mg(OH)₂

Whats the equation for Ka?

More acidic molecules will have higher Kas, lower pKas according to: pKa = -logKA

Neologisms

Neologisms are characteristic of disorganized speech patterns that involve inventing new words -disorganized speech is one of the possible positive symptoms of psychotic disorders including schizophrenia

Nucleophilicity and solvent effects

Nucleophiles tend to have lone pairs or π bonds that can be used to form covalent bonds to electrophiles In polar protic solvents, nucleophilicity increases down the periodic table --protic solvents hydrogen bond, will be more likely to interact with electronegative atoms through hydrogen bonding or donating a proton, making the electronegative atoms worse nucleophiles In polar aprotic solvents, nucleophilicity increases up the periodic table --Aprotic solvents cannot hydrogen bond or donate protons to electronegative atoms, nucleophilicity relates directly to basicity Nucleophilicity always decreases from left to right across a row

Observational learning

Observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others --affected by mirror neurons and modeling

Blastulation

Once formed, the morula undergoes blastulation to form the blastocyst, a hollow ball of cells with a fluid-filled inner cavity known as a blastocoel --the mammalian blastula is known as a blastocyst and consists of trophoblast cells which will form the placenta, and an inner cell mass that gives rise to the organism itself

Neurulation

Once the three germ layers are formed, the development of the nervous system can begin First, a rod of mesodermal cells called the notochord forms along the long axis of the organism -the notochord induces a group of overlying ectodermal cells to slide inward, forming neural folds, which surround a neural groove --the neural folds continue growing toward one another until they fuse into a neural tube, which gives rise to the nervous system Finally, ectodermal cells will migrate over the neural tube and crests to cover the rudimentary nervous system Neural crest cells will migrate outward to form the peripheral nervous system, including sensory ganglia, autonomic ganglia, adrenal medulla and Schwann cells

Distinguish between oncogenes and proto-oncogenes -one or both alleles required to be mutated?

Oncogenes are mutated genes that cause cancer, and primarily encode cell cycle-related proteins -proto-oncogenes are these genes before they become mutated --typically, a mutation in only one copy is sufficient (dominant)

Stage 1 of the sleep cycle and what is seen on EEG

One enters stage 1 of the sleep cycle as soon as they doze off --characterized by theta waves on EEG, irregular waves at slower frequencies and higher amplitudes relative to states of alertness

Stage 2 of the sleep cycle and what is seen on EEG

One enters stage 2 as they fall deeper into sleep after dozing off --characterized by sleep spindles and K complexes on the EEG

MHC class II presentation and the exogenous pathway

Only professional antigen-presenting cells like macrophages, dendritic cells and certain B-cells display MHC class II molecules --recall that APCs pick up pathogens from the environment and process them, finally presenting them on MHC-II --because these antigens originated outside the cell, this is known as the exogenous pathway

Layers of the ooctye (2)

Oocytes are surrounded by two layers 1. The zona pellucida surrounds the oocyte itself and is an acellular mixture of glycoproteins that protect the oocyte and contain compounds necessary for sperm cell binding 2. The corona radiata lies outside the zona pellucida --metaphase II is triggered in the oocyte when the sperm penetrates these layers

Describe the actions of orexin

Orexin increases appetite, and is involved in alertness and the sleep-wake cycle --hypoglycemia and ghrelin trigger its release

Pancreatic juices

Pancreatic juices are a complex mixture of several enzymes in a bicarb-rich fluid whose secretion from the exocrine pancreas is stimulated by CCK release in the duodenum --these juices help to neutralize acidic chyme as well as provide an ideal environment for the digestive enzymes, whose optimal pH is ~8.5 --pancreatic juices contain enzymes that can digest carbohydrates, fats and proteins

Personality disorders

Personality disorders are characterized by enduring maladaptive patterns of behavior, cognition, and inner experience, exhibited across many contexts and deviating markedly from those accepted by the individual's culture -ego-syntonic personality disorders refer to those in which the individual perceives their behavior as normal or in line with their goals -ego-dystonic disorders refer to those in which the individual sees the illness as something thrust upon them that is intrusive and bothersome

Sleep paralysis

Phenomenon in which a person either while falling asleep or awakening temporarily experiences an inability to move, speak, or react -one hypothesis is that it results from disrupted REM sleep, which normally induces complete muscle atonia

Malthusian theory of demographic change

Population grows exponentially and will eventually outgrow its resources --war, famine, disease bring the population back down to a sustainable level (positive checks) -population control (preventive checks) such as later marriage also keeps the population from outgrowing its resources

Priming

Priming is an implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus (i.e., perceptual pattern) influences the response to another stimulus -recall is aided by being first presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory -heavily influenced by semantic networks

Priority of functional groups Ester Alcohol Aldehyde Amide Anhydride Carboxylic acid Ketone Alkene Alkyne Alkane

Priority Carboxylic acid Anhydride Ester Amide Aldehyde Ketone Alcohol Alkene Alkyne Alkane

Distinguish between purines and pyrimidines and list those in each category

Purines contain two rings in their structure and include adenine and guanine Pyrimidines contain only one ring in their structure and include cytosine, thymine and uracil -recall that thymine is found only in DNA, while uracil is found only in RNA Note that these are aromatic

Continuity equation for fluids

Q = v₁A₁ = v₂A₂ Do not confuse flow rate (Q), which is constant at any cross-sectional area, to linear speed (v), which is not!

Explain why the equivalence point occurs at a higher pH in weak acid/strong base titrations compared to strong acid/strong base titrations

Reaction I: CH₃COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) --> Na⁺CH₃COO⁻(aq) + H₂O(l) Reaction II: CH₃COO⁻(aq) + H₂O(l) --> CH₃COOH(aq) + OH⁻(aq) In these reactions, the conjugate base of the weak acid will react with aqueous water, resulting in an increase in the concentration of hydroxide ion -this will cause the system to shift away from autoionization (below), reducing the concentration of hydronium ion - H​₂​​O(l)+H₂O(l) ⇌ H​₃O​⁺​ (aq) + OH​⁻​ (aq) -consequently, the concentration of the hydroxide ion will be greater than that of the hydronium ion at equilibrium, and the pH of the solution will rise above 7

Reaction between a strong base and weak acid

Reaction I: CH₃COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) --> Na⁺CH₃COO⁻(aq) + H₂O(l) Reaction II: CH₃COO⁻(aq) + H₂O(l) --> CH₃COOH(aq) + OH⁻(aq) In these reactions, the conjugate base of the weak acid will react with aqueous water, resulting in an increase in the concentration of hydroxide ion -this will cause the system to shift away from autoionization (below), reducing the concentration of hydronium ion - H​₂​​O(l)+H₂O(l) ⇌ H​₃O​⁺​ (aq) + OH​⁻​ (aq) -consequently, the concentration of the hydroxide ion will be greater than that of the hydronium ion at equilibrium, and the pH of the solution will rise above 7

Describe reciprocal determinism

Reciprocal determinism refers to the idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation -people choose environments that suit their personalities, and their personalities determine how they will feel about and react to events in those environments -important aspect of the social cognitive theory of personality

Distinguish between spatial and temporal summation

Read picture

Recombinant DNA technology

Recombinant DNA technology allows a DNA fragment from any source to be multiplied by either gene cloning (shown) or PCR

Rectum

Rectum -third part of the large intestine and is the site of the anus, the opening through which wastes are eliminated and consists of two sphincters -the internal sphincter is under autonomic control -the external sphincter is under somatic control

Distinguish between red and white skeletal muscle fibers in terms of the following: -fast/slow twitch -myoglobin content -mitochondria content -speed of contraction

Red fibers -slow-twitch fibers -high myoglobin -high mitochondria content (think slow-twitch because mitochondria utilize oxphos which takes time) -muscles that contract slowly but can sustain activity contain a predominance of red fibers White fibers -fast-twitch fibers -contain much less myoglobin --muscles that contract rapidly but fatigue quickly contain mostly white fibers

Regulatory T-cells -two main functions

Regulatory T-cells (also called suppressor T cells) express CD4 but unlike helper T-cells, these also express a protein called FoxP3 --these cells help tone down the immune response once infection has been adequately contained Tregs also mediate self-tolerance --turning off self-reactive lymphocytes to prevent autoimmune diseases

Reliability in terms of basic science research

Reliability (precision) is the ability of the instrument to read consistently, or within a narrow range and contributes to the validity of the instrument --more precise tests have smaller standard deviations (taller, narrow distributions) compared to less precise ones (shorter, wider distributions)

What is the equation for the electric field at any point along the perpendicular bisector of a dipole?

Remember that the perpendicular bisector is found at the midpoint between the two charges in the dipole --the electric field vectors will point in the direction opposite p (dipole moment)

Risky shift

Risky shift refers to the phenomenon that after participating in a discussion group, members tend to advocate more extreme positions and call for riskier courses of action than individuals who did not participate in any such discussion

What is role exit?

Role exit refers to the dropping of one identity for another

Self-enhancement

Self-enhancement focuses on the need to maintain self-worth -can be achieved through internal attribution of successes and external attribution of failures -contributes to self-serving bias

Smooth muscle features -innervation? -mono- or multi-nucleated? -striated or no?

Smooth muscle -responsible for involuntary action and is thus under autonomic control, though some contract without nervous system input (myogenic), responding directly to stretch or other stimuli -mononucleated -contain actin and myosin that is much more disorganized than in skeletal muscle, and thus no striations are seen

Social action

Social action is one performed by an individual which takes into account the actions and reactions of others -according to Max Weber, an action is social if the acting individual takes account of the behavior of others -this should be contrasted with social interaction, which involves the actions and behavior of two or more individuals who take one another into account

Social reproduction

Social reproduction is the passing down of social inequalities, especially poverty, from one generation to the next

Sigmoidal cooperativity

Some enzymes do not show normal hyperbola when graphed on a Michaelis-Menten (Lineweaver-Burk) plot, but rather sigmoidal kinetics, owing to cooperativity among substrate binding sites --subunits and enzymes may exist in one of two states: a low-affinity tense (T) state, or a high-affinity, relaxed (R) state --binding of the substrate encourages the transition of other subunits from the T state to the R state, which increases the likelihood of substrate binding by the other subunits --conversely, loss of substrate can encourage the transition from the R state to the T state, an promote dissociation of substrate from the remaining subunits

Damping/attenuation of sound

Sound and other forms of oscillation are subject to damping/attenuation over time due to the nonconservative forces such as friction, air resistance and viscous drag --note that these forces do not impact frequency (pitch) of sound, only its wavelength

Speciation

Speciation refers to the formation of a new species through evolution --if we took two populations from the same species and separated them geographically for a long period of time, different evolutionary pressures would lead to different adaptive selections --if enough time passed, the changes would be sufficient to lead to isolation, in which progeny of these populations could no longer freely interbreed, and are thus now two distinct species

Specific phobias

Specific phobias are characterized by anxiety produced by a specific object or situation -the most common type of anxiety disorder

α-helix secondary structure of proteins

Stabilized by intramolecular hydrogen bonds between a carbonyl oxygen and an amide hydrogen four residues down the chain

Distinguish between statistically and clinically significant

Statistically significant results are those that are not the result of random chance, while clinical significance is a notable or worthwhile change in health status as the result of an intervention --for example a decrease in systolic blood pressure of on 1mm of mercury could be statistically significant, but it is not likely to change patient outcomes

Symbolic interactionism approach to sociology

Symbolic interactionism is the study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other things to which we attach meaning --these symbols are key to understanding how we view the world and communicate with one another --these do not always match across cultures

Syntax

Syntax is the fourth component of language, dealing with how words are put together to form sentences --importance of word order, for example

Discrimination in terms of conditioning

Term used in classical conditioning to describe the animal's developed ability to distinguish between similar stimuli over time --different tones of a bell, say

Extinction

Term used in classical conditioning to describe the loss of the conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus over time without the pairing of the unconditioned stimulus

Important caveats about spontaneous reactions

That a reaction is spontaneous (-∆G) signifies neither that it happens quickly nor goes to completion --high activation energies, for example, may prevent it from ever taking place in the absence of a catalyst

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion posits that physiological arousal and feeling an emotion occur at the same time, not in sequence --when a stimulus is experienced, sensory information is received and sent to both the cortex and the sympathetic nervous system simultaneously by the thalamus --action occurs in response to these simultaneous events

Pressure equation and units

The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal --1Pa = 1N/m² --remember that pressure is a scalar quantity

Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation

The Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation states that being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at (simple tasks) and hinders the performance of less familiar (complex) tasks

Communication

The ability to convey information by speech, writing, signals or behavior -often used to elicit changes, generate action, create understanding, and inform -foundation of social interaction

Adrenal cortex -what is secreted?

The adrenal cortex sits on top of the kidneys and secretes corticosteroids that fall under the following categories: Mineralocorticoids --> Salt Glucocorticouds --> Sugar Cortical sex hormones --> Sex

Adrenal medulla

The adrenal medulla is located within the cortex -is responsible for the production and secretion of the sympathetic hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine directly into circulation through specialized nerve cells While the stress response involves both cortisol and epinephrine, cortisol is thought to be important in long-term stress, while catecholamines are thought of as being important for short-term stress

Angular momentum (azimuthal) quantum number (l)

The azimuthal quantum number describes the number/shape of subshells within a given principal energy level (n) --the number of possible values ranges from 0 --> n-1, while n gives the number of possible subshells as shown: l=0 --> s subshell l=1 --> p subshell l=2 --> d subshell l=3 --> f subshell

State the basic tenet of Freud's psychosexual development model and the mnemonic to remember its stages

The basic tenet of Freud's psychosocial development model is that libidinal energy and the drive to reduce libidinal tension are the underlying forces that account for human psychological processes Five stages: our administrators porked ladies gently Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital

Pancreas as accessory digestive organ

The bulk of the pancreas is made of exocrine acinar cells that produce pancreatic juices, bicarb-rich secretions containing enzymes that can digest carbohydrates, fats and proteins 1. Carbohydrates --pancreatic amylase breaks down large polysaccharides to disaccharides 2. Pancreatic peptidases --pancreatic peptidases including trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen and carboxypeptidases A/B are zymogens that are activated by enteropeptidase, released by duodenal cells 3. Pancreatic lipase --pancreatic lipase water-soluble enzyme breaks down fats that have been emulsified by bile salts in the duodenum

Difference threshold

The difference threshold, or the just-noticeable difference, refers to the minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference --for instance, the just-noticeable difference for sound frequencies is about 3 Hz --thus, most individuals begin to hear a difference between sound waves at 440 and 443 Hz, for example

Calculating the electric field produced by a capacitor

The direction of the electric field at any point between the plates is from the positive plate toward the negative plate -recall that electric fields always point in the direction a force would be exerted on a positive charge

Direction of the electric field between parallel plates in a capacitor

The direction of the electric field at any point between the plates is from the positive to the negative plate --direction positive charge would move

Concentration cells

The distinguishing characteristic of a concentration cell is in its design: the electrodes are chemically identical and thus have the same reduction potentials -thus, the current is generated as a function of a concentration gradient established between the two solutions surrounding the electrodes -the concentration gradient results in a potential difference between the two compartments and drives the movement of electrons in the direction that results in equilibrium of the ion gradient -thus, oxidation occurs in the less concentrated solution, allowing more ions to enter solution, and thus reduction occurs in the more concentrated solution The standard electrode potential, commonly written as E₀ cell, of a concentration cell is equal to zero because the electrodes are identical -but, because the ion concentrations are different, there is a potential difference between the two half-cells

Efficiency of a simple machine

The efficiency of a machine gives a measure of the amount of useful work generated by the machine for a given amount of work put into the system -this is in Newtons! In the case of pulleys, for each additional pulley added, the load is divided among more pulleys, so the effort required decreases proportionally -remember that we would need to pull through a length of rope equal to the load distance times the number of pulleys present -note that efficiency will decrease with each additional pulley added due to the added weight of each pulley and the additional friction forces

Describe the eighth conflict of Erikson's psychosocial development model and its onset

The eighth conflict of Erikson's psychosocial development model is that of integrity vs. despair -occurs above 65 years --integrity brings assurance that life has been worthwhile, while despair brings bitterness and feelings of worthlessness

Degeneracy and wobble in the genetic code

The fact that the genetic code is degenerate means that more than one codon can specify a single amino acid --for amino acids with multiple codons, the first two bases are usually the same, and the third base in the codon is variable (the wobble position) --wobble is thus an evolutionary development designed to protect against mutations in the coding regions of our DNA - point mutations here tend to be silent

Arrhenius equation for the rate constant, k

The frequency factor is a measure of how often molecules in a certain reaction collide -low activation energy and high temperatures make the negative exponent smaller, increasing k

What is the gene pool and what factors lead to its expansion?

The gene pool is the collection of all the alleles that exist within a species --when mutations or genetic leakage occur, new genes are introduced into the gene pool --mutations can be caused by mutagens like ionizing radiation, or transposons that inserts in the middle of a coding sequence, disrupting this gene --flawed proteins that arise in ways other than changing the DNA sequence, such as incorrect pairing of nucleotides during transcription or translation, or a tRNA molecule charged with the incorrect amino acids can result in derangements of the normal amino acid sequence

Describe the hierarchy of salience in terms of identity

The hierarchy of salience posits that we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment --the more salient the identity, the more we conform to expectations of that identity --salience is determined by many things, like time invested into the identity and the rewards and gratification associated with it

Identity shift effect

The identity shift effect seeks to explain how responding to peer pressure may lead to altered attitudes -social comparison first compels conformity -subsequent cognitive dissonance leads to adoption of group attitudes to resolve inner conflict -often used to explain peer pressure

Incentive theory of motivation

The incentive theory of motivation explains that behavior is not motivated by need or arousal, but by the desire to pursue rewards and avoid punishments

Induced-fit model

The induced-fit model starts with a substrate and an enzyme site that don't seem to fit together --the shape of the active site becomes truly complementary only after the substrate begins to bind

Glomerulus structure

The kidney has one of the few portal systems in the body --the renal artery branches out upon entering the hilum, passes through the medulla, and enters the cortex as afferent arterioles --the highly convoluted capillary tufts derived from these afferent arterioles are known as glomeruli --after blood passes through the glomerulus, the efferent arterioles lead blood away from the afferent arterioles, forming a secondary capillary bed called the vasa recta, which surround the loops of Henle in the medulla

Kinetic molecular theory of gases and average molecular speed

The last assumption of the kinetic molecular theory of gases in equation form -the speed of gas particles is related to their absolute temperature -it is impossible, however, to define the speed of any one gas particle -as such, the speeds of gases are defined in terms of their root-mean-square speed

Distinguish between red and yellow marrow in spongy bone

The lattice structure of spongy bone is visible under microscopy and consists of bony spicules known as trabeculae --the cavities in between trabeculae are filled with bone marrow, which may either be red or yellow --red marrow is filled with hematopoietic stem cells, while yellow marrow is composed primarily of fat

Law of pragnanz

The law of pragnanz states that perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple and symmetric as possible --perceptual organization is the ability to use top-down and bottom-up processing to create a complete picture or idea when sensory information is incomplete

Recombination frequency

The likelihood that two alleles are separated from each other during crossing over is roughly proportional to the distance between them on the chromosome, as given by the recombination frequency (θ) --tightly-linked genes have recombination frequencies close to 0%, while weakly-linked genes have recombination frequencies approaching 50% as expected by independent assortment Genes that are located very close together on a chromosome are less likely to be separated from each other during the crossing over process during prophase I --thus, the farther apart two genes are, the more likely it is that there will be a point of crossing over (chiasma) between them

Metabolism in resting muscle

The major fuels for skeletal muscle are glucose and fatty acids --after a meal, insulin promotes glucose uptake in skeletal muscle, which replenishes glycogen stores and amino acids used for protein synthesis - both excess glucose and amino acids can be oxidized for energy --in the fasting state, resting muscle uses fatty acids derived from free fatty acids circulating in the bloodstream --ketone bodies may also be used if the fasting state is prolonged

Threshold frequency and the photoelectric effect

The minimum frequency of light that causes ejection of electrons is known as the threshold frequency (fT), and depends on the type of metal being exposed to radiation --all-or-nothing effect that results in an ejection of an electron with a kinetic energy equal to the difference between hf and hfT (W)

How are mode values calculated and when are they most useful?

The mode is the number that appears the most often in a set of data --the mode is not typically used as a measure of central tendency for a set of data, but the number of modes and their distance from one another is often informative For instance, if a data set has two modes with a small number of values between them, it may be useful to analyze these portions separately or to look for confounding variables that may be responsible for dividing the distribution into two parts

The muscular lining of the bladder is called the...

The muscular lining of the bladder is called the detrusor muscle -under parasympathetic control

LDL

The normal role of LDL is to deliver cholesterol to tissues for use in processes such as: --incorporation into cell membranes --formation of bile (which is partially made up partially of cholesterol) --steroid hormone synthesis (steroidogenesis)

Miller's law

The number of objects an average human can hold in working memory is 7 ± 2 --can be increased through methods such as clustering

Occipital lobe --area of the brain --associated structures and functions

The occipital lobe is the most posterior lobe of the cortex Associated structures: Striate cortex --visual cortex

Metabolism in active muscle

The primary fuel used to support muscle contraction depends on the magnitude and duration of exercise --a very short-lived (2-7sec) source of energy is creatine phosphate, which transfers a phosphate group to ADP to form ATP --short bursts of high-intensity exercise are also supported by anaerobic glycolysis drawing on stored muscle glycogen --during moderately high-intensity, continuous exercise, oxidation of glucose and fatty acids are both important --after 1-3 hours of continuous exercise, muscle glycogen stores become depleted, and the intensity of exercise declines to a rate that can be supported by oxidation of fatty acids

Exponential decay constant

The rate at which the nuclei in a sample decay (Δn/Δt) is proportional to the number that remain (n) by the following equation: (Δn/Δt) = -λn --where λ is the decay constant

Measuring evolutionary time

The rate of evolution is measured by the rate of change of a genotype over a period of time and is related to the severity of the evolutionary pressures put on a species -if a species is already perfectly suited to its habitat and there are no changes to the conditions in which it lives, the rate of evolution will be exceedingly slow -on the other hand, if an organism lives in a rapidly-changing environment, the rate of evolution will be greater, as selection for and against certain traits will be actively occurring within that population

Root-mean-square speed

The root-mean-square speed is the measure of the speed of particles in a gas, defined as the square root of the average velocity-squared of the molecules in a gas -the root-mean-square speed takes into account both molecular weight and temperature, two factors that directly affect the kinetic energy of a material

Describe the thin and thick filaments of the sarcomere

The sarcomere is the basic contractile unit in skeletal muscle and are composed of thick and thin filaments --the thick filaments are organized into bundles of myosin --thin filaments are made up of actin, troponin and tropomyosin

Which stage of Kohlberg's moral reasoning model is known as the instrumental relativist stage?

The second stage of the preconventional morality phase model is known as the instrumental relativist stage because it is based on the concepts of reciprocity and sharing -its other name is the self-interest stage

Anatomy of the stomach

The stomach is a muscular organ that hold approximately two liters -the mucosa of the stomach contains gastric glands and pyloric glands, which are found in distinct areas of the organ -made up of the fundus, body, antrum and pylorus

Bony matrix

The strength of compact bone comes from the bone matrix, which is ordered into structural units called osteons, or Haversian systems --each osteon contains concentric circles of bony matrix called lamellae that surround a central microscopic channel --longitudinal channels (running parallel to the axis of bone) are called Haversian canals, while transverse channels (running perpendicular to bone) are known as Volkmann's canals --these canals contain blood vessels, nerve fibers and lymphatic vessels that maintain the health of the bone

List the two main ways in which prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes, and the organisms found in each category

The two main differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes are that the former contain no membrane-bound organelles, and have a single circular molecule of DNA --archaea and bacteria fall under the category of prokaryote --protists, fungi, plants/animals are eukaryotes

Liver metabolism

The two major roles of the liver in fuel metabolism are to maintain a constant level of blood glucose and to synthesize ketones when excess fatty acids are being oxidized --after a meal, it replenishes glycogen stores and converts any excess glucose to acetyl-CoA for fatty acid synthesis --the fatty acids are converted to triacylglycerols and then released into the blood as VLDLs --in the well-fed state, the liver derives most of its energy from the oxidation of excess amino acids --during prolonged fasts, lactate (from anaerobic metabolism), glycerol from triacylglycerides and amino acids provide carbon skeletons for glucose synthesis

A student heats a 5.0 g sample of an unknown metal to a temperature of 207°C, and then drops the sample into a coffee-cup calorimeter containing 36.0 g of water at 25.0 ∘C. After thermal equilibrium has been established, the final temperature of the water in the calorimeter is 26.0°C. What is the specific heat of the unknown metal? (The specific heat of water is 4.18 J/g°C)

The walls of the coffee-cup calorimeter are assumed to be perfectly adiabatic, so we can assume that all of the heat from the metal was transferred to the water: −q(metal)=q(water) Substituting in our above equation, we get: −m(metal)C(metal)ΔT(metal)=m(water)C(water)ΔT(water) Then we can plug in our known values: −(5.0g)C(metal)(26.0°C−207∘C)=(36.0g)(4.18Jg°C)(26.0°C−25.0°C)

Work-energy theorem

The work-energy theorem offers a direct relationship between the work done by all the forces acting on an object and the change in kinetic energy the object experiences as a result

Number of orbitals per shell (n)

There are n² orbitals per shell (n) --how many electrons per shell?

Shunts in fetal circulation

There are several key differences between fetal and adult circulation --recall that the lungs and liver do not serve significant functions prior to birth - these two organs are both underdeveloped and thus shunts are present in the developing child's body to direct blood away from these areas 1. The liver is bypassed by the ductus venosus, which shunts blood returning from the placenta via the umbilical vein directly into the IVC --the liver will still receive some blood supply from smaller hepatic arteries in the systemic circulation 2. Foramen ovale --one-way valve that allows blood entering the RA from the IVC to flow into the LA, pumping directly into the systemic circulation --unlike in adult circulation, the right side of the heart is at a higher pressure than the left side, which facilitates this --after birth, this pressure differential reverses, shutting the foramen ovale 3. Ductus arteriosus --shunts leftover blood that makes it into the PA from the RV to the aorta due to the high pressure in the heart and resistance in the lungs

Granular leukocytes

These are named because they contain a variety of compounds that are toxic to invading microbes that can be released by exocytosis --include neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils, which are involved in inflammatory reactions, allergies, pus formation and destruction of bacteria and parasites

Neurocognitive model of dreaming

These seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes

Catatonia

Those in a catatonic state may have significantly reduced movement and activity to the point of maintaining a rigid posture -on the other extreme, it may include useless and bizarre movements not caused by external stimuli, including echolalia and echopraxia -one of the possible positive symptoms of psychotic disorders including schizophrenia

Titrations overview

Titrations are performed by adding small volumes of a solution of known concentration (titrant) to a known volume of a solution of an unknown concentration (titrand) until completion of the reaction, achieved at the equivalence point --these are typically carried out using a pH meter or indicators

Transformation

Transformation results from the integration of foreign genetic material into the host genome --this foreign genetic material most frequently comes from other bacteria that, upon lysing, spill their contents in the vicinity of a bacterium capable of transformation --many gram-negative rods have this capability

Translational equilibrium

Translational equilibrium exists only when the vector sum of all the forces acting on an object is zero -when the resultant force on an object is zero, it could be stationary, or moving at a constant velocity (and constant direction) -think of the blocks in the kaplan book - these can be solved using free body diagrams and Newton's laws

Molecular geometry for molecules with 4 regions of electron density as follows: -3 atoms bonded to the central atom with 1 lone pairs

Trigonal pyramidal

Tyrosine Structure Polar or nonpolar side chains? Positive, negative or neutral side chains at physiologic pH? Aromatic or nonaromatic? Hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

Tyrosine Polar side chain Neutral side chain at physiologic pH Aromatic Hydrophilic

Poiseuille's law

Used to calculate the flow rate of a fluid with laminar flow through a pipe -η is the viscosity of the fluid -usually focus on the pressure gradient and radius

Bacteriophage structure

Viruses are composed of genetic material and a protein coat known as a capsid --often have an envelope containing lipids that is more sensitive to environmental stressors, making enveloped viruses easier to kill, but can also be used to bring the virus into the cell it is to infect via endocytosis --genetic information carried by a virus may be circular or linear, single- or double-stranded and composed of either DNA or RNA

Where in the eye is visual acuity best?

Visual acuity is best at the fovea, where the highest concentration of cones are found --as one moves further from the fovea, the concentration of rods increases while the concentration of cones decreases

Describe the basic tenet of Vygotsky's cultural and biosocial development model of personality development

Vygotsky's cultural and biosocial development model of personality development states that internalization of interpersonal and cultural rules drives cognitive development

Distinguish between determination and differentiation in cellular development

When a cell is determined, it is committed to a particular cell lineage When the cell differentiates, it assumes the structure, function and biochemistry of that cell type

Heating curves

When a compound is heated, the temperature rises according to mc∆T until the melting point or boiling point is reached -then, the temperature remains constant as the compound is converted to the next phase -thus, we cannot use mc∆T because ∆T = 0 here -once the entire sample is converted, the temperature begins to rise again -note when to use heat of fusion (solid <-> liquid) and heat of vaporization (liquid <-> gas)

Dielectrics in isolated, charged capacitors

When a dielectric material is placed in an isolated (disconnected from any circuit), charged capacitor, the voltage across the capacitor decreases -this is the result of the dielectric material shielding the opposing charges from each other -by lowering the voltage across a charged capacitor, the dielectric has increased the capacitance of the capacitor by a factor of the dielectric constant

Impression bias

When a perceiver comes into contact with an unfamiliar target, they take in all cues unfiltered -as they become more familiar with the target, they use these cues to categorize the target -after this point, the perception of additional cues becomes selective in order to paint a picture of the target that is consistent with the perceptions the perceiver has already made -remember primacy and recency effect

Changes in electrical potential and potential energy for positive and negative charges

When allowed, charges will move spontaneously in whatever direction results in a decrease in electrical potential energy -for a positive test charge, this means moving from a position of higher electrical potential to a position of lower electrical potential according to the equation -negative test charges will spontaneously move from a position of lower electrical potential to a position of higher electrical potential (again, because its q value is negative) In both cases however, their electrical potential energy is decreasing!

Young's double-slit experiment

When monochromatic light (light at one specific wavelength) passes through the double slits, an interference pattern is observed on a screen behind the slits --regions of constructive interference between the two light waves appear as bright fringes (maxima) and regions where the light waves interfered destructively resulted in dark fringes (minima) The experiment contributed mightily to our understanding of light as waves that interact with one another

Magnification equation for mirrors

Where i = image distance, o = object distance --if |m| < 1, the image is smaller than the object --if |m| > 1, the image is larger than the object

Distinguish redox titrations from acid-base titrations

Whereas acid-base titrations follow the movement of protons to reach the equivalence point, redox titrations follow the transfer of charge using indicators that change color at particular voltage (emf) Potentiometric titration is a form of redox titration where no indicator is used, but electrical potential difference (voltage) is measured using a voltmeter. --as the redox titration progresses, its voltage changes in a manner analogous to following an acid-base titration with a pH meter

Distinction between 95% confidence interval and standard deviations

While both the 95% confidence interval and two standard deviations describe values that fall in the 95% range, standard deviations describe a specific data set, while the confidence interval does not describe the data set but is predictive of the true mean for the entire population --when you see 95%, look at what they are asking for!

Lipid transport

While free fatty acids are transported through the blood in association with albumin, triacylglycerol and cholesterol are transported in the blood as lipoproteins (aggregates of apolipoproteins and lipids)

Changes in kinetic and potential energy of water during a phase change

While liquid water may have a greater number of microstates due increased freedom of movement, its average kinetic energy is the same as solid water at the same temperature, though the average potential energy increases during a phase change

Lipid absorption in the small intestine

While small fatty acids will be absorbed through methods similar to those utilized by sugars and amino acids due to their small, nonpolar structure, larger fats, glycerol and cholesterol must utilize the mechanisms shown Once triglycerides are re-formed within the intestinal cell, these along with cholesterol are packaged into insoluble chylomicrons, which enter lymphatic circulation via lacteals, which dump into the left subclavian vein via the thoracic duct

Distinguish between white and grey matter

White matter consists of axons encased in myelin sheaths, while grey matter consists of unmyelinated cell bodies and dendrites --in the brain, white matter lies deep to grey matter, while the reverse is true in the spinal cord

Describe William Sheldon's somatotypes

William Sheldon proposed personality types based on body types, which he called somatotypes -he presumed, for example, that all short, stocky people were jolly, while all tall people were high-strung -people in between were strong and well-adjusted -type theorist

Distinguish between the method of action of α- and β-amylase

α-amylase cleaves randomly along the amylose chain to yield shorter polysaccharide chains, maltose and glucose β-amylase cleaves amylose at the nonreducing end of the polymer (the end with the acetal) to yield maltose

Advantages/disadvantages of lead-acid batteries

•Advantages: •Oldest type of rechargeable battery •Store a lot of charge •Supply high currents ➙ large power-to-weight ratio •Inexpensive compared to newer machineries •Found in automobiles (automobile staring, lighting, and ignition batteries) •Found in phones and computers (for backup power supplies) •Disadvantages: •Heavy to carry ➙ low energy-to-weight ratio and energy-to-volume ratio •Contains toxic chemicals •Limited-life