MCAT Sociology Part, THINK MCAT Psychology/Sociology Terms
MDMA (ecstasy)
"Inc. dopamine, serotonin and blocks the re-uptake of serotonin; Neurons now make less which leads to severe depressed state."
Chunking
"Memorizing things in small groups, rather than alone or in one large group. This is why we write and think of phone numbers as 555-867-5309. We remember 555, then 867, and 5309. ROYGBIV."
Social Mobility
"Movement of groups or individuals between different social class positions"
What is deviance?
"Not the act itself, but the reaction" (Becker); violation of norms; relative
Continuous Reinforcement
"Occurs on a 1:1 ratio - this means that for each behavior, there is a reward. Occurs when the reinforcement is given every time the behavior is down."
Place Theory
"One is able to hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea's basilar membrane"
James-Lange theory
"Our bodies react first, then we experience the emotional feeling. For example, a baseball pitcher suddenly sees a batted ball screaming for his face. He reacts and catches the ball. Then he feels a rush of fear/surprise/emotion. Thinking and acting came before feeling."
Labeling Theory
"Refers to how deviant individual behavior becomes even more deviant when a person is negatively labeled or classified as such."
Construct Validity
"Refers to whether or not the questionnaires used to assess something adequately measure that particular thing."
Low road sensory input
"Sensory input (from say the eyes)→amygdala→fear response. This is super-fast. It usually involves fear or likes/dislikes. It's like the person who "wears his emotions on his sleeve" and reacts to any situation immediately."
Panic disorder
"Sudden and paralyzing fear that something terrible is about to happen. It lasts minutes. Can have heart palpitations, shortness of breath, choking feelings, trembling, sweating, and dizziness."
Symbolic Interactionism
"Symbolic meaning of usage, developed through social interactions, explains why individuals become sustained users."
Labeling
"Terms used to negatively identify or classify are considered to also negatively influence the person's self and social identity."
Ego
"The "smart guy" who figures out some way for the id to get what he wants, but in a manner that superego is okay with."
Id
"The id is the bad guy. Id is the little devil on your shoulder saying, "Do it! 1. These are unconscious desires. The id goes for whatever feels good, right now. The id wants sex and drugs, for instance."
Bridging Process Model
"Two populations with different behaviors are linked by a few individuals who bridge the boundary between each world."
Antisocial personality disorder
"Used to be called a "sociopath" or a "psychopath." This person is usually a male, usually starts to show signs before age 15, and begins to lie, steal, fight, or display unrestrained sexual behavior. 2. An antisocial person doesn't feel sorrow or any bit of remorse or wrongdoing. Feels no empathy towards others. Individuals may be exploitative in the their sexual relationships. Failure to conform to social norms, deceitful, irritable and aggressive.
Motion Parallax
"When you are moving, objects closer than your point of visual focus move in direction opposite to you, while objects beyond your focus point move in same direction."
Self efficacy
(Bandura) belief in one's ability to organize and execute a series of actions. 2 types are strong (RISE) and weak (FALL)
Ambient stressors
(Global) in background such as pollution, physically perceivable but not urgent
Dramaturgical approach
(Goffman) fronstage- when people in social setting, manipulate how he's seen to gain socially. Backstage- more private area when act is over, can be yourself and few to no one knows about. Crossing over occurs due to social media
Biological theory
(Many variations) important components are inherited or determined in part by our genes
Motion parallax
(Monocular cue) when in a car, things that are closest to you seem to be moving quickest
Importance of roles
(Social norm) accepted standard behavior of social group. Provide order in society
Linguistic determinism
(Weak) language influences thought (strong) langauges determines thought completely (Whorfian hypothesis)
Hippocampus
(in the temporal lobe) seems important in writing new memories.
Socialism
- 3 characteristics: public ownership of means of production, central planning, no profit motive; - central committee makes decisions- to eliminate competition- all work for government
Durkheim
- functionalist perspective: how parts of social system contribute to continuation of system; study of suicide showed that more social integration = lower suicide rate
Pluralism
- mutual respect between different cultures in a society; able to express culture- no hostility/prejudice; truths exist in other races and cultures
Thalamus
From diencephalon, important role in sensory functions, and higher brain function (lots of connections)
Learned helplessness
From external locus of control, don't make effort to change situation. Perceived lack of control
Muscle spindles
Group of sensory receptors in muscle that detect changes in length of muscle
Racial group
Group set apart because of some kind of physical characteristic that has taken on social significance
Minority
Group that makes up less than half of population and treated differently
Tracts
Groups of axons traveling in proximity of each other
Residential segregation
Groups of people separate into different neighborhoods (by race, income). Where we live affects our life chances and availability to resources in general.
Microculture
Groups or organizations that only have a limited influence on someone's life and temporary. Subculture is more permanent
Learned behavior
Habituation, classical/operant conditioning, insight learning (come up with a novel skill using previously learned skills)
Post-traumatic stress disorder
Anxiety disorder with haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpiness, and/or insomnia that lasts weeks after a traumatic experience. Characterized by onset of fear-based emotional or behavioral symptoms.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Anxiety disorder with unwanted repetitive thoughts and/or actions.
Exchange theory
Application of RCT to social interactions, study relationships. Determined by weighing rewards and punishments. Social approval is reward, disapproval is punishment
Evolutionary game theory
Applying theory to situation where there is no conscious application in order to predict behavior and evolutionary stable strategies
Humanistic
Approach led by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. This approach focuses on our potential for growth and reaching our full potential.
Psychoanalytic
Approach proposed mostly by Sigmund Freud. This approach suggests that people do things because of unconscious struggles started in childhood, often sexual in nature.
Anterior chamber
Aqueous humor fluid filled space and provides pressure, nutrient flow. Between the cornea and lens.
Progressive
Artificial creations that could be harmful if not reined in
Dominant group
Ascribes racial identity to minority group that they do not identify
Equilibrium
Assimilating keeps us in equilibrium
Cerebellum
Associated with balance and coordination.
Frontal Lobe
Associated with changes in personality and cognitive processing.
Orbitofrontal Cortex
Associated with the processing of both positively and negatively balanced emotions.
Wernicke's Area
Associated with understanding language. (Temporal Lobe)
Informative influence
Assume that the group knows best and agree to do what they do
Tend and befriend response
Behavior exhibited by some animals, including humans, in response to threat. It refers to protection of offspring and seeking out the social group for mutual defense;modulated by oxytocin (stronger with women)
Reciprocal relationship
Behavior influences consequences and consequences influence behavior
Prototype willingness model
Behavior is a function of 6 things: previous behavior, attitudes towards behavior, subjective norms, intentions, willingness to engage, prototypes (models)
Aversion control
Behavior is controlled by threat of something unpleasant. The behavior is maintained to prevent the unpleasant stimuli.
Labeling theory
Behavior is deviant if people have labeled it as such (primary and secondary)
Partial reinforcement
Behavior is reinforced only part of the time
Feeding and eating
Behavioral abnormalities related to food
Taboos
Behaviors that are completely forbidden in any circumstance
Parallel processing
Being able to see color, form, and motion all at same time
Universalists
Believe thought determines language.
Exchange-Rational Choice Theory
Believes that decisions are made by rational beings who have weighed all aspects of the problem, and who then proceed to make the rational choice.
Subliminal
Below the 50% threshold
Lens
Bend and focus light on back of eyeball, adjust light coming in
Altruism
Beneficial behavior to society (and self) but not really altruistic. Roots in empathy?
Social support
Best coping mechanism, allows us to confide in others and understand we are not alone. Marriage, friendships, domestic pets
Organ of corti cross section
Hair cells that get pushed down and up on to move back and forth (hair bundle with kinocilium with tip link linked to potassium channel and calcium also flows in causing AP, spiral ganglion cell)
Laissez-faire
Hands-off
Relative poverty
Median level of income rises meaning that less people live in absolute poverty as proportion, meaning there is a different marker used to denote poverty. Poverty Is a percentage level below median income (less than 60% of median income)
Target characteristics
Characteristics of listener: in good/bad mood? How intelligent?
Somatic Symptom Disorder
Characterized by onset of several somatic symptoms like pain or fatigue.
Selective Mutism
Characterized by social anxiety and lack of speech in select social situations.
Pheremone
Chemical molecules released that can be scented by another organisms. Specialized olfactory cues that causes response in smelling species, trigger innate response (very important in insects)
Psychoanalytic theory
Childhood experiences and unconscious desires, influence behavior, concept of libido (energy that fuels mind)
Nativist/innatist perspective
Children born with ability to speak language Chomsky- language acquisition device), universal grammar
Vykostsky (sociocultural cognitive development theory)
Children learn actively and through hands on experiences. Parents, peers, attitude, language have big impact on child internalization. Social interaction during cognition
Damaging effects of stress on reproductive
Chronic stress disrupts pregnancy hormones and inhibition, male testosterone reduction
External attribution
Circumstantial considerations: consistency, distinctiveness, consensus
Levels of urban areas
City= 50000+ metropolis= 500000+ megalopolis= many cities
Well defined problems
Clear starting and end point
Learning performance distinction
Learning and performing are different. Not perform does not mean not learn
Shaping
Learning through practice by successively reinforcing behaviors that approximate target behavior
Positive moods
Left frontal. This may be due to lots of dopamine receptors in the left lobe. Essentially, right is cranky, left is happy.
Contralateral control
Left side brain controls right body and visa versa (true from almost all senses except smell and signals to the cerebellum)
Bystander effect
Less likely to help another when in a group due to presence of others
Dysthymic disorder
Less severe than major depressive disorder.
Incubation
Let problem set and come up with a solution after time
Socialization
Life long process where we learn about social expectations and how we interact with others, behavioral norms that helps us fit in
Obsessive compulsive
Like things to be ordered and controlled (NOT OCD)
∆I = IK
Linear relationship between background intensity and increment threshold
Law of continuity
Lines are seen as following the smoothest path
Opearnt conditioning
Link between behavior and consequences; not autonomic; learned
Mnemonic devices
Link to easier devices in long term memory already, such as visual imagery. Pegword system (verbal), method of loci (use locations instead of events), acronyms
Vertigo
Liquid in semicircular canals does not stop moving once we have/ dizziness
Norepinephrine
Located in pons, locus coereleus
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Long preganglionic neuron synapses close to organ, short post ganglionic neuron. Rest and Digest. See the bear!
Age stratification
Look at age as way of regulating behavior of generation. Hierarchical ranking of age groups. A way this is done in America is by putting an end to childhood at the age of 18, when you start to vote. When ageism is used as a form of prejudice, ageism is exhibited. Age stratification helps the government plan for the coming years about how many children, adults, and elderly will be in the community.
Social epidemiology
Look at health disparities through social indicators and how social factors impact a person's health
Interactionist perspective
Look at micro level for day to day behavior. Societal norms mean that you are forbidden to talk about movie with people you are watching with.
Microsociology
Look at small scale everyday interactions, don't have same large test group. Interpret individual interactions to greater patterns
Functionalism
Look at society as a whole and how institutions that make up society adapt to keep stable and functioning
Feature detection
Looking at components that make up a visually processed object (color, form, motion)
Behavior genetics
Looking at genetic component to behavior
Population pyramid
Looking at population of a country to divide number of people of different ages and genders. Expansive means lots of birth and death. Stationary means low rates. Constricted also means low rates but fewer young people than old (stable population)
Basal ganglia
Motor, cognition, emotion. separated by white matter but functional unit
Transnational
Move across borders for better opportunity
Problem solving
Move from current state to goal state
Suburbanization
Move to city outskirts, but increase commute and harder healthcare access. Sometimes build own economic centers
Kinesthesia
Movement of body, more behavioral than proprioception.
Seismic communication
Movement of bug in spider's web to find food
Urbanization
Movement of people from rural to urban areas (rural <1000 people per square mile, less than 2500 residence.)
Encoding strategies
Moving from working memory to long term storage (limited capacity)
Iris
Muscles surrounding pupil to change its size
White matter
Myelinated axons
Adoption studies
Clinical genetic study designed to evaluate genetic and environmental influences on phenotype. Links between biological parents and children suggests genetic influences whereas links between adopted family suggests environmental influences.
Attachment
Close bond between child and mother, based on comfort as shown in harlow monkey experiment
Inclusive fitness
Close relatives have related genes and want to help family, helps explain evolution in a greater sense
Inner ear
Cochlea (full of auditory receptors), semicircular canals (anterior, posterior, lateral all orthogonal), endolymph is fluid that shifts when we move
Adrenal cortex
Cortisol, steroid hormone that suppresses immune system and redistributes glucose; aldosterone; androgens. "Salt, Sugar/Stress, and Sex": Aldosterone, Cortisol (glucocorticoids), Androgens
Appraisal Focused Coping
Could involve denying or distancing from the reality of the disease or the situation and is similar to avoidance focused coping. Methods may also involve altering goals and values.
Problem Focused Coping
Could involve learning more about something, evaluating the pros and cons of different types of treatment, or taking control of a treatment plan.
Increase in national trade
Created and supported by international regulatory groups, like NAFTA, all countries are dependent on international trade for prosperity
Easy signal
Creates more hits than misses
Skeptical perspective
Critical of globalization, consider international processes as regionalized not globalized. Countries' borders are not being integrated as quickly. Not leading to global capitalism
Cultural Transmission
Culture is passed along from generation to generation through various child rearing practices
Subculture
Culture of a meso-level subcommunity that distinguishes itself from dominant culture (from the larger society) and large enough to support a community (not like micro culture)
Culture lag
Culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations which results in problems. Culture and technology do not work together since non-material culture resists change
Cultural leveling
Cultures become similar; driven by mass market media; mostly West to East
Functionalist Theory (Durkheim)
Deviance can be functional; affirms moral boundaries; promotes social unity; promotes social change
Theory of differential association
Deviance is learned behavior that comes from exposed behavior ("monkey see monkey do")
Modified semantic network
Each network depends on specific knowledge and experience. All ideas are connected
Achieved status
Earned by achievements or choice. (status earned by merit) mother, athlete
Sociocultural factors
Eat for certain events, conscious choices (at certain times, desire to eat, appeal of food, availability)
Cosmopolites
Driven to city for cultural value. A person who is cosmopolitan in his or her ideas, life, etc; citizen of the world.
Intoxication
Drug exerts effect on behavior (drug specific)
Opiates
Drugs that decrease CNS ACTIVITY and REM sleep: Short term memory loss from night of drinking.
Society
Education, employment, healthcare are sources of stigma. Anti-discrimination law
Lower motor neurons
Efferent neurons of PNS going to skeletal muscle in limbs, trunk, and head.
Mcdonaldization
Efficiency calculability, predictability control to take over other organizations
Defense Mechanisms
Emerge when the ego can't do his job and keep both the id and superego happy.
Limbic System
Emotion/memory; Between Cerebrum (Telencephalon) and Diencephalon; Amygdala, cingulate gyrus, hippocampus.
Kinds of social support
Emotional, esteem, informational, tangible, companionship
Schizoid
Emotionally detached
Amalgamation
Occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group. Creates the classic melting pot analogy (in contrast to the "salad bowl" analogy in which the cultures still exist individually.) Can be achieved through interracial marriages.
Partial or intermittent reinforcement
Occurs when the reinforcement is not given after every behavior.
Feminist theory
Offshoot of conflict theory. Inequalities are apparent in medicine, male dominated field. Disparity in jobs and salary, specialized vs. family fields
Minimal Justification
Often follows an impulsive action which was performed without a real reason.
Conjuctiva
One layer thin sheet of cells, protects from dust. The mucous membrane that covers the front of the eye and lines the inside of the eyelids.
Side effect discrimination
One organization negatively influencing another, such as employer and criminal legal system for charged individuals
Learning theory
Only learn language through reinforcement, not born with innate ability
Pupil
Opening before the lens that modulates light entering eye
Nostril
Opening to allow air into nose
Spatial mismatch
Opportunities for low income people in segregated neighborhoods may be available but there is a large physical distance that makes it harder for them to access
Dominant/nondominant hemisphere
Opposite of hand we right with; left is language/analytic. Nondominant is tone and emotion processing, creativity, spatial processing, big picture, attention
Routes of entry
Oral, inhalation, injection, transdermal (patches), intramuscular
Information processing model
Our brains are similar to computers, but does not say WHERE it happens. Sensory register/memory is where we first interact with info (sight and sound are most important- iconic and echoic memory), but we can't process it all
Them
Out group
Pinna
Outer portion of ear that funnels sound
Round window
Output of cochlea
External locus of control
Outside forces beyond personal control like fate control destiny
Fundamental attribution error
Over attribute others' behavior to internal/dis-positional
Panic disorder
Panic attacks, sudden, intense. Physical symptoms,
Depression
Physical symptoms, low focus, low mood, self-esteem, helplessness. Number 1 reason for mental health services (~20% of population).
Autonomic nervous system
Physiological changes that cause sensation of emotion (sympathetic and parasympathetic)
Long term potentiation
Physiological mechanism of learning, connections between neurons strengthen
Cocktail Party Effect
Pick-up on relevant information from unattended auditory channels. Ability to tune in on only one auditory input while blocking out other potential stimuli
Intersectionality
Point at which multiple points of discrimination overlap and exist. experience multiple forms of discrimination for overlapping areas (sex, gender, culture, race). Originally developed by Crenshaw in 1989 for feminist discrimination but has expanded since
Just noticeable difference
Point at which threshold is accomplished so you can tell difference between intensity of 2 stimuli (2 vs. 2.2 pounds)
Urban renewal
Revamping parts of city that are old/falling apart, but can also lead to gentrification pushing out people originally living there
Ascribed status (born with status)
age, sex, race, ethnicity
accommodation
change the schema in order to accommodate new information
horizontal social mobility
changing jobs without changing occupational status
Alzheimer's disease
characterized by cognitive dysfunction in verbal fluency and negative priming
Gustatory receptors
chemoreceptors on the tongue that respond to chemicals in food
Maternal mortality rate
Reverse champagne glass. Much higher in lower income brackets due to accessibility to healthcare. 10 out of 100,000 in Europe/North America, 700 or more/100000 in Africa
Devil effect
Reverse halo effect (from negative overall impression)
Meritocracy
Reward based on individual talent or effort
Incentive theory
Reward is presented after occurrence of action to make behavior occur again (positive meaning to behavior), must be reasonable reward. Positive reinforcement
Operant conditioning
Rewards and punishments to increase/decrease behavior
Clonus
Rhythmic contraction of antagonist muscles (opposite effect on joint). A muscular spasm that involves rhythmic contraction of muscles; a type of hyperactive reflex; caused by permanent lesion in descending motor neurons.
Gyri
Ridges on cortex
Hypothalamus
Right below thalamus, controls pituitary gland part of endocrine system
Phone analogy
Society is the hardware (institutions), culture is like the software- set of instructions and code, constantly being updated
Social Stratification
Socioeconomic gradients in health are an aspect of social stratification (how people are categorized into rankings of socioeconomic tiers).
Parietal lobe
Somatosensory cortex (perception), spatial processing and manipulation (orientation)
Homunculus
Somatosensory map of body superimposed on brain
Spearman's Idea
Some aspects of intelligence would be impaired with a disorder while others remain intact
Neural Plasticity
Some parts of the brain can adapt to perform new functions if needed.
Anxiety
Some specific (phobias) or general (GAD), panic disorder. Characterized by restlessness, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, muscle tension, sleep problems,
Media
Source of stigma, represent conditions as failure. Social media as well
Theory of general intelligence (Spearman)
Spearman believed that general intelligence represented an intelligence factor underlying specific mental abilities. All tasks on intelligence tests, whether they related to verbal or mathematical abilities, were influenced by this underlying g-factor.
Magno pathway
Specialized cells to encode motion, high temporal resolution
Hair cell
Specialized receptor of audition
Phobias
Specific focused anxiety, patterns (animals, insects, blood, enclosed spaces, etc.) avoidance behavior. Social phobias
Hierarchy of needs
Specific order (bottom to top): physiological, safety (these 2 are basic), love/acceptance (social), self-esteem (respect), self-actualization- reaching max potential
Schizophrenia
Split between reality and what a person thinks is real.Disorganized thinking; selective attention; Inappropriate emotions and actions. seem to have many more dopamine receptors in their brains. Decreased size of gray matter in temporal lobe.
Spacing
Spread out study sessions over time
Malthusian theory
Stabilization of population as a result of being too large
Demographic transition
Stabilization when switching from high birth/death rates to low. Most countries have + growth rate
Generalized anxiety disorder
Symptoms are things such as dizziness, sweating palms, heart palpitations, ringing in the ears, edginess, lack of sleep, and "the shakes."
Freud Psychosexual Stages of Development
The five stages of his psychosexual development theory include the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages, described below. Oral - During this stage, the mouth is the pleasure center for development.
Superego
The good guy. Superego is the little angel on your shoulder. This is our moral compass that details right from wrong. Superego knows it's just not right to go around satisfying our sexual cravings anywhere and everywhere. Freud thought this kicked in starting around age 4 or 5.
Rorschach test
The inkblot test is a method of psychological evaluation. Psychologists use this test in an attempt to examine the personality
Null Hypothesis
The null hypothesis states that there is no difference between the two groups that you're trying to compare. Generally in statistics, you're trying to prove the null hypothesis wrong, saying that there actually is a difference between the groups (i.e., saying that there's a difference between the control and experimental group).
Cerebral Cortex
The outermost layer of the cerebral hemisphere which is composed of gray matter. Cortices are asymmetrical. Both hemispheres are able to analyze sensory data, perform memory functions, learn new information, form thoughts and make decisions.
Glass ceiling
The point in a women's career when she can no longer rise any higher while their male colleagues rise to the top
Fecundity
The potential reproductive capacity of a female in a population
Food deserts
Urban areas with no grocery stores, need fast food to eat and no nutritional capabilities
Disequilibrium
Use accommodation to return to equilibrium
Gender oppression
Women are different and also subordinated, comes down to power. Positive power of women not acknowledged. Institution of family benefits man
Structural oppression
Women's oppression due to capitalism and patriarchy (ties to conflict theory).
Eysenck
We have 3 major dimensions encompass all traits but differential expressions: extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism
Similarity effect
We think that the more time we spend with someone the more similar they become, but this may not actually be true
Multitasking
We're bad at it, shadowing task (attended channel and unattended channel)
Primary groups
Wedding-- bridesmaid + groomsmen. Belonging and shared sense of identity, loyalty. Belong to group is inherent value, anchor point. Close relationships, love cooperation concern
Visuospatial sketchpad
Working memory visual. A component of working memory responsible for handling visual and spatial information. It temporarily stores information on how things look and allows us to manipulate images in our mind
Milgram studies
Willingness of participants to do what authority states even when it is wrong, 65% went all the way to 450 V
Just world phenomenon
World is fair so people get what they get, a way of justifying actions especially to victims
Positive Reinforcement
Would encourage a desired behavior, refers to adding a stimulus.
Emotion Focused Coping
Would involve a focus on restructuring or managing emotions that accompany stress. One method for managing or restructuring emotions could be meditation, or using relaxation based exercises like deep breathing.
Acquisition
in classical conditioning, the process of learning the association between a conditioned stimulus and response. Example: Pavlov's dog has acquisition when the dog salivates to the ringing bell.
Stanley Milgram
conducted research on obedience where he asked subjects to administer a shock to what they thought was another subject (but was just an actor) and he monitored the degree of subjects' compliances or obedience
Amygdala
neural centers in the limbic system linked to emotion
Mirror neurons
neurons that fire when a particular behavior or emotion is observed in another; may be responsible for vicarious emotions and a foundation for empathy
Folkways
norms that are more informal, yet shape everyday behavior (style of dress, ways of greeting, etc.)
semantic memory
not drawn from personal experiences (common knowledge)
context effects
not relevant to a person's judgment and decision making process, but can still have a biasing impact on those processes
Extended family
nuclear + other relatives
distal stimulus
object which provides information for the proximal stimulus
unidirectional
occurs independently of other factors
Functions of religion
social solidarity- emotional comfort- guidelines
Negative stereotypes
unreliable generalizations about all members of a group
Ethnocentrism
use own culture to judge other cultures; creates loyalty and discrimination
shadowing
used in attention studies where a person repeats word for word as a person speaks and other stimuli are playing in the background
Linguistic isolation
Changes in language in segregated communities
incentive theory
factors outside of individuals can motivate behavior
Orientation
family you are born into
Procreation
family you create
Phineas Gage
famous case of a man who suffered damage to his prefrontal cortex after a railroad tie blasted through his head. His symptoms due to damage to this area included: impulsivity, an inability to stick to plans, an inability to demonstrate empathy
universally expressed emotions
happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, disgust, anger
Reticular formation
helps control arousal
Executive functions
higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making
Rhombencephalon
hindbrain (pons medulla cerebellum)
cultural transmission
how culture is learned
population pyramid
illustrate the age and sex distribution of a population
Looking Glass Self (Cooley)
imagine appearance to others; interpret other's reactions; develop a self-concept
fMRI
imaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting associated changes in blood flow
PET
imaging technique that uses radioactive substances to detect diseases in the body
Infantile amnesia
lack of explicit memory for events that occurred before the age of roughly 3.5 years, while people are unable to recall memories from this part of their life, learning and memory do still occur, the reason for infantile amnesia is unknown
Gender socialization
learn culturally defined gender roles; learn behavior/attitude for each sex; reinforced
ME
learned behaviors, attitudes, and expectations of others and society, socialized and conforming aspect of the self
humanistic theory
look at human behavior through the eyes of the observer as well as the eyes of the person being observed
Pluralistic society
many diverse groups
Endogamy
marry in-group (race/social class)
Exogamy
marry out-group(incest taboo)
pituitary gland
master endocrine gland
partial report technique
measures iconic memory
sanctions
mechanisms of social control (punishments and rewards)
general adaptation syndrome
model of the body's stress response that consists of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
Nuclear family
mom, dad, siblings
vertical social mobility
movement up or down a social hierarchy
Polysomnography (PSG)
multimodal technique for measuring physiological processes during sleep, including EEG, EMG and EOG
support-seeking
overcome stress by seeking support, seeking information
dependence
overcoming stress by relying on others
status-seeking
overcompensates stress through high achievement
spinal cord
pathway for neural fibers traveling to and from the brain; controls simple relfexes
Marx
people should change society --> revolution; struggle between social classes is cause of change
place theory
perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane
sensitive period
point in early life development that can have a significant influence on physiological or behavioral functioning later in life
associative learning
process of learning in which one event, object, or action is directly connected with another. Two general categories include classical and operant conditioning
Parietal Lobe
processing of sensory input. Body orientation (proprioception)
demographic transition theory
progressive movement from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates
Encoding specificity principle
proposed by researchers Thomson and Tulving, states that memory is most effective when information available at encoding is also present at retrieval; explains why a subject is able to recall a target word as part of an unrelated word pair at retrieval with much more accuracy when prompted with the unrelated word than if presented with a semantically related word that was not available during encoding
Theories of Prejudice
scapegoating; authoritarian personality;
Mores
serious norm, demands conformity, severe consequences
Narcolepsy
sleep disorder in which the individual experiences periodic overwhelming sleepiness during waking periods that usually last less than 5 min
stage 2 of sleep
sleep spindles
Proprioception
relative position of body parts in relation to each other
pons
relays information between the cerebrum and the cerebellum, controls arousal and regulates respiration
thalamus
relays messages between lower brain centers and cerebral cortex
mcdonaldization
replace traditional and emotional thought with reason and efficiency (uniformity, efficiency, and technological control)
stimulant
same psychological response as stress, increases glucose metabolism
Prodrome
Deterioration in behavior and function, going downhill. Schoolwork suffers, relationships, paranoia, delusions
Freud's idea for sleep
Dreams are unconscious thoughts and ideas that come to forefront
Arcuate tasciculus
Fibers implicated in language function. Bundle of axon that connects the Wernicke and Broca's area.
Parvo pathway
Figuring out shape of an object (spatial resolution but poor temporal resolution)
Case Study
"Examines one individual in depth over time to thoroughly understand all aspects of that person's functioning."
Social Epidemiology
"Focuses on the contribution of social and cultural factors to disease patterns in populations"
FREUD Fixation
"For example, a person who got too much oral pleasure, or too little, may grow up to be a smoker or lash out verbally."
Amygdala
"Headquarters of emotion. Most consistently associated with fear. Damage has been linked to difficulty attending to facial expressions that would normally signal fear. Part of limbic system."
Punishment
"Decrease of a behavior. DISCOURAGES a behavior (whereas negative reinforcement encourages a behavior by removing something unpleasant)."
Narcissistic personality disorder
"Exaggerating your own importance. A narcissist thinks he/she has done great things, hates any criticism, wants to be in the limelight, is very arrogant, but has no empathy for others. It's me- first and me-only."
Variable ratio
"A reward after a randomized number of responses. Reinforcer is given after a random number of behaviors. Think of pulling a slot machine handle, you never know which pull will win."
Confounding Variable
"A third variable that could explain differences between groups, and compromises study results. Confusing Variable." A confounding variable is an additional independent variable that may have an effect on the dependent variable, may increase variance and introduce bias.
Biopsychosocial approach
"ALL behavior comes from the interaction of the body/genetics and one's background/experiences as well as our thoughts."
Stereotype Threat
"Addresses task performance anxiety induced by the implicit activation of stereotypes"
Bottom-up Processing
"Analysis of the stimulus begins w/ the sense receptor and work up to brain, /-\ (I see something, oh it's an A)."
Phonemes
"Basic sounds. English has 26 letters, but 40 of these (40 sounds)."
Retinal Disparity
"Binocular depth cue that gives you a slightly different view of the same object and contributes to depth perception."
Index of dissimilarity
0 = total segregation, 100 = perfect distribution
Erikson stages
0-1 Basic trust vs. mistrust; 1-3 Autonomy vs. shame and doubt; 3-6 Initiative vs. guilt; 6-12 Industry vs. inferiority; 13-19 Identity vs. role confusion; 20-39 Intimacy vs. isolation; 40-64 Ego integrity vs. despair
Scientific method
1. Select topic 2. Define problem 3. Literature review 4. Form hypothesis 5. Choose research method 6. Collect data 7. Analyzing results 8. Sharing results
Ekman
6 universal emotions
Old age cohort
10% live below poverty line, people living longer due to medical intervention. Age 65 is when people retire and no longer contribute. Slowly deteriorating state, health care inequality from availability of resources
Rods/cones
120 million/6-7 million centered in fovea note: photopsin instead of rhodopsin
Cattell
16 essential personality traits are basic dimensions (16PF). The self-report provides a measure of normal personality and can also be used by psychologists, and other mental health professionals.
Dissociative identity disorder
2+ identities within same person that are distinct with own mannerisms and behaviors, denial. History of child abuse, extreme stress. Very rare and controversial
Beck Depression Inventory
21 question multiple-choice self-report inventory, one of the most widely used psychometric tests for measuring the severity of depression. Its development marked a shift among mental health professionals, who had until then, viewed depression from a psychodynamic perspective, instead of it being rooted in the patient's own thoughts. Designed for individuals aged 13 and over, and is composed of items relating to symptoms of depression such as hopelessness and irritability, cognitions such as guilt or feelings of being punished, as well as physical symptoms such as fatigue, weight loss, and lack of interest in sex
Malleus/incus/stapes
3 bones of middle ear
Capitalism
3 characteristics: private ownership of means and production, market competition, pursuit of profit
Triarchic theory of intelligence
3 independent intelligences pertaining to real world success, based on one's personal standards-and within one's sociocultural context. The ability to achieve success depends on the ability to capitalize on one's strengths and to correct or compensate for one's weaknesses. Success is attained through a balance of analytical, creative, and practical abilities-a balance that is achieved in order to adapt to, shape, and select environments.
Baddeley's Mode of working(short term) memory
4 components: phono (verbal); visuospatial sketchpad (visual); episodic buffer (working interacts with long-term memory; central executive (overseas).
Sleep stages
4-5 times per night 90 minute cycles- N1 N2 N3, REM
Personality disorder
A (eccentric), B (emotional/impulsive), C (anxious)
Catecholamines
A catecholamine is a monoamine, an organic compound that has a catechol (benzene group with two hydroxyl side groups at carbon 1 and 2) and a side-chain amine. Catecholamines are derived from the amino acid tyrosine, which is derived from dietary sources and the synthesis of phenylalanine. Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine. Adrenal medulla releases epinephrine and norepinepherine as part of the fight or flight response.
Impression Management
Addresses how individuals actively manifest their sense of self in social interactions
Hidden discrimination
A factor of social exclusion in segregation
World systems theory
A fluid model focused on core, periphery and semi periphery countries.
Discrimination magnet
A force in social exclusion
Anomia
A form of aphasia; unable to name everyday objects.
Classical conditioning
A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.
Class system
A model of social stratification in which people are grouped into hierarchical social categories such as upper, middle, and lower class. America has an open model of social stratification where place in the system may be earned on merit, and social mobility is possible. The class system in a country like India is partly stringent due to the hundreds of years of social stability that the caste system caused.
Mirror neuron
A neuron that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another. Thus, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting.
Attachment theory
A psychological model that attempts to describe the dynamics of long-term and short-term interpersonal relationships between humans which depends on the person's ability to develop basic trust in their caregivers and self. (joint work of Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby). A strong and physical attachment to at least one primary caregiver is critical to personal development.
Groupthink
A psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome. Group members try to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation of alternative viewpoints by actively suppressing dissenting viewpoints, and by isolating themselves from outside influences.
Retinal disparity
A result of binocular vision (eyes 2.5 inches apart)
Complex behavior
A result of mixed innate and learned behavior. Ability to fly starts as innate but becomes more efficient in flight and this is learned, interaction of genes and behavior.
Variable interval
A reward after a random amount of time. Reinforcer is given after a random time period. Think of watching a bob-cork and waiting for a fish to bite.
Fixed ratio
A reward after a set number of responses. Reinforcer is given after a set number of behaviors. Think of being paid for every 10 units you make on an assembly line.
Improvement
A subjective term that is nearly impossible to define in certain situations. Sociology attempts to remain free from bias, and not label situations in this manner.
Paraphasia
A type of language output error associated with aphasia and characterized by the production of unintended syllables, words, and phrases during the effort to speak.
Mediating Variable
A variable that attempts to assess the mechanisms underlying in the relationship between an independent and dependent variable.
Adrenal glands
Adjacent to kidneys, stimulated by ACTH. Cortex- steroid hormones (cortisol/aldosterone) and medulla (inside- catecholamine)
Self control
Ability to control impulses and delay gratification
Selective attention
Ability to focus on task at hand
Cognitive flexibility
Ability to take one step back and reformulate to see what's not working ("serenity prayer"). Perspective change, wisdom
Sleep-wake
Abnormal behaviors for sleep or during
Personality disorders
Abnormal/distressing change in personality features. Outside societal norms (eccentric, emotional, anxious)
Neurodevelopmental
Abnormality in brain development to abnormal function retardation)
Depressive
Abnormally negative mood (long term emotional state). Or affect/perception. Emotion = brief mood is more persistent. Hopelessness, suicide, anhedonia
Successful social movement
Absorbed into the dominant culture and incorporated
Assimilation
Absorption into majority group: Integration or incorporation of a immigrant group of the host society they're living in.
12 step programs/group meetings
Acceptance, surrender, active involvement Examples of 12 step programs: AA, cocaine anonymous (CA), Nicotine Anonymous, etc. Programs are a set of guiding principles to help one recover from addiction. Begin by admitting that you have a problem, accept that there's a higher power, look at past mistakes, amend mistakes, new way of life.
Crystallized intelligence
Accumulated knowledge (does not decrease as we get older). The ability to use learned knowledge and experience (in contrast to fluidic intelligence).
Validity
Accurately address the construct.
Opiates
Act at body's endorphins receptors, otherwise similar function to depressants
William James
Act happy= Be happy.
Relative deprivation theory
Actions of groups who are oppressed or deprived of rights that others in society enjoy-- response to inequality. More important about perception of deprivation and discrepancy between expectations and reality. Need relative deprivation, desire to feel better, and lack of other methods to improve
Nucleus accumbens
Activated by neurons that orginate in the Ventral Tegmentum Area (VTA) and goes on to release dopamine. Its located in the basal forebrain. Part of the dopaminergic reward pathway; releases dopamine in response to many drugs contributing to addictive behavior
Types of movements
Activist, progressive
Generalization
Adaptive value to have classical conditioning to 2 similar but not the same stimulus
Exchange Theory
Addresses decision making via cost-benefit analyses
Accommodation
Adjusting to come up with new schema. When new information causes you to modify your schema, instead of making the information fit a new organized pattern of knowledge. Example: When a waiter writes a thank you note on your receipt, you change your schema to believe that most waiters will write a thank you note on your receipt instead of creating a new schema for just that waiter.
Intragenerational mobility
Affecting one person in his/her own lifetime
Rural rebound
Afford to leave the city and looking to get away
Sex (sociocultural)
Age, cultural, stimulus, emotions/desires
Agents of socialization
Agents that help us learn about the social world (family, schools, mass media like children's books). Four most important agents of socialization: family, schools, peers, mass media. Most influential during one's childhood and help people learn how to interact with others and social expectations.
Life course theory
Aging is social biological and psychological process. Can't tell age by number anymore
Conflict theory
Alienation of workers by increased division of labor. By Karl Marx, "society is always in a state of perpetual conflict because people are always competing for limited resources."
Serotonin
All over brain stem, pons, raphe nuclei
Random mating
All potential members of species can be mate
Drowsiness
Almost asleep but semi aware of world
Posterior chamber
Also filled with aqueous humor
Psychoactive drugs
Alter consciousness
Modify cognition
Alteration to reduce discomfort
Hallucinogens
Altered perceptions, wide range of specific physiological effects. Ecstasy is hallucinogen and stimulant, damage serotonin neurotransmitter, also heightened sensations. Can be used for PTSD treatment methods. For example LSD, magic mushrooms, rocket fuel, and cough syrup.
Bipolar disorder
Alternating between mania and depression. Also called manic depression; effects 3 million in the US; cant be cured (treatment may help); chronic - can last for years or be lifelong. Alternating periods of elation and depression. Clear changes in mood, energy, and activity levels. Less severe manic periods are known as hypomanic episodes.
Bandura's social cognitive theory
Am I motivated? Attention, memory, imitation, motivation. Core component of social cognitive theory is Bandura's concept of self-efficacy in which one believes that they they have the capabilities to organize and execute the course of action for a particular problem. The social cognitive theory emphasizes the role of observational learning, social experience, and reciprocal determinism( you influence the environemnt and the environment influences you).
Emotional effects of stress on anxiety
Amygdala, fear (flight of response)
Absolute poverty
An absolute value associated at which if you go beneath survival is difficult. This is a universal amount ($1-2 per day) but it's also arbitrary with variability across cultures. Universal characterization by severe deprivation of human needs, including food, drinking water, sanitation
Socialism
An economic system where resources and production are collectively owned; it includes a system of production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs (goods/services are produced for direct use instead of for profit)
Anterograde amnesia
An inability to form new memories. Long term memories formed before the accident stay intact
Independent Variable
An independent variable is the explanatory variable. The one you are comparing.
Humanism
An outlook or system of thought attaching prime importance to human rather than divine or supernatural matters. Stresses the potential value and goodness of human beings, emphasize common human needs, and seek solely rational ways of solving human problems.
Multiple intelligences (Sternberg)
Analytical, creative, practical types of intellegence
Means end analysis
Analyze into problems and deal with biggest problems first then deal with subgroups of problems
Foraging
Animal searching for food in environment with cost-benefit analysis. Innate and learned behavior
Conjunction fallacy
Assuming that specific conditions are more probable than a general one. For example, while jogging around the neighborhood, you are more likely to get bitten by someone's pet dog, than by any member of the canine species. Actually, that is not the case. "Someone's pet dog", would also be a member of the canine species. Therefore, the canine species includes wolves, coyotes, as well as your neighbor's shih tzu
Role playing
At beginning of new role, feel phony. Trying to follow social quota to be best at role, give new role longer time and what feels like acting becomes normal. Change attitude towards role by acting out behavior
Suspensory ligaments
Attached to ciliary muscle to form ciliary body, secretes aqueous humor. Change shape of lens
Vestibukar hair cells
Attached to crystals and direction of pulling allow you to detect head position
Oval window
Attached to stapes and vibrates
Cocktail party effect
Attend to one voice when hearing your own name among lots of conversations
Attention
Attention is the behavioral and cognitive process of selectively concentrating on a discrete aspect of information, whether it be subjective or objective, and ignore other perceivable information. Focusing on one thing at the expense of other things, limited resource especially for complicated stimuli.
Signal detection
Attention, motivation and expectations can also have an impact on whether you perceive
Treismann's attenuation theory
Attenuator weakens but does not eliminate stuff that is not high priority. Difficulty of task impacts attenuator function. For example, in an experiment with bilingual participants, Treisman presented the attended message in English and the unattended message in a French translation. When the French version lagged only slightly behind the English version, participants could report that both messages had the same meaning.
Animal communication
Attract mate, establish/defend territory, convey info about food, warn about danger, establish dominance/submission
External locus
Attribute events to external circumstances
Temporal Lobe
Auditory reception and interpretation, expressed behavior, receptive speech, information retrieval
Schizotypal
Avoid relationships and magical thinking
Daydreaming
Awake but not aware of world around us
Categorical self
Aware that we exist in a world with other objects that have properties, comes after existential self. Concrete defining characteristics, becomes more abstract as we get older. One of two aspects of the broader concept of self (the other aspect being existential self). Once a child understands that they exist as a separate being, then they consider themselves as an object in the world.
Efferent Neuron
Away from CNS
Vitreous chamber
Filled with vitreous humor, jelly substance to provide round shape pressure and nutrients
Sensory adaptation
Change in sensitivity of perception of sensation, desensitization (hearing, touch, smell, proprioception, sight- both down and up regulation)
Older generations
Baby boomers, silent generation, GI generation
PTSD
Bad memories, insomnia, requires trigger, require 4+ weeks, hypervigilance
Centralization
Baddeley's working memory model: central executive is the driving force of the entire working memory model (CE = boss of working memory) and allocates data to the subsystems (visuo-spatial sketchpad and phonological loop) which also deal with cognitive tasks such as mental arithmetic and problem solving.
Intentions
Based on attitudes toward a certain behavior, subjective norms (what we think others think of behavior), perceived behavior control (how easy we think it is to control behavior)
Imitation
Basic form of social behavior, understanding between difference of self and others (debate as to when one can imitate). Born with capacity to imitate and interact socially?
Primary cortex
Basic motor or sensory function
Base and apex
Basilar membrane of cochlea hair cells at base activated by high frequency, low frequency at apex
Disengagement theory
Become more self-absorbed as you age. Aging is an inevitable, mutual withdrawal resulting in decreased interaction between the individual and their social system.
Continuous reinforcement
Becomes less enforcing over time Continuous Variable Represent complex variables with an infinite number of distinctions. All numbers.
Bottom up processing
Begins with stimulus and influences perception. No preconceived cognitive concepts. All stimuli are new and novel so try to comprehend, allow stimulus to influence. Data driven. i.e., first you see a bowl of ice cream. Then this leads to a series of emotions "hunger, desire" and then there's cognition and directive for action in which you now understand that you want the ice cream, and you motion your hand for it.
Situational approach
Behavior changes in different environments. Learn more about person with more observation
Reciprocal determinism
Behavior cognition and environmental factors intertwine and are determinants of each other. Bandura observational learning
Memory reconstruction
Change memory every time we recall it depending on our mental state/mood/desires
Cohort
Group of people
Brain waves
Beta, alpha, theta, delta. Brainwaves are produced by synchronized electrical impulses from masses of neurons communicating with each other. Brainwaves change according to what we're doing, as in which stage of sleep we're in. Beta brainwaves dominate our normal waking state of consciousness when attention is directed towards cognitive tasks, beta is fast activity. Continual high frequency processing is not a very efficient way to run the brain, as it takes a tremendous amount of energy (that's why its important to go to sleep). Alpha brainwaves are the resting brainwaves. alpha is dominant during quietly flowing thoughts, and in some meditative states. Theta brainwaves occur most often in sleep but are also dominant in deep meditation. Acts as a gateway to learning and memory. While theta brainwaves are occurring, our senses are withdrawn from the external world and focused on signals originating from within. While theta waves are occurring, we are in a dream; vivid imagery, intuition and information beyond our normal conscious awareness; Delta brainwaves are slow, loud brainwaves (low freq and deeply penetrating, like a drum beat - generated in deepest meditation and dreamless sleep. delta brainwaves suspend external awareness and are the source of empathy. healing are regeneration are stimulated in this state, and that's why deeper restorative sleep is so essential to the healing process.
Context dependent memory
Better memory score when learning and tested in same place
N1
Between sleep and wakefulness (theta waves) hypnagogic hallucinations
Selection bias
Bias that arises when the sample is not representative of the population, such as not being randomly chosen
Kluver-bucy syndrome
Bilateral amygdala destruction, hyperorality, hypersexuality, disinhibited behavior
Social interactionist theory
Biological and social factors interact to cause motivation to speak language. Vygotsky was big proponent
Sex, gender, orientation
Biological, identity, expression, attraction, fornication
Sex
Biological, male/female
Increase population
Birth (total fertility rate, typical family 2.1 kids) and immigration. Fertility rate of 2 does not cause any net increase. Immigration is scaled by people/1000. number of births+immigration/1000 is growth rate
Tastes
Bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (glutamate) dependent on specific receptors
Dependence
Body starts to produce effect without even taking drug so need more to get to high point
Global aphasia
Both Broca and Wernicke damage
Means-End Analysis
Breaking the big problem down into smaller problems and solving them one at a time.
Old brain
Breathing, body regulation functions occur without awareness are apart of the
Retrieval
Bring from long term memory into conscious recall
Ethnic villages
Bring native culture when immigrate and have same background in neighborhood
Non-fluent aphasia
Broca's aphasia (speech production problem)
Social capital
Building up reliable trust worthy social networks
Olfactory bulb
Bundle of nerves that send projections into olfactory epithelium. Receptors at end specific to different aromas
Evolutionary psychology
Buss- mating strategies and patterns
Trauma and stressor related
Changes after stressful events (PTSD)
Stimulants
Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, speed increase CNS activity.
Incentive Theory of Motivation
Calls attention to how factors outside of individuals, including community values and other aspects of culture, can motivate behavior
Substance induced disorders
Can affect mood, anxiety, sleep, sexual function, psychosis
Internal locus
Can attribute events to their own characteristics, destiny. Tend to be happier and less stressed
Rational choice exchange theory
Can break down in any institutions as choices. What is purpose of medical system? Keep people healthy or some other form, make most money? Benefit private companies more than sick people? Will going to doctor benefit more in long run or cost more?
Class consciousness (Marxist theory)
Can develop class consciousness and solidarity with people in own class. workers part of the working class do not realize that they are being exploited by capitalist means. Want to take over capitalist regime. refers to the belief people hold of their own social class or rank in society. This consciousness of "place" in society often leads to a revolution - as Marx would describe it, the transformation from a wage-earning, property-less mass into the ruling class.
Meditation
Can help lower heart rate and blood pressure
Fixation
Can't see with fresh eyes; focus on what worked in past.
Thesis and antithesis
Cannot exist peacefully together, must lead to synthesis
Conduction aphasia
Cannot repeat even if understanding what is being said; disruption between Wernicke and Broca. May also be known as associative aphasia, an acquired language disorder. Patients suffer from poor speech repition, depsite having intact auditory comprehension and fluent (with paraphasia) speech production.
Gestalt psychologists
Cannot understand the essence in parts must look at the whole and greater patterns
Phonological Store
Capacity to store is around 2 seconds.
Adrenal medulla
Catecholamine hormones- epinephrine and norepinephrine, supporting sympathetic nervous system. Derived from the neural crest (ectoderm), produce catecholamines.
Ordinal Variable
Categorical and can be ranked in order.
Nominal Variable
Categorical and cannot be ranked in order
Processing levels
Categorize, identification, social comparison
PKU
Caused by mutation in gene that codes for liver, enzyme (phenylalanine hydroxylase), build up phenylalanine
Ganglia
Cell bodies outside CNS
Trivialize
Change importance of cognition or trivialize
Sensory adaptation
Change in response to stimulus over time
Frontal Lobe
Cognition and memory. Prefrontal area: The ability to concentrate and attend, elaboration of thought. The "Gatekeeper"; (judgment, inhibition). Personality and emotional traits. Motor Cortex (Brodman's): voluntary motor activity. Premotor Cortex: storage of motor patterns and voluntary activities. Language: motor speech
Kohlberg (moral theory)
Cognitive development based, ways in which moral reasoning grows. Heinz dilemma. 3 levels of moral reasoning on moral ladder (pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional). Obedience vs. punishment at premoral, avoid physical punishment as well as individualism and exchange multiple viewpoints, up ladder to conventional authority is about good boy and good girl (be good to be seen as good to others, conformity) and law and order, awareness of wider society rules. then post conventional: social contract of self-chosen principles since law might work against self interest, universal ethical principle (develop own set of moral guidelines)
Proprioception
Cognitive sense of where our body is in space-- position. Originates from sensors in our body in muscles (spindles)
Exogenous/endogenous cues
Come from environment or external (pop out effect)/internally driven and higher order
Normative organizations
Come together with shared goals, which is focused purpose
Social support
Comes from everyone we reach out to and get support from. Bigger support gives better life expetancy and quality.
Cultural universals
Common practices and beliefs shared by all cultures
Corpus Collosum
Communication between the two hemispheres. Aka callosal commissure. Connects right and left hemispheres. Largest white matter structure in the brain. Wide, flat bundle of neural fibers.
Social isolation
Community separates itself from main stream based on own religious or cultural factors. This is not like exclusion in which external factors are acting
Twin studies
Compare prevalence between MZ and DZ twins who share some environment but different genes (100% to 50%)
Anomie
Condition in which society provides little moral guidance to individuals. May occur when the society is too rigid and does not provide too much outside integration sometimes producing an anomie, resulting in suicides. Anomie is mostly associated with Durkheim. Not so much of absence of norms as it is mismatch.
Role conflict
Conflict between 2 or more different statuses
Internalization
Conform privately with behavior as well as publicly (stronger factor and internalize idea)
Brainstem
Connects all parts of central nervous system and most cranial nerves: midbrain, pons, medulla. Host somatosensory and motor tracts. The brainstem regulates vital cardiac and respiratory functions and acts as a vehicle for sensory information. Posterior part of the brain that adjoins to the spinal cord. Nerve connections from the motor and sensory systems of the cortex pass through the brainstem to communicate with the PNS. Consists of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain.
Alertness
Conscious and awake to what is going on in environment
Explicit memory
Consciously recalled memories. AKA declarative memory. These are things like facts or experiences that you can call up.
Group lateness
Consensus when lots of people exhibiting same behavior --> external judgments not internal
Theory of planned behavior
Consider our implications of actions before we decide how to behave. Best predictor is strength of intention in situation
Covariation model
Consistent display of behavior and so we think this a dispositional/internal attribution. An attribution theory in which people make causal inferences to explain why other people and ourselves behave in a certain way. It is concerned with both social perception and self-perception. We use social perception to attribute behavior to internal or external factors.
Visual processing
Contralateral vision
Impression management
Control how others see us on front stage. Multiple front stages and so multiple scripts. Work on impression management in backstage
Circadian Rhythm
Control sleep-wake cycle: Regulated by melatonin of pineal gland.
Cryogenic blockade
Cooling down neurons until they stop functioning (down with cryoloop), temporary effects
Cerebellum
Coordinate voluntary movement and speech (impacted by alcohol consumption), smooths movement
Behavior
Coordinated hormonal responses that link body's physiology to psychology and cognition
Emotional effects of stress on addiction
Coping mechanisms for stress, such as alcohol or tobacco. Impairment of frontal cortex, lack of judgment
Split brain patients
Corpus callosum splitting, causing lack of hemispheral connection. Cannot name objects in left hemisphere
Patient "tan"
Damage to Broca's area disrupted speech production
Broca's Aphasia
Damage to the language production center of the brain. (Frontal Lobe). Individuals with brocas aphasia have difficulty producing speech fluently but have sound comprehension (if their wernickes area is intact). Patients have difficulty producing grammatical sentences and their speech is limited mainly to short utterances of less than 4 words.
Decrease population
Death and emigration. Mortality rates does not say anything about types of death. Population pyramid indicate type of population (wide or constricted). Expansive population pyramid or look at age specific rates. Life/mortality table tells probability someone will die by age. emigration measured by people /1000.
Hypotonia
Decrease in skeletal muscle tone (inherent resistance)
Punishment (+/-)
Decrease tendency of behavior to happen again.
Atrophy
Decreased bulk of skeletal muscle
Depression biological basis
Decreased frontal lobe, increased limbic. Abnormal blood concentration of cortisol (irregular hypothalamus communication), raphe nuclei in brainstem, locus coeruleus, VTA, genetic abnormalities, psychosocial factors
Hyporeflexia
Decreased muscle stretch reflexes
Trait theory
Define personality in terms of identifiable patterns of behavior. Description NOT explanation
Social potency trait
Degree to which person assumes leadership in situation
Denial
Denying that cognition and behavior are even related
Gene + environment interaction
Dependent on each other extensively
Strong social constructionism
Dependent on language and social habits, no brute facts
Small society
Dependent on self, but not sustainable will eventually become larger. Then specialization and mutual dependence, then need coordination and mutualism
PsychoActive agents 4 main groups:
Depressants (less CNS and processing speed), stimulants (increase CNS function), hallucinogens (distorted perceptions, varying energy and mood), opiates (depress CNS, analgesic by reducing pain)
Emotional effects of stress
Depression, anhedonia, anterior cingulate decreased response to serotonin
Sleep disorder
Deprivation (irritability, obesity, more cortisol, depression), insomnia persistent problems avoid dependence/tolerance on meds, narcolepsy (1/2000 people, genetic), sleep apnea (1/20 people) no N3 sleep! Sleepwalking/talking, mostly genetic in N3 sleep
James-Lange Theory
Describes an event (story describing fear) followed by a physiological response (fight or flight) which is interpreted as fear and fear is perceived.
Cannon-Bard Theory
Describes an event (story describing fear) which elicits simultaneous physiological response (fight or flight) and perception of an emotion (fear). Cannon-Bard theory was created in refutation of the James-Lange theory. Cannon-Bard suggests that emotions and bodily changes do not share a cause and effect, rather they occur simultaneously, following a stimulating event.
Urban villages
Designed for people to work live and recreate in city plan, facilitate interactions and stronger community
Shadowing task
Different info coming into different earpieces, repeat everything in one ear and ignore other
Cerebral localization
Different parts of brain correspond to different function (early theory)
Demographic structure
Different ways you can look at a population of people, different groups in society to analyze for different statistics. Describes the age distribution of a population and thereby is also called population age structure. A ratio of total dependent population (under 15 and over 65) to the total working population.
Discrimination
Differential treatment and action against minorities at individual or institutional level
Fovea
Dip in macula covered in cones
Central executive
Direct components of working memory to get integrated for episodic buffer
Social stigma
Disapproval and discrediting of individual by society, stereotypes prejudices and discrimination
Cognitive dissonance
Discomfort experienced from contradictions in attitudes and behaviors. Protective mechanism-- people strive for harmony
Mental disorder
Disorder of mind. 25% meet criteria for at least 1 disorder, 6% to have serious disability
Visual Agnosia
Disorder of the ventral pathway, an inability to recognize an image.
Mass media
Dissemination of information or transmission within culture (print or digital). Consumption changes across culture
Auditory processing range
Distinguishing between sounds of different frequencies (20 Hz to 20k Hz)
Pathological
Distort reality to deal with situation (denial)
4D's
Distress, disability, danger, deviance 4, not 1, behaviors are used to the guide the diagnosis of abnormal behavior. The group of 4 terms helps the differentiation between "crazy" and "eccentric". Thoughts, actions, and emotions are causing one to be distressed, disabled/dysfunctional (unable to carry out normal tasks), threat to themselves or others, and are different from the norm of society.
Neurocognitive
Distress/disability from loss of cognitive function: delirium, infections, dementia, Alzheimer's
5 main characteristics of ideal bureaucracy (Weber)
Division of labor, hierarchy of organization, written rules and regulations, impersonality, employment based on technical qualifications. Preconditions for a bureaucracy: growing population, growing administered tasks, and economic exchange.
Compliance
Do behavior to get reward or avoid punishment (don't necessarily know why you're doing it). Refers to changing one's behavior due to the request or direction of another person. When a target is urged in perhaps an implicit or explicit way and are forced to produce a response upon the introduction of a stimulus. Doing something you didn't really want to do but just did because somebody asked you. i.e., buying something after being pushed by an aggressive salesperson,
Inattentional blindness
Do not process things in our field when we do not direct attention to it. For example, if you count passes by the players wearing black, you are more likely to notice the gorilla than if you count passes by the players wearing white because the color of the gorilla more closely matches that of the black-shirted players
Rote rehearsal
Do over and over again to learn
Identification
Do something because want to be liked/respected by another individual
Asch line experiments
Do you go with what everyone says even though it's clearly wrong? Solitary participants conformed at least 75%. 18 trials, incorrect answer on 12. no pressure to conform or prize in this experiment, only perceived pressure
Coercive organizations
Don't have opportunity to leave, highly structured (like military)
Cognitive (bandura)
Don't have opportunity to leave, highly structured (like military). total institutions in which membership is forced rather than voluntary; control is maintained through force; members are typically stripped of individuality and ordered to conform. Need permission to leave the organization. While you may join the military on voluntary basis, the structure is strict, and leaving is not as easy as just quitting.
Reward pathway
Dopamine produced in VTA in midbrain, goes to many parts of brain (amygdala, nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus), mesolimbic pathway, serotonin goes down
Poverty magnet
Drag poor people from society and one instrument of social exclusion
Borderline
Dramatic, on brink of some kind of breakdown, unstable
Activation synthesis hypothesis
Dreams are part of our brain and generalized thinking processes
Schacter and Singer Theory
Emotions are made up of (1) physical arousal and (2) a cognitive label (we must be actually aware of the physical arousal). This one says that we feel our bodies react, we're aware of this reaction, then we feel the emotion associated with it. Describes an event (story describing fear) which elicits physiological response (fight or flight).
Social Process Model
Emphasizes social interaction and influence in shaping behavior or actions.
Behaviorism
Emphasizes the idea of characteristics are learned and can be shaped specific ways. A systematic approach to understanding the behavior of humans and animals; behaviors are either responses to stimuli, or a consequence of an individuals history including reinforcement and punishment.
Biological Psychology
Emphasizes the importance of innate skills. The application of the principles of biology to the study of psychological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans, and other animals.
Psychoanalysis
Emphasizes the importance of internal desires and impulses.
Yerkes-Dodson law
Empirical relationship between arousal and performance. The law dictates that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point. An example of this is an athlete who performs better under real game situation than he/she does during practice games. There is more arousal (stress, excitement) during the real games which increases their performance. But, if the pressure becomes too much, their performance can decrease
Outsourcing
Enabled by technological advances, sending work to other countries for cheaper labor. People in core country losing jobs
Negative Reinforcement
Encourages a behavior by removing something unpleasant. Would encourage a desired behavior, but requires the removal of a stimulus
Pluralism
Encouraging racial and ethnic variation
Dark adaptation
Enlargement of the pupil; Increased sensitivity of the cones (color receptors); Increased sensitivity of the rods (night-vision receptors). Preference increased sensitivity of the rods in comparison to the sensitivity of the cones.
Source characteristics
Environment of message: where did info come from?
Functionalism
Equilibrium is goal to stabilize, structures like institutions change only if necessary (institutions are structures that fulfill needs of society). Takes lots of energy to change so do only minimal amount of work, minor changes
Secondary appraisal
Evaluation of ability to cope with stressful situation. Appraisal of harm (damage caused), threat (future potential damage), challenge (how can situation be overcome)
Cultural Relativism
Evaluation of another culture based on that culture's standards; In contrast to ethnocentrism.
Iron rule of oligarchy
Even most democratic organizations become more bureaucratic over time
Lazarus
Event - appraisal (label) - emotion + physiological response. Can be biased by prior experiences and schemas, reversed order of Schacter singer
James-lange
Event - physiologic response - interpretation - emotion
Cannon-bard
Event - physiological response + emotion simultaneously. many emotions have same physiological response. Too slow to produce emotion?
Schacter-Singer
Event - physiological response - cognitive label - emotion
Attitude to behavior process model
Event triggers an attitude (something that will influence perception of object). Use this with outside knowledge to cause behavior
Ambient Stressors
Events that are in the background of most individual's lives; such as pollution.
Catastrophic Stressors
Events that happen that are out of the control of groups of individuals.
Peter principle
Every employee hierarchy will get promoted until they reach peak and cannot go any further
Cooley
Every interaction can influence our personality, looking glass self. Perception of others and self influence us by appearance, what others think of us, revise based on impressions. We are influenced what we IMAGINE others to think of us (correct/incorrect impressions). Believed that the influence of groups within a society had a strong impact on human behavior. Contribution to sociology includes the study of an individuals primary groups - the most influential on our learning of ideas, beliefs, and ideals. Theory of Looking Glass Self: our self-image comes from our own self-reflection and from what others think of us. Therefore, Cooley believed that the self is a product of our social interactions.
Dream
Every night during REM sleep, last 5-20 minutes at a time not localized to brain regions
Rational choice theory
Everything people do is fundamentally rational (weighing costs and benefits to maximize personal gain). Act in self interest and motivated by personal goals, calculate by social resources cost and gain. Can explain complex phenomena
Symbolic Interactionism
Examines small scale social interactions, focusing attention on how shared meaning is established among individuals or small groups
Halo effect
Excellent first impression modulates our overall impression, perceive that they are better at other skills based on overall impression. Attractiveness
Diffusion
Expansion of ideas spread of invention or discovery from one place to another (capitalism, religion, etc.). Mechanisms = exploration, military conquest, internet, etc.
Gender roles
Expectations of proper behaviors of males and females, taught from birth. Inundated by media and society
Creativity (5 PARTS)
Expertise; Imagination, Venturesome personality, Intrinsic motivation, Environment. Expertise: the more ideas, images, and phrases we have to work with through our accumulated learning the more we have to approach mental building blocks in novel ways. Imagination: imagination provides the ability to see things in new ways, see patterns, and to make connections. Venturesome Personality: tolerates ambiguity and risk, perseveres in overcoming obstacles, and seeks new experiences rather than following the pack. You need instrinsic motivation to keep going. ENVIRONMENT: sparks, supports, and refines creative ideas.
Gestalt Principles
Explain how we perceive things the way we do.
Deutsch and deutsch late selection
Explained that all information, both attended and unattended, undergo analysis for meaning. After such analysis, selection of a sensory input takes place. One factor that has a major effect on selecting the input is the relevance of the information during the time of processing. The late selection model is a model of how attention operates (1963). All stimuli get fully processed but there's a filter after initial process that allows the information to be processed before entering working memory.
Stereotype threat
Exposing students to negative stereotypes cause decreased performance
Priming
Exposure to one stimulus impacts processing of another stimulus. For example, a person who sees the word "yellow" will be slightly faster to recognize the word "banana." This happens because yellow and banana are closely associated in memory.
Reticular formation
Extends from brain stem into other areas such as thalamus, acts as filter, part of sleep/awake cycle. Plays a role in alertness and consciousness
Cribriform plate
Extension from brain olfactory bulb in between brain and plate. Component of the ethmoid bone that's responsible for separating the nasal cavity from the brain.
Locus of control
Extent to which people perceive to have control over events in life
Auditory canal
External auditory meatus. Runs from the outer ear to the middle ear; runs from the pinna to the eardrum.
Cued recall
Extra retrieval cues- added cues make easier access, better performance
Means of production
Facilities and resources by which we can produce goods
Lack of education, housing, jobs
Factors pushing people to fringes of society
Institutional facts
Facts that are dependent on human agreement for existence
Change blindness
Fail to notice difference between previous and current state. For example, in an experiment, researchers engaged participants in a conversation. Then, during a period of distraction, they switched the original person for someone else. Surprisingly, only about half of the participants noticed the swap. A failure to detect that an object has moved or disappeared and is the opposite of "change detection". Surprising difficulty observers have in noticing large changes to visual scenes.
Environmental justice
Fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens in society across all groups (does not typically happen)
Type II Error
False negative, is the incorrect acceptance of a null hypothesis that is actually false.
Type I Error
False positive, is the incorrect rejection of the null hypothesis.
Albert Bandura
Famous for his Bobo doll studies that demonstrated observational learning; also pioneered the idea of the importance of self-efficacy in promoting learning. Also came up with the concept of social cognitive theory, and reciprocal determinism.
In group favoritism
Favor people in our group, neutral to those in out group, no favors given
Normative influence
Fear of social rejection by not conforming with group (public- temporary- and private- permanent)
Universal emotions
Fear, anger, happiness, surprise, joy, disgust, and sadness.
Message characteristics
Features of message: well thought out, written quality, good grammar?
Avoidant
Feel inadequate. Those with avoidant personality disorder suffer from social inhibition, extreme sensitivity to negative evaluation, and avoid social interaction despite Cluster C personality disorder.
Group cohesion
Feel stronger connection means we are more likely to go along with group
Culture shock
Feelings of disorientation, uncertainty, fear when experiencing new cultural practices (i.e. moving to new region or visiting). Begin to question decision when feeling uncomfortable
Cultural capital
Fine appreciation of culture, wide variety of experiences and knowledge. Retrieval of memory with the help of cues. The cue is related to the information to the memory that is being recalled. Non-financial social assets that promote social mobility beyond economic means. Examples: education, intellect, style of speech, dress, physical appearance.
Non-adapting neuron
Fire consistently throughout duration of stimulus
Slow adapting neuron
Fire very fast at beginning and then gradually decrease
Meissner Corpuscle
Fire when pressure is first applied and again when pressure is released.
Pacinian Corpuscle
Fire when pressure is first applied and again when pressure is released.
Merkel Receptor
Fires to constant pressure.
Ruffini Cylinder
Fires to constant pressure.
Primacy bias
First impression counts: long, strong, easily built upon
Complex behavior
Fixed action pattern, migration, circadian rhythm
Fads
Fleeting behavior that becomes popular quickly and loses influence quickly
Cochlea
Fluid filled structure and when fluid hits tip it goes back towards the round window
Cochlea and inner ear
Fluid inside cochlea pushed by oval window contains organ of corti. Circular window gets pushed out
Resource mobilization theory
Focus on factors that help or hinder a movement, such as access to resources ability to get people, influence, media, resources. Need strong organizational base to organize members. Need charistmatic leader to convince to organize.
Symbolic interactionism
Focus on individual and significance or meaning they give to objects, events, symbols and things in life
Cognitive approach
Focus on rationale and decision making. The human mind works similar to that of a computer.
Conformation Bias
Focus only on what we know is true.
Biological Personality Theory
Focused on genetic, structural, or functional determinants of personality.
Behavioral Personality Disorder
Focused on the environment and how it shapes personality and behavioral responses.
Humanistic Personality Disorder
Focused on the pursuit of highest potential and the ability to determine one's own future.
Psychoanalytic Personality Theory
Focused on the subconscious mind and unconscious desires.
Obedience
Following orders from authority
Post-Decision Dissonance
Follows an impulsive purchase that is difficult to return
Population transfer
Forcefully moved from territory
Prosencephalon
Forebrain
Concentration
Form of segregation in which clustering of different groups occur
Cognitive component
Form thoughts, beliefs, or some knowledge about topic that influences our attitude on topic. Part of the ABC complex.
Laws
Formal and consistent consequences still based in moral values
Secondary groups
Formal impersonal relationships, short term, few goal directed activities. Means to an end
Big 5 Personality Traits
Found in all people/populations. OCEAN; Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism 5 basic dimensions of personality where each "dimension" has a scale; Openness - the "adventurous and creative" trait where people with a lot of this trait tend to have a large imagination, and insight. People low in the openness trait are generally more traditional and have trouble with abstract thinking. Conscientiousness - high level of thoughtfullness, good impulse control and goal-directed beahviors, organized, and mindful of details. Extraversion - your average extroverted person, excitable, sociable, talkative, assertive, and high amounts of emotional expressions whereas the other end of the spectrum for extraverts is introverts who tend to be more reserved and have to expend energy in social settings. Agreeablness - trust, altruism, affection, and other "prosocial" behavior; people low in the agreaablness trait tend to be manipulative and competitive. Neuroticism - one that is high in this trait is characterized by sadness, moodiness, and emotional instability; they suffer from mood swings, irritability, and sadness whereas those low on the neuroticism trait are more stable and emotionally resilient.
Carl Rodgers
Founder of the humanistic approach; agreed with the main assumptions of Abraham Maslow, added that for a person to grow, they need an environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure); acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood). Self-actualization occurs when a person's "ideal self" (i.e., who they would like to be) is congruent with their actual behavior (self-image). The main determinant of whether we ill become self-actualized is childhood experience.
Frustration aggression hypothesis
Frustrated emotion leads to taking out and stereotyping minorities
Maslow's needs
Fulfill needs from most basic to most complex (pyramid)
Autonomic Nervous System
Functional division of nervous system without conscious involvement (smooth, cardiac muscle and gland cells NOT skeletal which is lower motor neurons)
Theories of urbanization
Functionalism, sites of culture but also crime, conflict theory (sources of inequality increased by diversity), symbolic interactionism (see positive side)
Types of taste buds
Fungiform (anterior), foliate (lateral), circumvallate (posterior). Each contains all the taste cells to taste all 5
Gender dysphoria
Gender identification problems, need distress/disorder
Biological factors depression
Genetic link, decrease PFC activation, lower levels in reward circuitry. Neurotransmitter deficiencies, 5-HTTLPR. Depression is more than just a "chemical imbalance". Limbic system is involved, particularly, the hypothalamus regulates bodily functions and is responsible for stimulating the pituitary glands to release hormones; amygdala and hippocampus are a part of the limbic system as well. 50% of depressed population has increased levels of cortisol in their blood. Genetics: a person is 1.5 to 3x more likely to develop depression if a close family member suffered from depression.
Schizophrenia
Genetics and environment. Dopamine elevation. Abnormal beliefs (delusions) and hallucinations, isolation + disorganized, flat affect. 1% 16-30 y/o onset. High risk of prison, suicide, homelessness
Fixation
Get stuck at stage of development and predicts personality
Tolerance
Get used to and need more to produce effect, long term stimulation alters brain chemistry by shutting down receptors
Class consciousness
Getting everyone on same wavelength to overthrow current system (conflict theory). Awareness of one's place in a system of social classes, especially as it relates to the class struggle. Marx believed that the relationship between people was determined primarily by who controlled the mode of economic production, such as land or factories (wealthy citizens), thus the working class had little choice but to work for the upper controlling class. (Class consciousness is why Marx hated capitalism because he felt that it only allowed the rich to become richer and poor to become poorer).
Hypnosis
Getting people to relax and focus on internal function, only if they want to (more alpha waves in EEG); Caution is crating false memories
Fixation problem solving
Getting stuck on a problem by seeing in a single perspective
Symbolic interactionism
Give meaning to world by interacting with it. Stethoscope as a tool? Medicalization of society. Illness manufacturing is big in depression, importance and severity are marginalized.
Social constructionism
Give value to everything. As society attached different meanings to behaviors. This means, effectively, stereotypes. We treat people differently because of these assumptions. Medicalization = creating illness out of a symptom
Positive reinforcement
Given after behavior to make it occur again in the future
Damaging effects of stress on metabolism
Glucagon released and cortisol, extra glucose can exacerbate blood sugar --> diabetes. Mental stress increases heart rate, decreases vascular resistance in skeletal muscle --> moderate increase in blood pressure, acute increase in insulin-dependent glucose disposal.
Environmental benefits
Greens, park spaces, etc. that people in wealthier backgrounds typically have more access to
Sulci
Grooves on cortex (fissure is a large one)
Social loafing
Group collectively works towards common goal and individuals aren't monitored or evaluated-- put forth less effort when working in group task
Group polarization
Group decision enhances original thinking or decision making of group members
Chunking
Group information into meaningful units, or categories that we already know
Group polarization
Group makes more extreme decisions than any individual would make
Facial expressions
Happiness, Surprise, Fear, Sadness, Anger, Disgust.
Culture
Has a biological component as well as experiential, behaviors can be selected for if they contribute to general fitness
Affective component (emotional)
Have emotions about object/topic that shapes attitude
Tyranny of choice
Having too many choices can have negative impact on behavior. Information overload, decision paralysis, increased regretted choices
Emotional intelligence
Help manage emotions in interactions
Bureaucracy
Helps organization achieve maximum efficiency, not negative connotation.
Representativeness
Helps people make judgments of probability by comparing the present situation to a prototype.
Bureaucracy characteristics
Hierarchy; Division of Labor; Written Rules; Written Communication and Records
Prefrontal cortex
High order functions, processing. Greatest development after birth.
Environmental burden
Higher burden in minority/poverty areas such as waste, transport, factories and disposal. Environmental issues low on agenda and few alternatives. Can be responsible for higher incidence of obesity and asthma
right hemisphere
Holistic Functioning: processing multi-sensory input simultaneously to provide "holistic" picture of one's environment. Visual spatial skills. Holistic functions such as dancing and gymnastics are coordinated by the right hemisphere. Memory is stored in auditory, visual and spatial modalities.
Social mobility
Horizontal and vertical movement
Biological factors that regulate food,sex,drugs
Hormones, automatic/unconscious-- ventromedial hypothalamus tell us to stop eating. Leptin, insulin. Genetic predisposition to weight. Hormones are responsible for controlling the desires of food, sex, drugs. Genetic predisposition to our weight - there's a certain set point that is influenced from our parents. Leptin will curb our appetite "appetite-suppressing hormone". Sexual response cycle: first part = excitement phase - increased heart rate, uphill slope, muscle tension, (2) plateau phase. (3) orgasm (4) refractory period . sexual drive is related to testosterone levels in both males and females. testosterone levels increased sex drive. we have a genetic predisposition to sexuality (found by studying homosexuality) drugs: genetic predisposition to drugs if an individual has a history of family members that abuse drugs; withdrawl has a biological basis; biochemical factors of drug use: imbalance in brains. heroine and marijuana mimick natural NT's. cocaine causes the abnormal release of dopamine (happy drug), overstimulating the limbic system (state of euphoria - total happiness).
Framing
How decision is presented. For example, if a person you liked called you and said 1) "Would you like to go out tonight?" or 2) "What time do you want to go out tonight?"These two questions are addressing the same basic issue, but they are framed differently
Social influence
How individual thoughts and actions are influenced by social groups
Self referencing
How info relates to you, preparing to teach theory
Dependency ratio
How many people are dependent on others for living (<14 and >65 not in labor force compared to 15-64)
Conflict view
How media reflects and portrays divisions within society (race/ethnicity/etc.) often reflects dominant ideology and limit others leading to stereotypes of minority groups
Activity
How old generations regulate themselves
Social psychology
How people think feel and behave in social interactions
Population dynamics
How population of country or region changes, taking into account factors that increase or decrease. Fertility, migration, mortality. These 3 parameters are measured over 1 year per 1000 people and scaled (18.9 births/1000)
Conflict theory
How societies change and adapt over time through conflict. Conflicting viewpoints will necessarily exist, eventually polarizing society. Fragile state for society and both sides have to reach agreement and merge to make more content. 2 opposing sides at odds that lead to new synthesized society
Self concept
How someone thinks about/perceives themselves, self awareness
Behavioral component
How we act/behave to object or subject. Part of the ABC component
Rule of internalization
Incorporate role into behavior, beliefs, and cognition
Hyperreflexia
Increase in muscle stretch reflexes
Reinforcement (+/-)
Increase tendency that goal behavior happens more. Something added/something taken away
Attribution theory
How we find explanations for behaviors of others. a theory that supposes that one attempts to understand the behaviors of others by attributing feelings, emotions, and beliefs to them. For example, is someone angry because they're bad-tempered or because something bad happened? The theory is concerned with explaining how and why "ordinary people" explain events as they do. INTERNAL ATTRIBUTION: process of assigning the cause of behavior to some internal characteristic, such as personality traits. EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTION: the process of assigning the cause of behavior to some situation or event outside a persons control rather than to some internal characteristics.
Signal detection theory
How we make decisions under conditions of uncertainty. At what point is a signal strong enough that we can notice and detect a signal?
Narcissistic
Huge ego, grandiose
Chomsky
Humans have "language acquisition device" which is innate. Consists of spoken, written, and signed words. Language appears to be so close to thinking that it might actually be thinking.
Mature mechanisms
Humor, sublimation, suppression (more conscious way of pushing away negative thoughts), altruism
Group foraging
Hunting depends on behavior of self and others. Can result in conflict or improved foraging
Induced states of consciousness
Hypnosis and meditation
Main organs
Hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal glands, gonads, pancreas
Adoption studies with identical twins
Ideal interaction to study. Allows researchers to understand how enviornment influences over genetics.
Meritocracy
Idealized concept with extreme social mobility. Achieve position based on solely achievements
Culture
Ideas and things passed from one generation to the next, language and customs. Culture varies across the globe. Provide guidelines for actions and interactions
Semantic networks approach
Ideas stored in connected ideas in brain with nodes and links. Originally thought to be hierarchical (verified by connection timing)
Monozygotic/dizygotic
Identical (1 egg)/fraternal twins (2 separate eggs fertilized)
Transitivity
If A>B and B>C then A>C
Strain theory
If a person is blocked from achieving culturally acceptable goal, they get frustrated. Go to illicit means to achieve goal (i.e. steroids to become athlete)
Hypothesis of relative deprivation
If expectation of living standard is not met, then this difference is relative deprivation. Extent and rapidity of deprivation can cause prejudice
Availability Heuristic
If we easily gain info, we're more likely to lean that way.
Prior commitments
If we state something at first less likely to go against later on
Immigration reform and control act
Illegal to hire illegal immigrants, extended amnesty status to immigrants in USA
Somatic symptom
Illness without medical condition
Mimicry
Imitating others (butterfly emulates a toxic species for protection)
Spontaneous recovery
Immediate recovery to previous conditioning but not as strong
Primary appraisal
Immediate- it can be irrelevant, benign/positive, stressful
Acetylcholine/norephinephrine
Impact PNS, autonomic nervous system (acetylcholine primarily)
Globalization
Impact on economy and culture. Global market competition for cheap labor, T&C goal to minimize production cost. Rapid advance in developing nations because it brings T&C's to develop area. But incentives hurt working population because people working in factories are manipulated and cannot unionize
Growth rate
Impacted by religion, incentives, prestige
Aging
Implicit/recognition memory stable, semantic memory/crystallized IQ emotional reasoning improves over time, recall episodic memory processing speed divided attention all decline
Universalism
Implies that it is possible to apply generalized norms, values, or concepts to all people and cultures, regardless of the contexts in which they are located.
Racial construction theory
Important on social level, race identified by broad skin color category
Institutions
Impose structure on how individuals behave, we are reliant on them and they need multiple individuals. Will continue after individuals are gone
Serial Position Effect
Improved memory for words at the beginning and end of a list
Us
In group, stronger interactions than with outgroup. More influential as well
Social Gradients
In health refer to how inequalities in population health are related to inequalities in social status.
Act of observer bias
In science research, observer bias occurs when the researchers know the hypotheses of the study and allow that to influence the observations of the study. In social sciences, act of observer bias referes to how well people change their behavior when they know they're being watched. Cultural component, FAE more common in western societies.
Nervous energy
Increased energy of arousal, part of social facilitation
Damaging effects of stress on heart
Increased pressure leading to hypertension, vascular disease (of blood vessels), coronary artery disease
Hypertonia
Increased tone of skeletal muscles
Latent functions
Indirect effects and unintentional
Humanistic theory
Individuals have free will and we can develop ourselves actively to highest potential, self actualization (Freud is deterministic whereas humanistic is conscious and inherent good) only 1% of people reach actualization
Conflict theory
Inequality between groups, impact on who has access to hospitals and insurance coverage. Leads to disparities, and many conflicting groups (factories producing pollution for example).
Attribution
Inferring causes of events or behaviors (internal or external). The process by which individuls explain the cause of behavior and events.
Sex vs. gender
Inherit sex and learn gender
Innate behavior
Inherited (coded by DNA), intrinsic, stereotypical, inflexible, consummate. Reflexes, orientation behaviors (kinesis and taxis), fixed action patterns (sequence of coordinated multiple movements)
Muscinol
Inhibit GABA receptors so they can't fire temporarily
Damaging effects of stress on immune system
Innate and adaptive system, inflammation is over expressed and can attack good things in body such as arthritis. Chronically we can stop activating immune system, more susceptible to illness because immune system suppressed
Temperament
Innate disposition (genetic basis)
Dysomnia
Insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea .
Conflict theory
Institutions benefit powerful and cause inequality until new order created. Social order is maintained by dominance and power rather than consensus and conformity.
Organizations
Institutions that are designed for specific purpose with collective goal, maximum efficiency
Social scripts
Instructions provided by society on how to act
Fluid intelligence
Intellect based on reasoning quickly and abstractly
Neurotic
Intellectualization (pick out intellectual from emotional), rationalization (figure out by making excuse and removing from blame), regression (go to younger stage), repression (push thoughts from consciousness), displacement
Manifest functions
Intended functions and recognized of institutions
Stimulants
Intensify neural activity and bodily functions. Release of serotonin dopamine and norepinephrine
Firing frequency
Intensity of stimulus is coded by rate of neuron firing
Social psychology
Interaction between individual and environment
Dementia
Interfering in daily life from severe forgetfulness. A chronic or persistent disorder of the mental processes caused by brain disease or injury and marked by memory loss, personality changes, and impaired reasoning.
Self stigma
Internalize negative prejudices etc. they may feel rejected by society and struggle to come to grips with condition--> avoidance or denial, isolation
Cultural changes from globalization
International trade becomes easier and so cultural practices and expressions are spread via diffusion from well-known to new areas. Military conquest/missionary/tourism used to have this role. Mass media and tech have facilitated this
Assimilation
Interpret new experiences in terms of current schemas
Substance use disorders
Intoxication, withdrawal (behavioral and psychological effects) which can lead to distressing use and abuse/withdrawal. Tolerance
Independence of irrelevant alternatives
Introducing new variable does not change rankings
Fasciculations
Involuntary twitches of skeletal muscles
Depersonalization
Learner/victim is made to seem less human and less likely to object acting against them. A reality or detachment from one self. The individual becomes a detached observer of oneself. The world becomes vague to the individual, Individual feels as if they are not control of their own thoughts. Fear of going insane, and there are visual disturbances for the individual.
Theory of multiple intelligences
It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner proposes eight different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and adults. These intelligences are: linguistic intelligence (""word smart""), logical-mathematical intelligence (""number/reasoning smart""), spatial intelligence (""picture smart""), bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence (""body smart""), musical intelligence (""music smart""), interpersonal intelligence (""people smart""), intrapersonal intelligence (""self smart""), naturalist intelligence (""nature smart"") "
Law of Similarity
Items that are similar are grouped together by your brain.
Law of similarity
Items that are similar to one another are grouped together by brain.
Representativeness heuristic
Judge probability based on a previous prototype. For example, if you meet someone with a laid back attitude and long hair, you might assume they are Californian, whereas someone who is very polite but rigid may be assumed to be English.
Ethnocentric
Judging and understanding an event from a different cultural viewpoint (our culture is superior)
Wernicke's aphasia
Jumbled speech (fluent aphasia); located in temporal lobe
Difference threshold
Just noticeable threshold- smallest difference that can be noticed 50% of time
Source monitoring
Keeping track of where info came from, tends to be difficult process
Excitotoxins
Kill neuron by excessive activation (kalinic acid, oxidopamine)
Social constructionism
Knowledge and aspects of world around us are only real because we give them reality through social agreement. No criticism of natural phenomena
HALLUCINOGENS
LSD, marijuana distort sensory perception.
Overconfidence
Lack of ability, knowledge, or complete information on how to succeed at a task.For example, this can be seen by watching a child try to do things that they have seen grownups do, like perhaps cooking dinner, but without the knowledge or skills necessary to do it successfully.
Korsakoff disease
Lack of vitamin B thiamine, poor glucose metabolism. At first Wernicke's encephalopathy, when untreated becomes Korsakoff's. severe memory loss with confabulation, not necessarily progressive
Vygotsky
Language and thought are independent but converge in development (learning through social interaction)
Whorfian Hypothesis
Language determines thought.
Somatosensory axons
Large diameter and usually myelinated (Schwann cell wrapping) part of nerve
Riots
Large group of people participate in destructive ways, deviant from norms. Comes from frustration or conflict, acting out in illegal ways
Mass hysteria
Large groups of people experience unmanageable delusions and anxiety at the same time. Reactions spread rapidly through rumor and fear
Macrosociology
Large scale, big phenomena that affect population, whole institutions to find big picture impact. Big statistical data, let data tell story.
Choroid
Layer beyond retina, blood vessels that nourish eye
Retina
Layer of cells at back of light, converted to stimulus that brain can read through photoreceptors
Observational learning
Learn through observing the way people behave. Occurs from watching, retaining, and replicating a behavior observed from a model. Exhibited by Albert Bandura in his bobo doll experiment where children replicated aggressive behavior when they saw adults exhibiting aggression without any consequences. Likewise, children that saw adults be punished for their aggression did not exhibit aggressive behavior.
Psychological factors depression
Learned helplessness, no power to change/control. Cognitive distortions/attributions
Attitudes (ABC model)
Learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. An attitude can be defined as an evaluation of ideas, events, or objects, and the ABC model (A is for Affective; B is for behavioral, and C is for cognitive). We feel an emotion (affective when we see something), we act a certain way when we see the object, and what we think about the object, or what our opinion on the object is.
Convergence
Looking at things far away our eyes relax, when close eyes flex more. Convergence of the eyes is the simultaneous inward movement of both our eyes towards each other usually in an effort to maintain single binocular vision of an object. Convergence Insufficiency is a binocular disorder in which the two eyes fail to come together when looking at something near, rather they go outward.
Deindividuation
Loss of self
Environmental/sociocultural
Low SES, isolation, trauma
Perfectionist
Low self esteem but high self efficacy
Depressants
Lower body function and activity. Benzodiazepines increase sensitivity to gaba which is inhibitory (short medium long acting). Used to treat insomnia or anxiety. Often called "benzos". Common drug names: Xanax, Klonopin, Halcion, and Librium. By increasing sensitivity to GABA, arousal levels are reduced.
Social positions
Lower middle upper classes
Feminist theory
Macro level perspective focused on gender inequalities to patriarchal society. Women marginalized though not always apparent. Forced into gender based roles but men are not subjugated. REVIEW 4 CATEGORIES!!!!
Feminist theory
Macro perspective from conflict perspective. Examine women's social role in a variety of fields, beyond male based perspective. (discrimination, objectification, oppression, stereotyping). Point out problems and big world picture, not eliminate men
Sleep importance
Maintain flexibility, consolidate memories, repair and recuperate neural pathways
Groupthink
Maintaining harmony more important than addressing and analyzing the problems. Members censor opinions by being pressured to conform to majority view
Iconic Memory
Major part of change detection, and helps us notice the changes in each progressive image, turning it into a single moving picture.
Bipolar disorder
Mania + depression (types 1 and 2- hypomania)
Bipolar
Mania mixed in with depressive mood features
Substance related and addictive
Many categories. Mental effects cause abnormalities
Tonotypical mapping
Mapping based on frequency in cortex and basilar membrane
Feminist theory
Mass media misrepresents, women are underrepresented with strict gender roles and stereotypes.
Theories of formation
Mass society theory- provide community and refuge, which was strong during fascism. A more open look after civil rights movement
Pituitary
Master gland stimulates thyroid with TSH
Sources of self efficacy
Mastery of experience, social modeling, social persuasion, psychological responses
Disassortative mating
Mate with diverse and contrasting traits. Aka negative assorting mating/heterogamy, individuals with dissimilar genotypes and/or phenotypes mate with each other in a frequency greater than that of random mating.
Assortative mating strategy
Mate with those that are similar in genotype/phenotype
Core Infection Models
Matters "which" actors are reached in intervention. A group of highly active members, which is a core, interacts frequently and passes infection to one another.
Spanning Tree Models
Matters if "some" are reached
Charismatic Authority
Max Weber definition: resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism, or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him". One of three forms of authority as defined by Weber. Charismatic authority is power legitimized on the basis of a leaders exceptional personal qualities, or the demonstration of extraordinary insight and accomplishment, which inspire loyalty and obedience from followers. Charismatic authority is more about the relationship between the leader and their followers as opposed to the leaders characteristics.
Reality principle
May have to wait/delay to get gratification while still abiding rules of society. More mature way of accepting
Semantics
Meaning of the words.
EEG
Measure electrical activity in brain (external to measure sum electrical fields)
Meso level analysis
Medium sized groups, cities, states, tribes
Direct democracy
Meet/discuss/make decisions. aka "pure democracy" occurs when people decide on policy initiatives directly.
Utilitarian organizations
Members pay for efforts
Implicit memory
Memory without conscious recall. AKA non-declarative. 1. This can be either skills (like riding a bike) or classical conditioning. The person may know how to skateboard, but wouldn't be able to explain (or declare) that they know it.memory or procedural memory.
Cognitive reactions/experience
Mental appraisals of experience which may lead to emotion
Other disorders
Mental disorder with 4 D's but no other category
Semantic Networks
Mental maps in our heads where we connect related concepts.
Intelligence
Mental quality allowing you to learn from experience, solve problems, adapt to new situations
Heuristic
Mental shortcut
Government schemes
Methods of government to prevent social inequality- access to education and health, food stamps, develop integration methods into society
Mesencephalon
Midbrain
Dopamine
Midbrain area in ventral tegmental area, basal ganglia (substantia nigra to striatum, implicated in Parkinson's disease) also in hypothalamus to pituitary gland
Folkways
Mild type of norm, common rules we're supposed to follow.
Authoritarian personality
Militaristic, lacking compassion, oppressive, obedient, rigid. Personality likely to demonstrate prejudice, harsh upbringings, use prejudice to help cope by protecting ego.
Absolute threshold of sensation
Minimum intensity needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time (account for individual differences)
Daily stressors
Minor stressors that can happen during the day. For example, standing in long lines, traffic, or noisy environments
Inter-colonialism
Minority group is segregated and exploited
Attenuation model of selective attention
Model of selective attention in which the mind has an attenuator, like a volume knob, that can tune up inputs to be attended and tune down unattended inputs, rather than totally eliminating them. Accounts for the cocktail party effect. Bottleneck theory of attention in which we can only focus on a few things at a time; a modified version of Donald Broadbent's filter model by Anne Treisman.
Neurotransmitters
Molecules that communicate between neurons and target cells in synapse towards cerebral cortex
Financial capital
Money that can invest and get returns
Relative Height
Monocular cue that provides information about distance. Objects higher are perceived to be further away than those lower.
State dependent memory
Mood/state can facilitate recall if learned in same state
Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion
More cognitive approach, focus on why/how. Information processed through central route (quality of argument), peripheral route (superficial and nonverbal cues)
Association cortex
More complex processing function (like planning of movements), language a form of cognition. Cerebral cortex outside the primary areas
Deindividuation
More likely to act impulsively, commit crimes or perform antisocial acts because presence of crowd conceals person's identity
Group size
More likely to conform in group of 3-5 people
Emotional memories
More susceptible to reconstruction flashbulb memories
Existential self
Most basic part, distinct from others. Awareness that self is constant
Glutamate
Most common excitatory, esp. in reticular formation
GABA/glycine
Most common inhibitory neurotransmitters
Hippocampus and frontal cortex
Most glucocorticoid receptors, leading to atrophy during stress response
Transformationalist perspective
National governments are changing, but certain patterns are uncertain. Outcomes unknown
Conservative view
Natural positive byproducts of human nature as it benefits
Culture 4 main points
Needs 4 points: all people share with people in society, it is adaptive, it builds on itself, it is transmitted across generations
Drive reduction theory
Needs energize drive which reduces a need
Right hemisphere
Negative emotions, isolative
Withdrawal
Negative symptoms after stopping to take drug, become depressed and anxious.
Fight of flight response
Nervous (sympathetic)/endocrine (adrenal glands) system response
Eliminiation
Nervousness from urinating/defecating
Migration statistics
Net migration = inwards - outwards. People moving towards more industrialized countries or become refugees. Internal migration does not change population but impacts economics/culture.
Conversion disorder
Neurological (problem with speech, seizure, paralysis) incompatible with any medical explanation. Psychological stressor/trauma. A mental condition in which a person has blindness, paralysis, or other nervous system disorder that cannot be explained by a medical condition.
Gray matter
Neuron somas/Cell Bodies
Alzheimer's disease
Neurons die off with synapses, shrinking cortex. Memory loss, attention, planning, semantic memory, abstract thinking. Severity increases throughout progression. Amyloid plaque build up; related to Ach
Histamine
Neurons in hypothalamus that send projections to release histamine
Hyper globalist perspective
New age in history, globalization is legitimate process. Becoming one global unit?
Learned helplessness
No control, from chronic stress to depression link. For example, if an animal is repeatedly subjected to an adverse stimulus that it cannot escape, the animal will eventually stop trying to avoid the stimulus and behave as if it is utterly helpless to change the situation. Even when opportunities to escape are presented, this learned helplessness will prevent any action.
Antisocial
No regard for others, commit crimes, no remorse
Non associative learning
No reinforcement or punishment of behavior, habituation/sensitization
Learned behavior
Non-inherited, extrinsic, permutable, adaptable, progressive.
Completeness
None of the options have equal value to an individual
Treisman Attenuation Model
Not a filter information is turned up or down.
Perceptual error
Not consciously aware that there are any dissonances in judgment, actually believe that others thought the right thing in Asch experiment
Collective behavior
Not group behavior, it is time limited but not socially limited (no group membership), under influence of loose norms. Group dynamics not observed from social psychology. Collective behavior is a short term behavior that has no clear organizers or leaders; with little guidance or procedures to follow. They are spontaneous and unstructured behavior. I.e., if a non-football fan walked into a sports bar with a game going on, they may be momentarily influenced to be enthralled with the football game and match the behaviors of the other members in the sports bar, but never act that way otherwise.
Social movements
Not just group of people with idea, need organization leadership and resources to make impact
Social Stratification
Objective hierarchy in a society
Law of closure
Objects grouped together are seen as whole to create familiar images
Law of Proximity
Objects near each other tend to be grouped together.
Law of proximity
Objects that are close to one another are grouped together
Cross-Sectional Study
Observational and involves comparisons of different population groups within a single point in time. Aka cross-sectional analysis, transversal study, or prevalence study: analyze data from a population at a single time point. In contrast to a longitudinal study
Longitudinal Study
Observe one group of individuals over an extended period of time, taking multiple measurements of behaviors.
Somatic symptom disorder
Physical symptoms, ANY symptom possible. May be able to explain or not
Medulla
Part of brainstem (site of crossing over of many neurons); This is the most caudal part of the brainstem and sits between the pons inferiorly and spinal cord superiorly. Contains the vital autonomic cardiovascular and respiratory centers controlling heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing.
Pons
Part of brainstem; lies between the midbrain (superior) and the medulla oblongata (inferior); deal primarily with sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder control, hearing, equilibrium, taste, eye movement, facial expressions, facial sensation, and posture; implicated in sleep paralysis
Olfactory epithelium
Part of nasal passage sensitive to small molecules with accessory olfactory epithelium which sends projections to accessory olfactory bulb
Macula
Part of retina rich in cones. Center is fovea centralis
Fusiform Gyrus
Part of the visual system in the brain, and plays a role in high level visual processing and recognition. Damage can result in prosopagnosia (inability to recognize faces)
Phonological loop
Part of working memory that deals with spoken and written material. It can be used to remember a phone number. It consists of two parts: phonological Store and articulatory control process
Demand characteristics
Participant changes behavior in experiment to match demands of experimenter. A subtle cue that allows the subject to know of the results that the experimenter is looking for. Demand characteristics can change the outcome of the study by altering their behavior to conform to the experimenters expectations.
Heredity
Passing traits from parents to offspring, controlled by genes
Conformity
Peer pressure, adjusting behavior to fit in group
Rational exchange theory
People always take rational actions, weighing costs of each action. Part of pattern of choices that are consistent.
Humanistic Perspective
People are good and that a positive self-concept leads to a happy, fulfilled person. These ideas have made their way into much modern thought. Think about "self-help" books that usually stress a positive attitude and motivation.
Flashbulb Memory
People claim to remember detail of what they were doing when they received news about an emotionally arousing event
Rational choice theory
People compare pros and cons do what they think is best for themselves. Shape pattern for behavior in society but many assumptions including transient preferences
Gardner's Idea
People have different types of intelligence
Group formation
People share psychological connection with peers
Continuity theory
People try to keep same basic structure even as you age. Internal aspect structure of the individual, like their personality stays the same and relatively constant throughout a lifetime. The external relationship of an individual consists of their societal connections.
Health magnet
People who are ill especially mentally can remove from society
Nociception
Perception of pain.
Escape learning
Perform behavior to terminate unpleasant ongoing stimulus
Innate behavior
Performed correctly first time in response to stimulus (extinct)
Temporal lobe
Performs auditory processing and language comprehension, and contains Wernicke's Area
Social Reproduction
Perpetuation of social inequalities through social institutions
Social cognitive theory
Person and situation determine behavior. Cognition plays a major role in shaping our feelings and behaviors. Observational learning leads into the social cognitive theory.
Social identity theory
Personal identity (unique to each person) and social identity
Temperament
Personality but more broad, characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, established before environmental exposure, resistant to change over time
Erikson (psychosocial theory)
Personality development occurs throughout entire lifespan, each stage is about overcoming conflict. Success/faillure can impact functioning, 8 stages
Instinctual Drifts
Phenomenon whereby established habits, learned using operant techniques, eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviors
Biomedical
Physical abnormalities
Biopsychosocial
Physical abnormalities + cultural and psychological factors
Race
Physical differences between people
Healthcare inequality
Poor economic and environmental conditions are causes. Access to healthcare and quality gets better towards top of pyramid. Big health problems in food deserts. Race, diet, access, housing, and jobs all play a role in inequality, gender differences. LGBT discrimination in healthcare make it harder to get resources
National society
Population of people within specified geographic area unified by common ideas and goals
Left hemisphere
Positive emotions, more sociable
Democracy
Power to the people; Direct Representative
Gender inequality
Power, responsibility and biases permeate. Women subordination is a prominent feature. Gender division of labor
Proximity
Powerful indicator of relationships, easier to mate with those we meet
Discrimination
Prejudice with behavioral component
Social facilitation
Presence of others will increase likelihood that most dominant response for behavior will be expressed
Free recall
Primacy effect, recency effect (serial position curve)
Occipital Lobe
Primary visual reception and association
Dissociative identity disorder
Prior name was "multiple personalities" or "split personalities."
Zimbardo prinson experiment
Prisoners or guards. Guards could not physically hurt but generate fear and control
Dissociative
Problems with identity, multiple personalities
Bureaucratization
Process by which an organization becomes increasingly governed by law and policy
Gatekeeping
Process by which small group of people control what is expressed in media and move through multiple "gates"
Elaboration likelihood model
Process information on 2 routes- central and peripheral. 3 stages (target- filtered by perceptions, message/source- which has Deep processing vs. superficial, attitude change- lasting change or temporary)
Controlled processes
Processes in the mind that require a great deal of a person's mental resources. Generally, controlled processing is best performed when only one controlled activity is taking place.
Paranoid
Profound suspicions of others
Algorithm
Programmed method. Slow but precise approach to problem solving. Often contrasted with heuristics.
Parkinson's disease
Progressive neurological disorder, slowed movements, tremor, poor balance and walking. Substantia nigra is less dark and loss of pigmented neuron part of basal ganglia. Lewy body abnormal structures and dopaminergic neurons are destroyed.
Immature (can cause social problems)
Projection (shift feelings), projective identification (person can demonstrate projected thoughts), passive aggression (express aggression by doing it indirectly)
Social reproduction
Propagation of inequality between rich and poor across generations. Reproduce social inequality across generations. Enhanced by social and cultural capital as well as educational system
Heritability
Proportion of variation that can be attributed to genetic component (IQ is 50%), can be increased by controlling environment or having more genetic variation, dependent on population studied
Self serving bias
Protecting our own self esteem, more common in individualistic culture
Sclera
Protective part of eye, fibrous tissue coat (posterior 5/6)
Muscle stretch reflex
Protective response to prevent injury (knee jerk reaction)
Chemical messengers
Proteins/polypeptides, steroid, tyrosine derivatives (thyroid and catecholamines)
Functionalist view
Provide entertainment to occupy leisure time but also act as agent of socialization and enforcer of social norms (collective experience), bring people together such as criminal justice or glorify behaviors
Aggression
Psychological behavior designed to hurt or assault, influenced by psychology, sociocultural, biology
Defensive mechanism
Psychological shield against bad things
Schizophrenia spectrum
Psychosis- delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, negative affect
Behavioral theory of personality
Result of interaction between environment and individual, focused on observable behaviors
Symbolic interactionism
Puts focus on individual and how they behave, based on ideas of what we give to things. People created by societies and act based on past experiences and meanings they give. Can have multiple meanings that change over time even in one person, based on past experiences in society
REM
Rapid eye movement, other muscles paralyzed. Paradoxical sleep, mind active but body is not
Weber's law
Ratio of increment threshold to background intensity is constant ∆I/I = k which is a constant
Optimum arousal theory
Reach full alertness or arousal, reach natural high
Dependency theory
Reaction to modernization, use of Core and periphery to look at inequalities. Third world countries export to 1st world because they are integrated as undeveloped and will not accelerate to these levels
Law of Pragnanz
Reality is organized or reduced to the simplest form possible.
Law of pragnanz
Reality is reduced to simplest form
Parts of cochlear implant
Receiver, stimulator, transmitter, speech processor (gets info through microphone)
Nociceptors
Receptors that detect noxious compounds that lead to pain
Relapse
Recovering addict goes back to drug, usually environmental triggers
Factor analysis
Reduce number of variables and detect structure between relationships of variables
Trade regulatory groups
Reduce tariffs, make customs easier to make trading across borders more feasible, benefit private industries the most.
Self-Actualization Needs
Refer to a person's need for complete fulfillment and personal growth.
Belonging Needs
Refer to a person's need for family, affection, and relationships.
Safety Needs
Refer to a person's need for physical safety (as in from war or disease) and a fair and just society.
Esteem Needs
Refer to a person's need to be respected and have self- confidence.
Within-Subjects
Refers to an experimental study where all subjects are exposed to every experimental condition or treatment. This study had no experimental condition.
Glass escalator
Refers to how men in female-dominated careers, such as teaching and nursing, often rise higher and faster than women in male-dominated fields.
Face Validity
Refers to the extent to which the research subjectively appears to examine the relationship.
Causal Mechanism
Refers to the processes or pathways through which an outcome is brought into being (why or how it happened).
Contemplation
Refers to the stage of change where an individual is aware that there is a problem and is actively thinking about ways to solve the problem.
Preparation
Refers to the stage of change where the individual begins to plan what it would take to make change happen.
Precontemplation
Refers to the stage of change where the individual is unaware of any issues with their life of behavior and has no plans to change.
Action
Refers to the stage of change where the plan is put into practice.
External Validity
Refers to whether or not results from the smaller sample of individuals can be expected from or applied to other populations or other situations.
Simple behavior
Reflexes, taxis, kinesis
Primary auditory cortex
Region responsible for cochlear information processing, sensitive to sound of different frequencies
Paracrine
Regional effect (hypothalamus and pituitary). Occurs between local cells (thus the "regional") where the cells elicit quick signals and last only a short amount of time due to the degradation of paracrine signals
Hypothalamus
Regulates autonomic nervous system
Parathyroid Gland
Regulates calcium levels
Articulatory Rehearsal Component
Rehearsal before being required to repeat. Aka reherasal loop, memory loop, or phonological loop - part of working memory that rehearses verbal information.
Confirmation bias
Reinforce information that supports the majority view and look down upon minority view. The tendency to interpret new information as one's existing belief and theories .
Fixed interval
Reinforcer is given after a set time period. Think of being paid every Friday. A reward after a set period of time.
Spreading activation
Related concepts are activated in retrieval of a concept
Monocular clues
Relative size, form of an object, or interposition, relative height, shading and contours
Trait
Relatively stable characteristic
Thalamus
Relay station of all senses (except smell)
Pancreas
Releases insulin and glucagon, regulate glucose metabolism
Social exclusion
Relegated to periphery of society and reduced opportunity/access to advantages of society. These forces can work together often
Negative reinforcement (NOT incentive theory, this is drive reduction)
Removal of punishment to encourage behavior
Mere exposure effect
Repeated exposure increases our liking of something
Self fulfilling prophecy
Repeating positive feedback loop of cognition, affective, behavioral components
Sensation
Require stimulus and receptor (to convert to neural impulse)
Reticular activating system
Required for consciousness
Sensory Adaptation
Requires a constant strength of stimulus.
Lazarus Theory
Requires that interpretation must happen before arousal or emotion, which happen simultaneously.
Social inequality
Resources in society are unevenly distributed (i.e. USA wealth distribution). Class differentiation in society- upper, middle, lower. Greater inequality for minorities in income, educational opportunity and healthcare. Also for very poor people. Consequences: social exclusion, segregated neighborhoods, political disempowerment, civil unrest
Self esteem
Respect one has for self
Discrimination
Respond only to some stimuli not all in classical conditioning
Learned behavior
Response occurs through experience
Reflex
Response to stimulus without consciousness
Temporal Lobes
Responsible for processing auditory signals, interpreting visual stimuli, and language recognition.
Parietal Lobes
Responsible for spatial reasoning and receiving somatosensory information.
Cochlear implant
Restore hearing in nerve deafness (sensorineural hearing loss) in problem with conduction from bones to cochlea
Kohlberg (moral theory)
Right vs. wrong, 3 levels of moral development each divided into 2 stages
Flynn Effect
Rising IQ scores reflect improving modern environments. IQ is part heritable and part environmental; enrich a young child's environment with opportunities to learn, and they'll have a higher IQ later in life. Better nutrition, more schooling and more stimulation could also explain this effect. Today, people are taught to think more abstractly
Syntax
Rules we use to assemble sentences from words.
Organ of corti
Runs throughout cochlea (basilar and tectorial membranes)
Selection bias
Sample is not completely random
Reticular formation
Scattered neurons/soma in the brainstem, big role in autonomic function and higher level functioning
Cultural relativism
See from new perspective of other's culture, no sense of right/wrong just different
Confirmation bias
Seek out only confirming facts. For example, Sally is in support of gun control. She seeks out news stories and opinion pieces that reaffirm the need for limitations on gun ownership. When she hears stories about shootings in the media, she interprets them in a way that supports her existing beliefs.
Gestalt principles
Seek to explain how we perceive things the way they do (fluid images vs. still images)
Political isolation
Segregated communities are politically weak, not overlapping political interests and lose votes to keep schools and establishments open. Lower quality healthcare as well
Donald Broadbent Filter Buffer
Select info to send to higher processing.
Ego depletion
Self control is limited resource and cannot use in future if you use too much over long period of time
Death drive (Thanatos)
Self destructive, harmful to others (fear anger hate inward and outward)
Rogers components
Self image, self esteem, ideal self
Vestibular system
Sense of balance and spatial orientation, which comes from our inner ear
Kinesthesia
Sense of movement.
Proprioception
Sense of position and balance.
Nociception
Sensing of pain
Proprioception
Sensing of position
Mechanoception
Sensing of pressure
Thermoception
Sensing of temperature
Sterogenesis
Sensing vibrations
Piaget stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor (object permanence), preoperational (pretend play, symbol use, egocentric), concrete operational (conservation, math) formal operation (abstraction, moral reasoning)
High road sensory input
Sensory input (from say the eyes)→ thalamus→sensory cortex→prefrontal cortex→amygdala→creating a fear response. This is slower and we actually think about it.
Somatosensory tracts (position/fine touch, pain/gross touch)
Sensory neurons ascend contralateral to stimulus; synapse in spinal cord; then synapse in thalmus prior to reaching the sensory cortex in Parietal lobe.
Detoxification
Separating drugs from body, physiological symptoms best in combination with behavioral therapy. May be a medical treatment for removing toxic substances from an alcoholic or addict.
Segregation
Separating out groups of people and giving access to separate set of resources within society ("separate but equal"). Can be impacted by laws and informal processes such as hidden discrimination
Left Hemisphere
Sequential Analysis: systematic, logical interpretation of information. Interpretation and production of symbolic information:language, mathematics, abstraction and reasoning. Memory stored in a language format.
Development
Series of age related changes that occur over life span
Flib-Books and Stop-Motion Animations
Series of still images flashed in front of the eyes in quick succession to create a moving image.
Phototransduction cascade
Set of events when light hits rod/cone
Mass psychogenic hysteria
Several people believing that they had an illness, such as anthrax attacks
Paraphilic disorder
Sexual arousal due to strange things
Sex (Masters and Johnson)
Sexual response cycle- excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution. Related to testosterone levels, genetic predisposition
Progression of social movement
Shared idea by a few, incipient stage in which people begin to organize in group to organize stake. Greatest accomplishment is to effect change or change approach
Globalization
Sharing of culture money and products between countries, not a recent development, also a social awareness process. Advancement of communication
Sympathetic Nervous System
Short preganglionic neuron that synapse on ganglia close to spine, long post ganglionic neuron. Fight or Flight. See the Bear!
Depression
Shows up more in the right frontal lobe. Frontal Lobe Psychopathology: Abnormalities of the bilateral frontal lobe in patients with depression, seen with MRI's, PET scans.
Primary Groups
Siblings and other family members are considered primary groups, so the effect of siblings on health behavior is the most relevant for assessing the effect of primary groups.
Avoidance learning
Signal is given before unpleasant stimulus, such as fire alarm before fire breaks out. Avoid stimulus
Miss
Signal is present and you say no
Hit
Signal is present and you say yes
Autocrine
Signaling can exert affects on cell that secretes them
Significant life change stressor
Significant personal life change event
Modernization theory
Similar development to modern society in all countries. Internal social dynamics and political/social
Constancy
Size, shape, color. Despite changes in appearance, we know that these characteristics remain constant
Atonia
Skeletal muscle paralysis.
N2
Sleep spindles and K complexes, help keep us asleep (more theta waves)
N3
Slow wave, very much asleep. Sleepwalking occurs
Spencer
Social Darwinism; survival of the fittest; intelligent members survive, and less capable die out
Weak social constructionism
Social constructs dependent on brute facts which are fundamental, can't be explained by something else
Vygotsky
Social interaction between children growing in development of cognition. Babies have 4 mental functions- attention, sensation, perception, memory. These are developed into more complex functions by interaction. MKO = more knowledgeable other. Importance of language (thought-- language)
Intergenerational mobility
Social mobility across several generations and need to consider parents and children
Status
Social position in society, impacts interaction with others. Equal, superior, or inferiority
Bystander effect
Social psychological phenomenon that refers to cases in which individuals do not offer any means of help to a victim when other people are present. The probability of help is inversely related to the number of bystanders.
Gender
Social, varies with culture
Socialism vs. Capitalism
Socialism: profit is immoral (capitalism violates freedom from poverty)- Capitalism: market forces determine prices (socialists violate freedom of opportunity)
Ethnicity
Socially defined by shared language, religion, history, cultural factor. Less statistically defined
Functionalism (Durkheim)
Society heads towards equilibrium, society made of connected structures (institutions and social facts- ways of thinking or acting w/ coercive effect like law)
Symbolic interactionist perspective
Society is a product of everyday social experiences and interactions. People change and assign meaning to things. 3 tenets: act based on meaning we have given something, give meaning to things based on social interactions, meanings we give are not permanent
Demographic transition model
Stage 1- high birth and death rates, stage 2- death rates drop as healthcare improves, stage 3- birth rates begin to fall because of trends towards smaller families and more industrialized society, stage 4- stabilization and birth/death rates balance out, stage 5- speculation that stabilization will occur
Hitting curriculum
Standard behaviors that are deemed acceptable (subtly taught in schools)
Norms
Standards for what kind of behavior is acceptable or not. Provide structure in groups, dependent on context and can change over time
Upper motor neurons
Start in cerebrum in the primary motor cortex and synapse in spinal cord onto a lower motor neuron.
Working backwards
Start with goal state and work back to current state
Ascribed status
Status that is given to you by birth
Prejudice
Stereotype with effective component
Gonads
Stimulated by FSH and LH, release sex hormones. Release estrogen/progesterone, testosterone
Long term memory
Storage of memory- explicit (semantic and episodic) and implicit (procedural and priming)
Limbic system
Structures in brain on top of brain stem that play a role in regulating emotion, ambiguous as to what constitutes (hippocampus, hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus)
Ethology
Study of observable animal overt behaviors in environment (innate, learned, complex)
Internal capsule
Subcortical band of white matter (V shaped) part of many important pathways, corticospinal
Basal Ganglia
Subcortical gray matter nuclei. Processing link between thalamus and motor cortex. Initiation and direction of voluntary movement. Balance (inhibitory), Postural reflexes. Automatic movement
Emotions
Subjective experiences that accompany by physiological behavioral and cognitive changes and reactions that are interrelated
Activity theory of Aging
Successful aging occurs when the older generation keeps themselves active and maintains social interactions.
Brief Psychotic Disorder
Sudden onset of at least 1 psychotic symptom (i.e., delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganziaed or catatonic behavior). The psychotic symptoms last less than 1 month, and are followed by a full recovery.
Outgroup derogation
Super friendly to in group, discriminate against outgroup. See outgroup as detrimental to in group interest
Central Executive
Supervises the cognitive process of memory.
Spotlight model
Swing our attention to something brought to our attention
Horizontal movement
Switch jobs but stay in same part of pyramid
Sensory amplification
Upregulation of a stimulus such as photoreceptors in brain
Somatoform disorders
Symptoms that take a physical or bodily form but without a physical cause - it's like thinking yourself sick. 1. Conversion disorder assumes that anxiety is converted into physical symptoms. 2. Hypochondriasis occurs when people take small "symptoms" and imagine dreaded diseases. A person with this goes from doctor to doctor, symptom and disease to symptom and disease.
Neuromuscular junction
Synapse between lower motor neuron and skeletal muscle cell
Synaptic plasticity
Synapses change strength over time, greater activation
Endocrine system
System of glands that produce hormones that travel from one part of body to another through blood to effect change; occurs between distant cells; prolonged effect; long-term.
Thyroid
T3 and T4, tyrosine derivatives
Feedback loop
TRH (hypothalamus)-- TSH (anterior pituitary)-- T3 (thyroid)
Trial and error
Take guesses to se if something works
Multinational/transnational corporations (T&C)
Take opportunities in different countries to manufacture, distribute, promote. Influence economy and politics, can influence global trade laws
Nasal/temporal sides of eye
Temporal side does NOT cross, nasal crosses
Cognitive dissonance theory
Tendency for individuals to seek consistency among their cognitions (i.e., beliefs, opinions). When there is an inconsistency between attitudes or behaviors (dissonance), something must change to eliminate the dissonance.
Conformity
Tendency for people to bring their behavior in line with norms of group
Foot in the door phenomenon
Tendency to agree to small actions first and eventually comply with much larger actions
Traditionalism
Tendency to follow authority
Ethnocentrism
Tendency to look at other cultures through one's own culture
GAD
Tense, worried for 6+ months, identifiable physical symptoms, 2/3 female. Unclear source, co-morbid with depression
Role strain
Tension of roles in one single status, such as a student with many obligations.
Weber's Law
The Difference Threshold (or "Just Noticeable Difference") is the minimum amount by which stimulus intensity must be changed in order to produce a noticeable variation in sensory experience. The ratio of the increment threshold to the background intensity is constant.
Construct validity
The degree to which a test actually measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring, the appropriateness of inferences made on the basis of observations or measurements (often test scores), specifically whether a test measures the intended variable
Signal Detection Theory
The detection of a stimulus depends on both the intensity of the stimulus and the physical and psychological state of the individual. Attempts to measure how we make decisions under conditions of uncertainty.
Broadbent's early selection theory
The early selection model of attention posits that stimuli are filtered or selected to be attended to, at an early stage during processing. A filter can be regarded as the selector of relevant information based on basic features, such as color, pitch, or direction of stimuli. All stimuli presented at any given time are added to a sensory buffer in which the inputs is selected on the basis of its physical characteristics for further processing by being allowed to pass through a filter.
Mores
The essential or characteristic customs and conventions of a community
Stimulus
The event which prompts some behavior in the subject
Representativeness heuristic
The probability of how well something fits a prototype.
Catharsis
The process of venting aggression as a way to release or get rid of emotions. For example, a young male may watch a film in which an attractive woman engages in sexual behavior. The young male may become sexually aroused from this and subsequently frustrated because of his inability to act out his sexual desires. To release this sexual tension, the young male may go outside and play sports or engage in fantasies about himself and the woman. The process of releasing and thereby providing relief from strong or repressed emotions.
Conditioned Response
The resultant behavior after a stimulus is presented. The salvating of pavlov's dogs to the sound of the bell
Facial feedback effect
The resulting feeling after making an emotional facial expression.
Psychophysics
The scientific study of the relationship between stimuli (specified in physical terms) and the sensations and perceptions evoked by these stimuli.
Morphemes
The smallest units of language that have meaning. Morphemes are made up of two or more phonemes.
Manifest Content
The story line of the dream.
Homophily
The tendency for people to choose relationships with other people who have similar attributes.
Belief perseverance
The tendency to stick to one's initial belief even after receiving information that disconfirms the initial belief. Ignore/rationalize dis-confirming facts. For example, members of the Jonestown cult made a public admission of their loyalty to Jim Jones by selling all their possessions and following him to Guyana. Even though they later experienced irrational manipulation and abuse, they stayed to the point of committing mass suicide when he told them to do so.
Latent Content
The underlying meaning of the dream.
Striate cortex
The visual cortex of the brain is the part of the cerebral cortex responsible for processing visual information located in the occipital lobe.
Framing
The way in which something is presented. Refers to how a problem is presented, not the thought process used to approach the problem.
Global inequality
The world is an equal place. variation in life expediencies, access to clean water. Champagne glass representing unequal distribution of income, intra and inter country wealth inequality.
Theory of primary mental abilities
Theory that suggests that the human intelligence is constituted by seven independent primary mental abilities. These are the following: verbal comprehension, verbal fluency, number or arithmetic ability, memory, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, and spatial visualization
Preferred- Mixing
There are high levels of contact among people who share similar attributes.
Cornea
Thick fibrous transparent tissue, anterior 1/6. help focus light. The transparent front party of the eye that covers the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber. Shaped like a dome. With the anterior chamber and lens works to refract light. Most responsible for eye's focusing power.
Vertical movement
Upward or downward via promotion or demotion on the pyramid
Phototransduction cascade
Thin stacked discs with many proteins throughout rod (multimeric 7 unit proteins called rhodopsin with retinal). Conversion of 11-cis-retinal to all trans retinal so rhodopsin changes shape. Molecule with alpha beta subunit transducin and alpha subunit binds to phosphodiesterase (PDE) takes cGMP and converts to GMP which reduces cGMP concentration. Sodium channels depend on cGMP so PDE causes closing of channels, hyperpolarization occurs. This turns on on-center bipolar cells
Past-in-present discrimination
Things not allowed anymore STILL have an impact on discriminatory views
Deductive Reasoning
Thinking about broad principles and applying that information to specific situations.
Inductive Reasoning
Thinking about specific situations and applying that information to broad principles.
Thermoreceptors
Thinner axons and thin myelin sheath that sense temperature
Prefrontal cortex
This brain region has been implicated in planning complex cognitive behavior, personality expression, decision making, and moderating social behavior
Serial Position Effect- Memory
This term is a memory-related term and refers to the tendency to recall information that is presented first and last (like in a list) better than information presented in the middle.
Determinism
Thought influences language and cognitive development. All behavior is caused by preceding factors and is thus predictable. The causal laws of determinism form the basis of science. Determinism is the belief in the inevitably of causation. Everything that happens is the only thing that could have happened.
Evolutionary theory of sleep
Threat simulation and problem solving
Socially constructed gender differences
Through social customs and expectations and system that rewards (different values for men and women)
Zone of proximal development- Vygotsky
Time when you need to expand from set of skills to higher mental function
Afferent Neuron
Towards CNS
Life drive (Eros)
Towards life- healthy, safety, sex, cooperation
Meditation
Training people to self regulate attention and awareness (focused or unfocused). Light vs. deep. Implications for people with attention disorders
General intelligence theory
Transferable ability based on scores on one test (g factor of general intelligence)
Institutional Discrimination
Treatment stemming from institutional culture or policies
Major depressive disorder
Two main mood disorders, they are (1) major depressive disorder and (2) bipolar disorder. Being depressed for 2+ weeks; 5.8% of men and 9.5% of women .
Eardrum
Tympanic membrane, starts to vibrate which causes bones to vibrate
Emotional effects of stress on anger
Type A and type B individuals. Type A most likely to have heart attacks, prone hostility which is activated by stress
Depth Processing
Type of attention applied to words during encoding. One of three types of processing. It involves semantic processing in which we take the meaning of a word and relate it to synonyms. Depth processing, aka deep processing, involves elaboration rehearsal which involves more meaningful analysis and leads to better recall.
Conformity
Type of social influence involving a change in belief or behavior in order to fit in with a group. This change is in response to real (involving the physical presence of others) or imagined (involving the pressure of social norms / expectations) group pressure.
False consciousness
Unable to see exploitation and oppression, since people in charge of means of production can promote false consciousness. Owners control processes of workers, making it difficult for workers to unite
Reaction formation
Unconscious feelings end up doing opposite in conscious
Genes
Units of heredity (synthesizes a protein), we have 30,000
Drive
Universal and intrinsic
Catastrophic event stressor
Unpredictable large scale event that is threatening. For example, hurricanes, earthquakes, or wars
OCD
Unwanted thoughts and paired actions
OCD
Unwelcome thoughts or compulsions related that they have to do
Critical period
Up to 8-9 best time to learn language. LED begins to specialize to specific language. A period during one's development in which a particular skill or characteristic is believed to be most readily acquired.
Top down processing
Use background knowledge to influence perception. Theory driven, influenced by expectations. First brain is active and that leads to emotions and actions that later lead to a response in the body i.e., you think "how nice, my friend is giving me ice cream, I should take it from her" which then leads to emotions --> happy excited, grateful, curious and then a response in the body (increased heart rate, motor system causing arms to reach out to accept the ice cream".
Retrieval
Use cues and associations to bring out a concept from memory
Availability heuristic
Use examples of what's mentally accessible to guide decisions (lazy judgments). For example, after seeing several news reports about car thefts, you might make a judgment that vehicle theft is much more common than it really is in your area.
Substance use disorder
Use is causing distress in life in some way, impairment of function. Increasing doses, more time, craving, etc. withdrawal is another symptom. Cannot occur for caffeine
PET
Use radioactive glucose as a label (combine with structural methods)
Divergent Problem Solving
Used creativity and originality to solving the problem in a novel way.
General adaptation syndrome
Used to describe the body's short-term and long-term reactions to stress. Consists of the alarm phase, the resistance phase, and the exhaustion phase
Social Capital
Using one's social networks for gain
Peg Memory System
Utilizes numbers, rhymes, shapes, and sounds to create a scene based on a mental 'hook'.
Link System
Utilizes order and connections (links) to facilitate memory recovery, but is not a chunking technique.
Otolithic organs
Utricle and saccule, detect linear acceleration and head movement. Crystals move and heavier than gel environment, relies on gravity
Countercultures
Values conflict with majoirty
Dichotomous Variable
Variable in which only two levels exist. Ex: Male/Female; true/false; yes/no; 0/1.
Schizophrenia abnormalities
Ventricles are larger, size of cerebral cortex, abnormal organization of cortical layers, dopamine pathway abnormalities (mesocorticolimbic- VTA). Genes, physical stress, psychosocial factors
Dependent
Very clingy, need help from others
Caste system
Very little social mobility because role in life is predetermined by background. Great social stability
Histrionic
Very ostentatious, display emotions
Deviance
Violating a norm, behaving differently from what society thinks is normal
Circadian rhythms
Wakefulness cycles, regular body rhythms, biological clock
Normative social influence
Want to avoid social rejection or worried about group disapproval (might have different external and private views)
Factitious disorder
Want to be sick to get diagnosis to be in sick role, not money
Unanimity
Want to comply with all people in the group
Psychosexual stages
Want to gratify libido, if not there is conflict and fixation occurs. Oral, anal, phallic, latent, genital
Internal conflict
Want to help but wary of immigrant cultures, also put pressure on job availability
Culture
Way of life shared by people. Knowledge beliefs and values: artwork, language literature, shared knowledge (rules by which people live)
Society
Way people organize themselves, many people in specific geographic area. Shares common culture
Allport
We all have different traits that differ among individuals (4500 words): cardinal, central, secondary. Gordon Allport also helped to differentiate between drive and motive. Cardinal trait= dominant trait mold identity, emotions, and behaviors. Central trait = core traits, not dominant, predominantly constant among the general population; secondary trait = privately held. Allport also came up with genotype (internal forces) and phenotype (external forces) that influence a person's behavior and personality.
Fundamental attribution error
We assume other people behave characteristically badly but when we do it, it's situational
Situational attribution
We attribute our actions to social situation
Self serving bias
We could never do bad things and think better of ourselves
Informational social influence
We defer to others because we think that they are more correct/smarter than we are
Social constructionism
What a society is, not how it exists. Everything is created from mind of society, something has meaning that it doesn't have intrinsically such as money. We have agreed to give it value even though it has no inherent value
Functionalism
What is purpose of medicine? Medicine ensures return to functional state to contribute to society. Help stabilize social system in big disasters, also in day to day life to improve quality of aging people life
Working memory
What you're thinking about at the moment. Magic number = 7. Short-term memory. Instead of all information going into one single store, there are different systems for different types of information. It consists of a central executive which controls and coordinates the operation of two subsystems: the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketch pad.
Spreading Activation
When a concept is activated, it spreads to related concepts
Counterculture
When a conflict with larger culture becomes serious and laws of dominant society are violated. A way of life and set of attitudes opposed to or at a variance with the prevailing social norm.
Diffusion of responsibility theory
When in presence of others, feel less personal responsibility to take action. Used to explain the bystander effect.
Rod
When turned off (with light) activates bipolar cell which activates retinal ganglion, which then goes to optic nerve
Heuristics
When you "use your brain." gets you to the answer quicker. 2 types:
Pleasure principle
When young/immature, immediately want to fulfill needs and avoid suffering. We mature when we get older. Pleasure replaced by reality
Optic chiasm
Where optic nerves from L and R eyes meet
Ecological validity
Whether conditions in study meet conditions in real world
Recognition test
Which word was in list? Even better performance
Motivation
Why do we do the things we do?
Effects of urbanization
Wide variety of culture, anonymity, crowding, no close connections which we crave so we join pocket communities
Panic
Widespread fear causing people to act crazy
CT scans
X-ray to see structure of brain, less detail than MRI. Combine a series of X-ray images to produce cross-sectional images, or slices of the brain, blood vessels, bones, and soft tissues inside your body. More detailed than a plain x-ray.
Biological Sex
XX vs. XY chromosomes
Internal locus of control
You feel you can control your own fate/destiny. Achieve more and less depression
Just world phenomenon
You get what you deserve because world is just. A special force/cosmic justice ensures enforcement. Helps individuals rationalize, give predictable influence
Correct rejection
You say no and signal is absent. In signal detection theory, an instance of failing to detect a signal when the signal is in fact absent. One of four possible outcomes of a signal detection task.
False alarm
You say yes and signal is absent
Recency bias
You're only as good as your last action
Ganglion
a clump of grey matter (unmyelinated neuron cell bodies) found in the PNS
Polygyny
a form of marriage in which a man is married to more than one woman
Polyandry
a form of marriage in which a woman is married to more than one man
Polygamy
a form of marriage in which an individual may have multiple wives or husbands simultaneously
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
a strategy that involves enticing people to take small actions, and then gradually asking for larger and larger commitment
Antisocial personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a history of serious behavior problems beginning in Adolescence, including significant aggression against people or animals, deliberate property destruction, lying or theft, and serious rule violation
Histrionic personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by a strong desire to be the center of attention and seeking to attract attention through personal appearance and seductive behavior
Narcissistic personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of grandiosity with fantasies of beauty, brilliance, and power
Schizoid personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by little interest or involvement in close relationships, even those with family members
Schizotypal personality disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by several traits that cause problems interpersonally, including constricted or inappropriate affect; magical or paranoid thinking; and odd beliefs, speech, behavior, appearance, and perceptions
Schizophreniform disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by symptoms of schizophrenia present for a period of 1-6 months during which the symptoms may or may not have interfered with functioning
Schizoaffective disorder
a psychological disorder characterized by the combination of mood and psychotic symptoms; in this disorder, both the symptoms of schizophrenia and a major depressive, manic, or mixed episode are experienced for at least one month
Schizophrenia
a psychological disorder that is chronic and incapacitating and is characterized by psychosis and material impairment in social, occupational, and personal function
Humanistic psychology
a psychological perspective developed partially in response to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, which emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization. Carl Rogers is most associated with this kind of psychology
hippocampus
a structure in the limbic system linked to memory
parallel processing
ability of the brain to simultaneously process incoming stimuli of differing quality
Habit
action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic
exchange theory
addresses decision making via the cost-benefit analyses
Discrimination
an action; denial of rights; excludes members of a group
Egalitarian
authority more or less equally divided between people or groups
fluid intelligence
being able to think on your feet
preoperational
between the ages of 2-7
Scapegoating
blame others for own failures; transfer responsibility
latent functions
can have a negative effect on society
reciprocal
can influence or be influenced
Episodic memory
clear memories of unique and often highly emotional events, such as where you were and what you were doing during the 9/11 terrorist attacks, also called flashbulb memories
Pygmalion effect
closely related to the self-fulfilling prophecy; the two terms are even considered synonymous in some circles; it is a type of self-fulfilling prophecy where if you think something will happen, you may unconsciously make it happen through your actions or inaction. It occurs in the workplace when a manager raises his or her expectations for the performance of workers, and this actually results in an increase in worker performance.
Solomon Asch
conducted research on conformity and group pressure by placing subjects in a room with several confederates (the subjects believes the confederates to be fellow study subjects) and observing the behavior of the subject when the confederates provided clearly wrong answers to questions
medulla
controls heartbeat and breathing
hypothalamus
controls maintenance functions such as eating; helps govern endocrine system; linked to emotion and reward
cerebellum
coordinates voluntary movement and balance
Prejudice
negative attitude/belief toward group; not disliking someone because of behavior
proactive interference
difficulty in learning new information because of previously learned information
psychophysical discrimination testing
directly assess our perception of stimuli in relation to their true physical properties
activation synthesis model
dreams are caused by the physiological processes in the brain
population stabilization
drop in birth rate
population growth
drop in death rate
Gestalt
emphasized the idea that the ways in which people's perceptual experience is organized result from how human brains are organized
instinctual drift
established habits, learned using operant techniques, eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviors
Confederates
in psychological and social research, a confederate is a person who is working with the experimenter and posing as a part of the experiment, but the subjects are not aware of this affiliation. In the Asch experiments, all the people that were counting incorrectly were all confederates whereas the follower was the research subject.
Top-down Processing
info processed guided by higher level mental processes, recognizing face T/-\E C/-\T (I read 'the cat', no thinking).
thomas theorem
interpretation of a situation causes the action
Retrograde amnesia
occurs when one is unable to recall information that was previously encoded
Limbic System
olfactory path ways, biologic rhythms, hypothalamus
Schwann cells
one of the 2 peripheral nervous system supporting (glial) cells; they form the myelin sheathe on the axons of peripheral neuron
mindfulness-based stress reduction
protocol involving mindfulness meditation, shown to be effective for helping individuals with pain, stress and anxiety
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
recording of electrical impulses in the brain
Electrooculogram (EOG)
recording of eye movements
Electromyogram (EMG)
recording of skeletal muscle movements
Weber
sociology should remain valid; objective and neutral; use replication, or repeat study
feature detectors
specialized cells in the brain that detect certain types of stimuli, like movements, shapes, or angles
I
spontaneous, less socialized component of the self
critical period
stage where the nervous system is sensitive to certain environmental stimuli
proximal stimulus
stimulus registered by the sensory receptors
LTP
strengthening of synapses
operation span task
subjects are asked to do a simple mathematical problem then repeat a word, followed by a recall test
Assimilation
subordinate takes on characteristics of dominant group; able to express culture; no hostility/prejudice; dictates conformity; devalue minority culture
Empathy
the ability to identify with others' emotions
Iconic memory
the brief photographic memory for visual information which decays in a few tenths of a second
Functionalism/ structural functionalism
the oldest of the main theories of sociology, which conceptualized society as a living organism with many different parts/organs, each of which has a distinct purpose (Prominent theorists include Herbert Spencer, Talcott Parsons, Auguste Comte, Davis and Moore, Robert Merton, almond and Powell)
Encoding
the process of transferring sensory information into the memory system
Ethnocentrism
the tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of one's own culture
Electra complex
this complex occurs during the phallic stage (the third of Freud's five psychosexual stages) when a female child is sexually attracted to her father and hostile toward her mother, who is seen as a rival
constructionist
this understanding describes things to be subject to the processes of meaning-making and collective definition building
social network
ties change over time, from parental and familial ties --> peer group ties
Cultural relativism
to embrace and understand other cultures not on own culture's terms
Totalitarian
total control by government
neuroleptics
treat schizophrenia, side effects include cognitive dulling, which can exacerbate negative symptoms
Gender stratification
unequal access to power, prestige, and property on the basis of sex
CT
uses X-rays to create a series of cross sectional images of the inside of your body
Night terrors
usually occurs during stage 3 sleep, unlike nightmares; the individual may sit up or walk around, babble, and appear terrified although none of it is remembered the next morning
Subcultures
values/behaviors separate members from majority, no conflict
Representative democratic
voters elect people to make decisions; US today
interposition
when objects are placed one over each other to create depth
Weber fraction
∆I/I
