MGMT 371 Exam 2
observation learning
-social learning theory argues that people in organizations have the ability to learn through the observation of others -behavioral modeling involves observing and learning from others and then repeating the action -*4 steps in the observation process*
When there is no acceptable alternative and you cannot win, use the ________ style of conflict resolution.
avoiding
economic exchange relationships
based on narrowly defined, quid pro quo obligations that are specified in advance and have an explicit repayment schedule
Which of the following is characteristic of social exchange relationships?
based on obligations that are open-ended
Satisficing
choosing the first acceptable alternative
Which of the following answer options is not an example of a decision-making bias?
consensus
Resistance is most likely to occur when the target
considers the request inappropriate or unreasonable.
Which of the following describes the purpose and activities of a parallel team?
to provide recommendations and resolve issues not specifically connected to production
Team types
-5 categories of teams are distinguished by purpose, length of existence, and time involvement required of individual members 1. Work teams 2. Management team 3. Parallel teams 4. Project teams 5. Action teams
Climate of Transfer
an environment that can support the use of new skills
expectancy theory
an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over others due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be
Psychological empowerment
an intrinsic form of motivation derived from the belief that one's work tasks are contributing to some larger purpose
This influence tactic occurs when the requestor clearly explains why performing the request will benefit the target personally.
appraising
How does learning affect job performance and organizational commitment?
-Learning has a moderate positive relationship with job performance -Learning has a weak positive organizational commitment
Goal orientation learning
-Learning orientation: building competence is deemed more important than demonstrating competence -performance - prove orientation: focus is on demonstrating competence so that others think favorably of them -Performance-avoid orientation - focus is on demonstrating competence so that others will not think poorly of them
How important are team characteristics?
-Team characteristics can impact team performance and team commitment -Team viability refers to the likelihood that the team can work together effectively into the future -Task performance is moderately higher in teams in which members work closely together than when members work independently -Task interdependence does not significantly increase team commitment
reinforcement learning
-also known as operant conditioning -we learn by observing the link between our voluntary behavior and the consequences that follow
five aspects of team composition are
-member roles -member ability -member personality -team diversity -team size
How does motivation affect job performance and organizational commitment?
-motivation has a strong positive effect on job performance -motivation has a moderate positive relationship with organizational commitment
disposition-based trust
-trust propensity a general expectation that the words, promises, and statements of individuals and groups can be relied upon -factors: genetics, upbringing and culture
Marisa's boss Luna is often insulting to employees she does not like. Luna also mocks the personal appearance and habits of some of Marisa's coworkers. Luna's behavior is an example of
abusive supervision
equity theory
acknowledges that motivation doesn't just depend on your own beliefs and circumstances but also on what happens to other people
What is organizational politics?
actions by individuals that are directed toward the goal of furthering their own self-interests
Risk
actually becoming vulnerable
At his sales firm, Angus tends to have a negative attitude and deflates his group members by being hostile toward their ideas and accomplishments. Angus fills the individualistic role of
aggressor
programmed decisions
automatic because knowledge allows employee to recognize a situation and the needed course of action -intuition: emotionally charged judgement arising through quick, nonconscious, and holistic associations -crisis situation: urgent problem must be addressed immediately
individualistic roles
behaviors that benefit the individual at the expense of the team (aggressor, dominator, recognition seeker)
Hybrid outcome interdependence bases employee compensation on
both team and individual performance.
limited information
bounded rationality - do not have the ability or resources to process all available information and alternatives
The aspect of power that involves how important a person's job is and how many people depend on that person to accomplish their tasks is known as
centrality
The type of power most likely to result in negative feelings toward those who wield it is
coercive
parallel teams
composed of members from various jobs who provide recommendations to managers about important issues that run "parallel" to the organization's production process
what two qualities make goals strong predictors of task performance
difficult and specific -having difficult and specific goals increases self-set goals and tasks strategies
Geraldo is talking about his new job with his brother. He says he likes this job better than his previous jobs because now he feels respected, and he knows he is doing important work. He has always felt a need to feel this way at work, and now he finally does. Geraldo is describing how his job meets his need for
esteem
(T/F) Justice concepts can be used to explain why authorities decide to act in a trustworthy or untrustworthy manner.
false
(T/F) Learning refers to the process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem.
false
(T/F) Research shows that even people with a strong sense of moral identity are still highly susceptible to situational pressures.
false
(T/F) When considering reinforcement schedules, remember that fixed schedules lead to higher levels of performance than variable schedules.
false
(t/f) Distributive bargaining has a tendency to produce a higher level of outcome favorability when both parties' views are considered, compared with integrative bargaining.
false
(t/f) Leaders use avoiding when they know they are right and a quick decision needs to be made.
false
(t/f) Pooled interdependence requires the highest level of interaction and coordination among members as they try to accomplish work.
false
(t/f) Rational persuasion is a tactic designed to appeal to the target's values and ideals, thereby creating an emotional or attitudinal reaction.
false
(t/f) The team-building role of gatekeeper-expediter determines the direction of the team's discussion.
false
Behaviors are reinforced after a certain number of them have been exhibited under a ________ schedule of reinforcement.
fixed ratio
project teams
formed to take on "one-time" tasks that are generally complex and require a lot of input from members with different types of training and expertise
Ike, George, and Mike work at an ice producing facility in the same job classification. Ike arrives at work late, produces and loads fewer bags of ice than George and Mike, and never volunteers to sweep up during his break, unlike the other workers. After talking to George and Mike, Ike learns that even though they have all been employed the same length of time, he is being paid two dollars more per hour than they are because they were hired through an outside personnel agency. According to equity theory, which of the following emotions is Ike likely to display?
guilt
Blaze feels his workers need to know they are doing something that makes a difference to the company. Blaze walks around among his employees and uses phrases such as "moving forward," "being on track," and "getting there" to convey a sense of
impact
Which of the following attributes is associated with cognitive-based trust?
integrity
Emotionally charged judgments that arise through quick, nonconscious, and holistic associations are known as
intuition
What reflects the perceived quality of a company's goods and services in the eyes of the public?
its reputation
The use of power and influence to direct the activities of followers toward goal achievement is known as
leadership
Comprehensive interdependence
members interact to a high degree to coordinate and perform tasks
Reciprocal interdependence
members perform specialized tasks and then interact with other members to complete work
hybrid outcome interdependence
members receive rewards that are dependent on both their team's performance and how well they perform as individuals
Pooled interdependence
members work independently and then pool the results
Sequential interdependence
members work on specialized tasks in a prescribed order
Which of the following compensation plan elements result in a change to base pay?
merit pay
The correlation between power and influence on the one hand, and organizational commitment on the other, is
moderate and positive.
moral awareness (perception)
occurs when an authority recognizes that a moral issue exists in a situation or that an ethical standard or principle is relevant to the circumstance -depends on moral intensity
What steps can organizations take to increase employee motivation?
organizations use compensation practices to increase motivation. may include individual-focused elements, unit-focused elements, or organization-focused elements
Gilbert would like to foster goal commitment in his department. He decides to do this by encouraging the collaboration of employees and leaders on setting the specific proficiency level and due date for a major production goal so that the employees feel a sense of ownership over the goal. Gilbert has implemented a strategy known as
participation
fundamental attribution error
people have a tendency to judge others behaviors as due to internal factors
procedural justice
perceptions of fairness related to whether or not the rules of fair process have been followed -rules: voice, correctability, bias suppression, representativeness, accuracy
action teams
perform tasks that are normally limited in duration. However, those tasks are quite complex and take place in contexts that are either highly visible to an audience or of a highly challenging nature.
moral intensity
potential for harm and social pressure
positive valence
prefer having the outcome (salary increase) - outcomes that satisfy needs are more positively valenced
negative valence
prefer not having outcome (disciplinary action, termination)
nonprogrammed decisions
problem is new, complex, or not recognized -For nonprogrammed decisions, the rational decision-making model: 1. Offers a step-by-step approach of making decisions 2. Is designed to maximize outcomes by examining all available alternatives
Keenan had worked at the post office for many years, accepting packages for mailing that customers had packed themselves. Keenan could look at a package and tell if it met mailing specifications, and any corrective actions that needed taken. His quick assessments were based on ________ decisions.
programmed
similarity-attraction approach
proposes that team diversity can be counterproductive because people tend to avoid interacting with others who are unlike them
Moral intensity is driven by two general dimensions: potential for harm and social pressure. Which of the following answer options is a specific facet of the social pressure dimension?
proximity
The type of power that exists when others have a desire to identify and be associated with a person is ________ power.
referent
Deep-level diversity
refers to diversity of attributes that are difficult to observe initially but can be inferred through direct experience, such as ones values or personality
Surface-level diversity
refers to diversity of observable attributes such as race, gender, ethnicity, and age
valence
reflects the anticipated value of the outcomes associated with performance
distributive justice
reflects the perceived fairness of decision-making outcomes -gauged by perceived fairness of outcomes such as pay, promotions, and assignments
Interpersonal justice
reflects the perceived fairness of the treatment received by employees from authorities
Multiple team membership
research indicates that when employees are part of several teams they do not identify with each team equally
The tendency for people to see their environment only as it affects them and as it is consistent with their expectations is known as
selective perception
additive tasks
tasks for which the contributions from every member add up to determine team performance
conjunctive tasks
tasks for which the team's performance depends on the abilities of the team's weakest link
disjunctive tasks
tasks with an objectively verifiable best solution for which the member with the highest level of ability has the most influence on team effectiveness
expectancy
the belief that a high level of effort will lead to the successful performance of a task
self-efficacy
the belief that a person has the capabilities needed to execute the behaviors required for task success
Instrumentality
the belief that successful performance will result in certain outcomes
ethics
the degree to which the behaviors of an authority are in accordance with generally accepted moral norms
justice
the perceived fairness of an authority's decision making
What is trust?
the willingness to be vulnerable to a trustee based on positive expectations about the trustee's actions and intentions (interpersonal)
work teams
their purpose is to produce goods or services, and they generally require a full-time commitment from their members
When the knowledge, skills, and behaviors used on the job are maintained by the learner once the period of learning ends, and generalized to the workplace once the learner returns to the job, this is known as
transfer of training.
How do employees respond to inequality?
triggers equity distress (under-rewarded and over-rewarded). and internal tension that can only be alleviated by restoring balance to the ratios. it can result in -being constructive and proactive -being destructive (underewarded) -negative emotions like guilt or anxiety
(T/F) According to expectancy theory, motivational force equals zero if expectancy, instrumentality, or valence is zero.
true
(T/F) Disposition-based trust depends on the trustor's propensity to trust.
true
(T/F) Informational justice is fostered when authorities, truthfully and candidly, explain decision-making procedures and outcomes in a comprehensive and reasonable manner.
true
(t/f) A team with low viability is bound to have problems in the long run.
true
(t/f) Employees with higher levels of expertise may become more highly valued commodities on the job market, thereby reducing their levels of continuance commitment.
true
(t/f) Fault lines develop in diverse groups when informal subgroups form based on similarity in surface-level attributes such as gender or other characteristics.
true
(t/f) People with legitimate power have the understood right to ask others to do things that are considered within the scope of their authority.
true
(t/f) The four dimensions of political skill are networking ability, social astuteness, interpersonal influence, and apparent sincerity.
true
(t/f) Work teams have the highest levels of worker involvement.
true
cognition-based trust
trustworthiness - the characteristics or attributes of a trustee that inspire trust -ability, benevolence, integrity
Tacit knowledge is
typically job- or situation-specific.
goal setting theory
views goals as the primary drivers of the intensity and persistence of effort
transfer of training
when the knowledge, skills, and behaviors used on the job are maintained by the learner once training ends and generalized to the workplace once the learner returns to the job
Value in diversity problem-solving approach
a theory that supports team diversity because it provides a larger pool of knowledge and perspectives
team viability
the likelihood that the team can work together effectively into the future
Team composition
-the mix of people who make up the team -the right mix of knowledge, skills, abilities, and personalities is an important factor in team effectiveness
member roles
A role is the pattern of behavior a person is expected to display in a given context -roles in team contexts are based on task, decision-making and leadership activities
Which of the following questions is used to evaluate informational justice?
Do authorities explain procedures thoroughly?
Expectancy can be shaped by
self-efficacy -past accomplishments -vicarious experience -verbal persuasion -emotional cues
Which motivating force has the strongest effect on performance?
self-efficacy or competence
Goal Interdependence
Exists when team members have a shared vision of the team's goal and align their individual goals with that vision as a result
Motivational forces =
Expectancy x instrumentality x valence
(T/F) Instrumentality reflects the anticipated value of the outcomes associated with performance.
False
(T/F) Meaningfulness is a concept in psychological empowerment that reflects a sense of choice in the initiation and continuation of work tasks.
False
(T/F) Motivation is a set of distinctive, external forces.
False
(T/F) Of the knowledge contained in organizations, 90 percent is explicit knowledge.
False
(T/F) Procedural justice reflects the perceived fairness of the communications provided to employees from authorities.
False
Which of the following characterizes pooled interdependence?
Group members complete their work assignments independently, and then this work is simply "piled up" to represent the group's output.
Decision-making styles
In addition to specific behaviors, leaders can be separated by the style they use when making important decisions -Focus on how a leader decides, not what the decision is -These styles vary in how much control is retained by the leader, and how much control is given to the follows
leader traits
Individual traits are more predictive of leader emergence than of leader effectiveness -Traits are only weakly correlated with leader effectiveness
Why teams have become widespread
Interactions allow the team to pool complementary knowledge and skills
Which of the following accurately describes the correlation between task interdependence and team performance?
It is moderate and positive.
Which of the following is true of the ethical component of corporate social responsibility?
It suggests the organization has reached the principled level of moral development.
What steps can organizations take to become more trustworthy?
Organizations can become more trustworthy by emphasizing corporate social responsibility, a perspective that acknowledges that the responsibilities of a business encompass the economic, legal, ethical, and citizenship expectations of society
When is political behavior most likely to occur?
Political behavior is most likely to occur in organizational situations in which individual outcomes are uncertain
How does power and influence affect job performance and organizational commitment?
Power and influence have moderate positive relationships with job performance and organizational commitment
moral principles
Prescriptive guides for making moral judgments
task interdependence
Refers to the degree to which team members interact with and rely on other members for the information, materials, and resources needed to accomplish work for the team
What is learning?
Reflects relatively permanent changes in an employees knowledge or skill that result from experience
moral intent (cognition)
Reflects the authority's degree of commitment to a moral action
Which of the following is characteristic of the preconventional stage of moral development?
Relationships are based on self-interest, with little concern for loyalty, gratitude, or fairness.
What characteristics can be used to describe teams?
Task, unit, and member qualities
management teams
Teams that coordinate and provide direction to the subunits to work towards common goals
How does learning affect decision making?
The more knowledge and skills employees possess, the more likely they are to make accurate and sound decisions
Day-to-day behaviors
There are two broad dimensions that encompass most leadership behaviors -Consideration: Create climate of concern & communication; create relationships of respect, trust, & considering employee feelings -Initiating Structure: Defining and structuring roles of employees; directing activities
What steps can organizations take to foster learning?
Through various forms of training, companies can give employees more knowledge and a wider array of experiences that they can use to make decisions
Why are some leaders more effective than others?
Traits Day-to-day behaviors Decision-making styles Transformational leadership behaviors
(T/F) Employees who feel a sense of equity on the job are more likely to engage in citizenship behaviors.
True
Variations within team types
Variations that can impact a teams effectiveness: 1. The degree of autonomy or self-management the team has 2. Modes of communication, such as virtual teams in which the members are geographically dispersed and communicate electronically 3. How much experience the team has working together
Negotiator biases
When negotiators perceive themselves as having more power than the other party, they tend to demand more and concede less
What 3 beliefs help determine work effort, according to expectancy theory?
effort is directed toward behaviors when effort is believed to result in performance (expectancy), performance is believed to result in outcomes (instrumentality), and those outcomes are anticipated to be valuable (valence).
Amy motivates her team, always pushing them to try to improve. Amy fulfils the team task role of
energizer.
Active listening, asking questions, and making one's case are all part of the step in the negotiation process known as
exchanging information
communities of practice
groups of employees who work together, learn from each other, and develop a common understanding of how to get work accomplished
Goal setting theory argues that assigning employees specific, difficult goals will result in
higher levels of performance
The moderate correlation between learning and job performance may be underestimated because
it is difficult to measure tacit knowledge, which is relevant to task performance, due to its unspoken nature.
zero valence
no interest in outcome either way (bored with outcome)
Sharon joined a team that was responsible for boosting sales on last year's electronic models. The team began in January and was scheduled to run until May, meeting once a week. The team consisted of four women, all with marketing and sales background. When the group first met, they learned they had much in common, outside of work. Now, the majority of time each meeting was spent talking about spouses, children, shopping, and hobbies. At the first meeting in March, one of the four said, "You know, we have to have a presentation ready in less than two month." That seems to set everyone in motion. The group quickly divided responsibilities and set to work. The presentation was a success. This scenario describes
punctuated equilibrium
Bernadette would like to generate intrinsic motivation in her employees because she feels it will ultimately lead to better performance. Which of the following outcomes would foster the intrinsic motivation she wants?
skill development
SMART goals
specific, measureable, achievable, results-based, time sensitive
Project teams are formed to
take on "one-time" tasks that are often complex and require input from members with different types of training and expertise.
How important is leadership?
A leader can make or break an organization. It has a profound effect on your employees and organizations.
Motivation
A set of energetic forces that originate both within and outside an employee, initiates work-related effort, and determines its direction, intensity, and persistence
What is a team?
A team consists of two or more people who work interdependently over some time period to accomplish common goals related to some task-oriented purpose
team size
Having a greater number of members is beneficial for management and project teams but not for teams engaged in production tasks
Transformational leadership
More of a motivational approach than transactional or laissez-faire charismatic (Idealized Influence)create a shared vision (Inspirational Motivation)are seen as agents of change (Intellectual Stimulation)support & coach followers (Individualized Consideration)
escalation of commitment
The decision to continue to follow a failing course of action 1. "Throwing away good money after bad" 2. Becomes stronger when decision makers have invested a lot of money into he decision and when the project in question seems quite close to completion
team diversity
The degree to which members are different from one another
Outcome interdependence
The degree to which team members share equally in the feedback and rewards that result from the team achieving its goals
Which of the following scenarios is an example of deep-level diversity?
Trixie's team of six managers includes two members who see the glass as half-empty while the other four see the glass as half full, and two members who clash on whether a company should be managed top-down or bottom-up.
(T/F) The performance-avoid orientation is associated with high levels of anxiety and lower levels of learning.
True
how does trust affect job performance and organizational commitment?
Trust has a moderate positive relationship with job performance and a strong positive relationship with organizational commitment
Which of the following is characteristic of disposition-based trust?
Trust is based on the general propensity of the trustor to trust others.
cognitive moral development theory
as people age and mature, they move through various stages of moral development, each more mature and sophisticated than the prior one
A formalized method of training in which employees observe and learn from employees with significant amounts of tacit knowledge is known as ________ training.
behavioral modeling
Bob has to create a compensation plan for team members at his manufacturing facility. Which of the following approaches would give him the best plan?
combine high task interdependence with high outcome interdependence
The process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem is called
decision making
Sal and Brianna find out that Debby got a 10% annual salary increase, while they each got a 5% increase. Since all three of them had the same level of sales over the last year, Sal and Brianna think the situation lacks:
distributive justice.
moral judgement (cognition)
occurs when an authority identifies the morally right course of action
When actions by individuals in an organization are directed toward the goal of furthering their own self-interests, this is known as
organizational politics
what does it mean to be equitably treated according to equity theory?
rewards are equitable when a person's ratio of outcomes to inputs matches those of some relevant comparison other -your outcomes/your inputs = others outcomes/others inputs
affect-based trust
trust rooted in emotion rather than reason -based on an emotional bond with the trustee -acts as a supplement to other types of trust
How do leaders use their power and influence to resolve conflicts in the workplace?
1. Competing - assertive, uncooperative (win-lose) 2. Collaborating - assertive, cooperative (win-win) - BEST OPTION 3. Compromise - is in the middle; temporary fix of the problem and involves moderate concern for one's own outcomes and other's outcomes 4. Avoiding - unassertive, uncooperative (lose-lose) 5. Accommodating - unassertive, cooperative (lose-win)
Attribution process
1. Consensus: did others act the same way under similar situations? 2. Distinctiveness: does this person tend to act differently in other circumstances? 3. Consistency: does this person always do this when performing this task?
What are the ways in which leaders negotiate in the workplace?
1. Distributive bargaining - win-lose style with fixed pie, zero sum conditions 2. Integrative bargaining - win-win style utilizing mutual respect and problem solving
What types of knowledge can employees gain as they learn and build expertise?
1. Explicit knowledge - easy to communicate and teach 2. Tacit knowledge - more difficult to communicate; gained with experience
Stages of team development
1. Forming: members orient themselves to team boundaries 2. Storming: conflict occurs because members remain committed to the ideas they bring with them to the team 3. Norming: members realize they need to work together and begin to cooperate 4. Performing: members are comfortable in their roles, and the teammates progress toward goals 5. Adjourning: members experience anxiety and other emotions as they disengage and ultimately separate from the team
faulty attributions
1. Fundamental attribution error: a tendency to judge others' behavior as due to internal factors such as ability or attitude 2. Self-serving bias: attribute our failures to external factors and our successes to internal factors 3. Attribution process 4. Escalation of commitment
what is the four-component model of ethical decision making?
1. Moral awareness (perception) 2. Moral judgement (cognition) 3. moral intent (cognition) 4. ethical behavior
What behaviors do leaders exhibit when trying to influence others, and which of these is most effective?
1. Most effective - Rational persuasion - using logical arguments and facts - Inspirational appeal - appealing to values and ideals to create an emotional reaction - Consultation - allowing target to participate in decision - Collaboration - working together to maximize outcomes 2. Somewhat effective - Ingratiation - using favors 3. Least effective - Pressure - using coercive power through threats or demands - Coalitions - enlisting others to help influence the target - Exchange tactic - offering a reward or resource in return for performing a request
What are the different types of power that leaders possess, and when can they use those types most effectively?
1. Organizational forms of power derives from a person's position within an organization - Legitimate power is based on a position of authority in an organization - Reward power is based on control of resources or benefits - Coercive power is based on ability to punish 2. Personal forms of power derives from the individual - Expert power is based on expertise, skill, or knowledge - referent power exists when others have a desire to identify and associated with a person
stages of cognitive moral development
1. Preconventional stage: focuses on consequences of actions for the individual 2. Conventional stage: references the expectations of one's family and society 3. Principled stage: the most advanced, uses a set of defined, established moral principles
What are the methods by which employees learn in organizations?
1. Reinforcement 2. Observation 3. goal orientation
faulty perceptions
1. Selective perception: tendency to see the environment only as it affects them, consistent with their expectations 2. Projection bias: belief that others think, feel, and act the same way they do 3. Social identity theory: people identify with groups and judge others by their group memberships 4. Stereotype: assumptions are made about others on the basis of their membership in a social group 5. Heuristics: simple, efficient rules of thumb that allow us to make decisions more easily 6. Availability bias: tendency to base judgements on information that is easier to recall
What dimensions can be used to describe the trustworthiness of an authority?
1. ability - skills, competencies, and areas of expertise that enable an authority to be successful in some specific area 2. benevolence - the authority wants to do good for the trustor, apart from any selfish or profit-centered motives 3. integrity - set of values the authority adheres to that the trustor finds acceptable
In what 3 sources can trust be rooted?
1. disposition-based 2. cognition based 3. affect-based
What dimensions can be used to describe the fairness of an authority's decision making?
1. distributive justice 2. procedural justice 3. interpersonal justice 4. informational justice
What decision-making problems can prevent employees from translating their learning into accurate decisions?
1. limited information 2. faulty perceptions 3. faulty attributions
What 4 beliefs determine empowerment levels?
1. meaningfulness - captures the value of a work goal or purpose relative to a person's own ideals and passions 2. self-determination - reflects a sense of choice in the initiation and continuation of work tasks 3. competence - captures a person's belief in his or her capability to perform work tasks successfully 4. impacts - reflects the sense that a person's actions "make a difference" - that progress is being made toward fulfilling some important purpose
What 2 methods can employees use to make decision?
1. programmed decisions 2. nonprogrammed decisions
Member personality
3 traits especially critical in teams -agreeable: cooperative and trusting, tendencies that promote positive attitudes about the team and smooth interpersonal interactions -conscientious: dependable and work hard to achieve goals -extraverted: perform more effectively in interpersonal contexts and are more positive and optimistic in general
What is leadership, and what role does power play in leadership?
Leadership is the use of power and influence to direct the activities of followers toward goal achievement