MGMT Test 4

Impression Management

A direct and intentional effort by someone to enhance his or her image in the eyes of others For one thing, they may do so to further their own careers. By making themselves look good, they think they are more likely to receive rewards, to be given attractive job assignments, and to receive promotions. They may also engage in impression management to boost their self-esteem. When people have a solid image in an organization, others make them aware of it through compliments, respect, and so forth. Still another reason people use impression management is in an effort to acquire more power and hence more control.

Conflict

A disagreement among two or more individuals or groups

equitably rewarded

A feeling of equity will result when the two ratios are equal. This may occur even though the other person's outcomes are greater than the individual's own outcomes—provided that the other's inputs are also proportionately greater. Suppose that Mark has a high school education and earns $40,000. He may still feel equitably treated relative to Susan, who earns $60,000, because she has a college degree and more experience.

Task groups

A group created by the organization to accomplish a relatively narrow range of purposes within a stated or implied time horizon Most committees and task forces are task groups. The organization specifies group membership and assigns a relatively narrow set of goals, such as developing a new product or evaluating a proposed grievance procedure. The time horizon for accomplishing these purposes is either specified (a commit- tee may be asked to make a recommendation within 60 days) or implied (the project team will disband when the new product is developed)

Positive reinforcement

A method of strengthening behavior with rewards or positive outcomes after a desired behavior is performed ex: When a manager observes an employee doing an especially good job and offers praise, the praise serves to positively reinforce the behavior of good work. Other positive reinforcers in organizations include pay raises, promotions, and awards. Employees who work at General Electric's customer service center receive clothing, sporting goods, and even trips to Disney World as rewards for outstanding performance.

virtual team

A newer type of work team whose members interact in a virtual arena; members enter and leave the network as needed and may take turns serving as leader

Functional Group

A permanent group created by the organization to accomplish a number of organizational purposes with an unspecified time horizon The advertising department at Target, the management department at Florida Atlantic University, and the nursing staff at the Mayo Clinic are functional groups. The advertising department at Target, for example, seeks to plan effective advertising campaigns, increase sales, run in-store promotions, and develop a unique identity for the company. It is assumed that the functional group will remain in existence after it attains its current objectives; those objectives will be replaced by new ones.

Extraversion

A person's comfort level with relationships . People who are called "extraverts" are sociable, talkative, assertive, and open to establishing new relationships. Introverts are much less sociable, talkative, and assertive, and less open to establishing new relationships. Research suggests that extraverts tend to be higher overall job performers than introverts and that they are also more likely to be attracted to jobs based on personal relation- ships, such as sales and marketing positions.

Openness

A person's rigidity of beliefs and range of interests People with high levels of openness are willing to listen to new ideas and to change their own ideas, beliefs, and attitudes as a result of new information. They also tend to have broad interests and to be curious, imaginative, and creative. On the other hand, people with low levels of openness tend to be less receptive to new ideas and less willing to change their minds. Further, they tend to have fewer and narrower interests and to be less curious and creative. People with more openness might be expected to be better performers, owing to their flexibility and the likelihood that they will be better accepted by others in the organization. Openness may also encompass an individual's willingness to accept change. For example, people with high levels of openness may be more receptive to change, whereas people with low levels of openness may be more likely to resist change.

Path-Goal theory

A theory of leadership suggesting that the primary functions of a leader are to make valued or desired rewards available in the workplace and to clarify for the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to those rewards The leader should clarify the paths to goal attainment.

LPC theory (Fiedler)

A theory of leadership that suggests that the appropriate style of leadership varies with situational favorableness

work team

An increasingly popular type of team; work teams are responsible for the daily work of the organization; when empowered, they are self-managed teams

valence

An index of how much a person wants a particular outcome; the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual If the individual wants the outcome, its valence is positive; if the individual does not want the outcome, its valence is negative; and if the individual is indifferent to the outcome, its valence is zero.

Reinforcement theory

Approach to motivation that argues that behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be repeated, whereas behavior that results in punishing consequences is less likely to be repeated

role ambiguity

Arises when the sent role is unclear and the individual does not know what is expected of him or

Goal-Setting Theory

Assumes that behavior is a result of conscious goals and intentions. Therefore, by setting goals for people in the organization, a manager should be able to influence their behavior. Two specific goal characteristics: goal difficulty goal specificity

Self-actualization

At the top of the hierarchy are the __________ needs. These involve realizing one's potential for continued growth and individual development. The _______ needs are perhaps the most difficult for a manager to address. In fact, it can be argued that these needs must be met entirely from within the individual. But a manager can help by promoting a culture wherein self-actualization is possible. For instance, a manager could give employees a chance to participate in making decisions about their work and the opportunity to learn new things

Resolving and eliminating conflict

Avoid conflict. Convince conflicting parties to compromise. Bring conflicting parties together to confront and negotiate conf

Machiavellian

Behavior directed at gaining power and controlling the behavior of others More Machiavellian individuals tend to be rational and non-emotional, may be willing to lie to attain their personal goals, may put little weight on loyalty and friendship, and may enjoy manipulating others' behavior. Less Machiavellian individuals are more emotional, less willing to lie to succeed, value loyalty and friendship highly, and get little personal pleasure from manipulating others. By all accounts, Dennis Kozlowski, the indicted former CEO of Tyco International who eventually served prison time, had a high degree of Machiavellianism. He apparently came to believe that his position of power in the company gave him the right to do just about anything he wanted with company resources.

Cognitive dissonance

Caused when an individual has conflicting attitudes Say, for example, that a person who has vowed never to work for a big, impersonal corporation intends instead to open her own business and be her own boss. Unfortunately, a series of financial setbacks leads her to have no choice but to take a job with a large company and work for someone else. Thus cognitive dissonance occurs: The affective and cognitive components of the person's attitude conflict with intended behavior. To reduce cognitive dissonance, which is usually an uncomfortable experience for most people, she might tell herself that the situation is only temporary and that she can go back out on her own in the near future. Or she might revise her cognitions and decide that working for a large company is more pleasant than she had expected.

merit pay plan

Compensation plan that formally bases at least some meaningful portion of compensation on merit

Intergroup conflict

Conflict between two or more organizational groups is also quite common. For example, the members of a firm's marketing group may disagree with the production group over product quality and delivery schedules. Two sales groups may disagree over how to meet sales goals, and two groups of managers may have different ideas about how best to allocate organizational resources

Interpersonal conflict

Conflict between two or more people is almost certain to occur in any organization, given the great variety in perceptions, goals, attitudes, and so forth among its members.

inter-organizational conflict

Conflict that arises between one organization and another is called _______ conflict . A moderate amount of inter- organizational conflict resulting from business competition is expected, of course, but some- times conflict becomes more extreme.

outcomes

Consequences of behaviors in an organizational setting, usually rewards A high performer, for example, may get bigger pay raises, faster promotions, and more praise from the boss. On the other hand, she may also be subject to more stress and incur resentment from coworkers

Management team

Consists mainly of managers from various functions like sales and production; coordinates work among other teams

informal or interest group

Created by its members for purposes that may or may not be relevant to those of the organization Created by its members for purposes that may or may not be relevant to those of the organization Informal groups can be a powerful force that managers cannot ignore. One writer described how a group of employees at a furniture factory subverted their boss's efforts to increase production. They tacitly agreed to produce a reasonable amount of work but not to work too hard. One man kept a stockpile of completed work hidden as a backup in case he got too far behind.

quality circle

Declining in popularity, quality circles, comprising workers and super- visors, meet intermittently to discuss workplace problems

gainsharing programs

Designed to share the cost savings from productivity improvements with employees

controlling conflict

Expand resource base. Enhance coordination of interdependence. Set superordinate goals. Match personalities and work habits of employee

Negative Emotionally

Extent to which a person is poised, calm, resilient, and secure People with less negative emotionality will be relatively poised, calm, resilient, and secure. But people with more negative emotionality will be more excitable, insecure, reactive, and subject to extreme mood swings. People with less negative emotionality might be expected to better handle job stress, pressure, and tension. Their stability might also lead them to be seen as more reliable than their less stable counterparts.

Flexibility of Leader style

Fiedler argued that, for any given person, leader style is essentially fixed and cannot be changed; leaders cannot change their behavior to fit a particular situation because it is linked to their personality traits. Thus, when a leader's style and the situation do not match, Fiedler argued that the situation should be changed to fit the leader's style. When leader-member relations are good, task structure low, and position power weak, the leader style that is most likely to be effective is relationship oriented. If the leader is task oriented, a mismatch exists. According to Fiedler, the leader can make the elements of the situation more congruent by structuring the task (by developing guidelines and procedures, for instance) and increasing power (by requesting additional authority or by other means).

Stages of group and team development

Forming Storming Norming Performing

Favorableness and Leader style

Good or bad leader-member relations, high or low task struc- ture, and strong or weak leader position power can be combined to yield six unique situations. For example, good leader-member relations, high task structure, and strong leader position power (at the far left) are presumed to define the most favorable situation; bad leader-member relations, low task structure, and weak leader power (at the far right) are the least favorable. The other combinations reflect intermediate lev- els of favorableness.

Stimulating Conflict

Increase competition among individuals and teams. Hire outsiders to shake things up. Change established procedure

Type A personality

Individuals who are extremely competitive, very devoted to work, and have a strong sense of time urgency They are likely to be aggressive, impatient, and very work oriented. They have a lot of drive and want to accomplish as much as possible as quickly as possible.

Type B personality

Individuals who are less competitive, less devoted to work, and have a weaker sense of time urgency Such people are less likely to experience conflict with others and more likely to have a balanced, relaxed approach to life. They can work at a constant pace without time urgency. Type B people are not necessarily more or less successful than are Type A people, but they are less likely to experience stress

LPC

Least preferred coworker

Storming

Members develop group structure and patterns of interaction During this stage, there may be a general lack of unity and uneven interaction patterns. At the same time, some members of the group or team may begin to exert themselves to become recognized as the group leader or at least to play a major role in shaping the group's agenda. ex: In adidas's team, some members advocated a rapid expansion into the marketplace; others argued for a slower entry. The first faction won, with disastrous results. Because of the rush, product quality was poor and deliveries were late. As a result, the team leader was fired and a new manager placed in charge.

Performing

Members enact roles and direct effort toward goal attainment and performance. The team really begins to focus on the problem at hand. The members enact the roles they have accepted, interaction occurs, and the efforts of the group are directed toward goal attainment. The basic structure of the group or team is no longer an issue but has become a mechanism for accomplishing the purpose of the group. Adidas's sportswear business is now growing consistently and has successfully avoided the problems that plagued it at first

Norming

Members share acceptance of roles and sense of unity. During this stage, each person begins to recognize and accept her or his role and to under- stand the roles of others. Members also begin to accept one another and to develop a sense of unity. There may also be temporary regressions to the previous stage. For example, the group or team might begin to accept one particular member as the leader. If this person later violates important norms or otherwise jeopardizes his or her claim to leadership, conflict might reemerge as the group rejects this leader and searches for another. Adidas's new leader transferred several people away from the team and set up a new system and structure for managing things. The remaining employees accepted his new approach and settled into doing their jobs.

behavior modification

Method for applying the basic elements of reinforcement theory in an organizational setting

Problem solving team

Most popular type of team; comprises knowledge workers who gather to solve a specific problem and then disband

role conflict

Occurs when the messages and cues composing the sent role are clear but contradictory or mutually exclusive

Important difference between Michigan and Ohio studies

Ohio State researchers did not interpret leader behavior as being one-dimensional; each behavior was assumed to be independent of the other. Presumably, then, a leader could exhibit varying levels of initiating structure and at the same time varying levels of consideration

merit pay

Pay awarded to employees on the basis of the relative value of their contributions to the organization

legitimate power

Power granted through the organizational hierarchy; the power defined by the organization to be accorded to people occupying particular positions ex: A manager can assign tasks to a subordinate, and a subordinate who refuses to do them can be reprimanded or even fired. authority

fixed ratio schedule

Provides reinforcement after a fixed number of behaviors regardless of the time interval involved, such as a bonus for every fifth sale This results in an even higher level of effort. For example, when Sears is recruiting new credit card customers, salespersons get a small bonus for every fifth application returned from their department. Under this arrangement, motivation will be high because each application gets the person closer to the next bonus.

variable ratio schedule

Provides reinforcement after varying numbers of behaviors are performed, such as the use of complements by a supervisor on an irregular basis the most powerful schedule in terms of maintaining desired behaviors, varies the number of behaviors needed for each reinforcement. A supervisor who praises an employee for her second order, the seventh order after that, the ninth after that, then the fifth, and then the third is using a variable-ratio schedule. The employee is motivated to increase the frequency of the desired behavior because each performance increases the probability of receiving a reward. Of course, a variable-ratio schedule is difficult (if not impossible) to use for formal rewards such as pay because it would be too complicated to keep track of who was rewarded when.

fixed-interval schedule

Provides reinforcement at fixed intervals of time, such as regular weekly paychecks A good example of this schedule is the weekly or monthly paycheck. This method provides the least incentive for good work because employees know they will be paid regularly regardless of their efforts.

variable interval schedule

Provides reinforcement at varying intervals of time, such as occasional visits by the supervisor This schedule is appropriate for praise or other rewards based on visits or inspections. When employees do not know when the boss is going to drop by, they tend to maintain a reasonably high level of effort all the time.

piece-rate incentive plan

Reward system wherein the organization pays an employee a certain amount of money for every unit she or he produces

Scanlon plan

Similar to gainsharing, but the distribution of gains is tilted much more heavily toward employees employees and the employer have the same goals and thus should appropriately share in incremental economic gains

Leader-member exchange

Stresses that leaders have different kinds of relationships with different subordinates

Expectancy Theory

Suggests that motivation depends on two things—how much we want something and how likely we think we are to get it First, it assumes that behavior is determined by a combination of forces in the individual and in the environment. Second, it assumes that people make decisions about their own behavior in organizations. Third, it assumes that different people have different types of needs, desires, and goals. Fourth, it assumes that people make choices from among alternative plans of behavior, based on their perceptions of the extent to which a given behavior will lead to desired outcomes The model suggests that motivation leads to effort and that effort, combined with employee ability and environmental factors, results in performance. Performance, in turn, leads to various outcomes, each of which has an associated value, called its valence. T

Equity theory

Suggests that people are motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they receive for performance Equity is an individual's belief that the treatment he or she is receiving is fair relative to the treatment received by others. According to equity theory, outcomes from a job include pay, recognition, promotions, social relationships, and intrinsic rewards. To get these rewards, the individual makes inputs to the job, such as time, experience, effort, education, and loyalty. The theory suggests that people view their outcomes and inputs as a ratio and then compare it to someone else's ratio. This other "person" may be someone in the work group or some sort of group average or composite. The process of comparison looks like this: (Individual inputs/ individual outcomes)= (Other inputs / other's outcomes)

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Suggests that people must satisfy five groups of needs in order—physiological, security, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization

ERG theory of motivation

Suggests that people's needs are grouped into three possibly overlapping categories—existence, relatedness, and growth Although the ERG theory assumes that motivated behavior follows a hierarchy in some- what the same fashion as suggested by Maslow, there are two important differences. First, the ERG theory suggests that more than one level of need can cause motivation at the same time. For example, it suggests that people can be motivated by a desire for money (existence), friendship (relatedness), and the opportunity to learn new skills (growth) all at once. Second, the ERG theory has what has been called a frustration-regression element. Thus, if needs remain unsatisfied, the person will become frustrated, regress to a lower level, and begin to pursue those things again. For example, a worker previously motivated by money (existence needs) may have just been awarded a pay raise sufficient to satisfy those needs. Suppose that he then tries to establish more friendships to satisfy relatedness needs. If for some reason he finds that it is impossible to become better friends with others in the workplace, he eventually gets frustrated and regresses to being motivated to earn even more money

Big 5 personality traits

The "Big Five" personality model represents an increasingly accepted framework for understanding personality traits in organizational settings. In general, experts tend to agree that personality traits toward the left end of each dimension, as illustrated in this figure, are more positive in organizational settings, whereas traits closer to the right are less positive.

Power

The ability to affect the behavior of others

Initiating-structure behavior

The behavior of leaders who define the leader- subordinate role so that everyone knows what is expected, establish formal lines of communication, and determine how tasks will be performed

employee centered behavior

The behavior of leaders who develop cohesive work groups and ensure employee satisfaction

consideration behavior

The behavior of leaders who show concern for subordinates and attempt to establish a warm, friendly, and supportive climate

What is locus control?

The degree to which a person believes that his or her behavior has a direct impact on the consequences of that behavior Some people, for example, believe that if they work hard, they will succeed. They also may believe that people who fail do so because they lack ability or motivation. People who believe that individuals are in control of their lives are said to have an internal locus of control. Other people think that fate, chance, luck, or other people's behavior determines what happens to them. For example, an employee who fails to get a promotion may attribute that failure to a politically motivated boss or just bad luck, rather than to her or his own lack of skills or poor performance record. People who think that forces beyond their control dictate what happens to them are said to have an external locus of control.

Risk propensity

The degree to which an individual is willing to take chances and make risky decisions A manager with a high risk propensity, for example, might be expected to experiment with new ideas and gamble on new products. She might also lead the organization in new and different directions. This manager might also be a catalyst for innovation. On the other hand, the same person might also jeopardize the continued well-being of the organization if the risky decisions prove to be bad ones. A manager with low risk propensity might lead to a stagnant and overly conservative organization or help the organization successfully weather turbulent and unpredictable times by maintaining stability and calm. Thus the potential consequences of risk propensity to an organization are heavily dependent on that organization's environment

Need for achievement

The desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the past People with a high need for achievement have a desire to assume personal responsibility, a tendency to set moderately difficult goals, a desire for specific and immediate feedback, and a preoccupation with their task.

Ohio State Studies

The extensive questionnaire surveys conducted during the Ohio State studies also suggested that there are two basic leader behaviors or styles: initiating-structure behavior and consideration behavior At first, the Ohio State researchers thought that leaders who exhibit high levels of both behaviors would tend to be more effective than other leaders. A study at International Harvester (now Navistar International), however, suggested a more complicated pattern. The researchers found that employees of supervisors who ranked high on initiating structure were high performers but expressed low levels of satisfaction and had a higher absence rate. Conversely, employees of supervisors who ranked high on consideration had low performance ratings but high levels of satisfaction and few absences from work. Later research isolated other variables that make consistent prediction difficult and determined that situational influences also occurred.

reward system

The formal and informal mechanisms by which employee performance is defined, evaluated, and rewarded

effort-to-performance expectancy

The individual's perception of the probability that effort will lead to high performance When the person believes that effort will lead directly to high performance, expectancy will be quite strong (close to 1.00). When the person believes that effort and performance are unrelated, the effort-to-performance expectancy is very weak (close to 0). The belief that effort is somewhat but not strongly related to performance carries with it a moderate expectancy (somewhere between 0 and 1.00).

performance-to- outcome expectany

The individual's perception that performance will lead to a specific outcome For example, if the person believes that high performance will result in a pay raise, the performance-to-outcome expectancy is high (approaching 1.00). The person who believes that high performance may lead to a pay raise has a moderate expectancy (between 1.00 and 0). The person who believes that performance has no relationship to rewards has a low performance-to-outcome expec- tancy (close to 0)

Delegate

The manager allows the group to define for itself the exact nature and parameters of the problem and then to develop a solution.

Decide

The manager makes the decision alone and then announces or "sells" it to the group

Consult (group)

The manager presents the problem to group members at a meeting, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision.

Facilitate

The manager presents the problem to the group at a meeting, defines the problem and its boundaries, and then facilitates group member discussion as they make the decision

Consult (individually)

The manager presents the program to group members individually, obtains their suggestions, and then makes the decision

least-preferred coworker (LPC) measure

The measuring scale that asks leaders to describe the person with whom he or she is able to work least well Note in these three examples that the higher numbers are associated with positive qualities (helpful, relaxed, and interesting), whereas the negative qualities (frustrating, tense, and boring) have low point values. A high total score is assumed to reflect a relationship orientation and a low score a task orientation on the part of the leader.

Forming

The members of the group or team get acquainted and begin to test which interpersonal behaviors are acceptable and which are unacceptable to the other members. The members are very dependent on others at this point to provide cues about what is acceptable. The basic ground rules for the group or team are established, and a tentative group structure may emerge. ex: At adidas, for example, a merchandising team was created to handle its sportswear business. The team leader and his members were barely acquainted and had to spend a few weeks getting to know one another

in-group

The model suggests that supervisors establish a special relationship with a small number of trusted subordinates The _______ usually receives special duties requiring responsibility and autonomy; they may also receive special privileges. ______ members have a higher level of performance and satisfaction than do out-group members.

referent power

The personal power that accrues to someone based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charisma It is based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charisma. Followers may react favorably because they identify in some way with a leader, who may be like them in personality, background, or attitudes. most likely to be associated with leadership

Coercive Power

The power to force compliance by means of psychological, emotional, or physical threat In most organizations today, however, coercion is limited to verbal reprimands, written reprimands, disciplinary layoffs, fines, demotion, and termination. Some managers occasionally go so far as to use verbal abuse, humiliation, and psychological coercion in an attempt to manipulate subordinates.

Reward power

The power to give or withhold rewards, such as salary increases, bonuses, promotions, praise, recognition, and interesting job assignments ex: In general, the greater the number of rewards a manager controls and the more important the rewards are to subordinates, the greater is the manager's reward power

The development of a role process

The process begins with the expected role—what other members of the team expect the individual to do. The expected role gets translated into the sent role—the messages and cues that team members use to communicate the expected role to the individual. The perceived role is what the individual perceives the sent role to mean. Finally, the enacted role is what the individual actually does in the role. The enacted role, in turn, influences future expectations of the team. Of course, role episodes seldom unfold this easily. When major disruptions occur, individuals may experience role ambiguity, conflict, or overload

Empowerment

The process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of responsibility and authority ex: work teams 3 conditions: First of all, the organization must be sincere in its efforts to spread power and autonomy to lower levels of the organization. Second, the organization must be committed to maintaining participation and empowerment. Third, workers must truly believe that they and their managers are working together in their joint best interests. In some factory settings, for instance, high-performing workers routinely conceal the secrets of their high output.

Selective perception

The process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs For example, suppose a manager is exceptionally fond of a particular worker. The manager has a very positive attitude about the worker and thinks he is a top performer. One day the manager notices that the worker seems to be goofing off. Selective perception may cause the manager to quickly forget what he observed. Similarly, suppose a manager has formed a very negative image of a particular worker. She thinks this worker is a poor performer and never does a good job. When she happens to observe an example of high performance from the worker, she, too, may not remember it for very long. In one sense, selective perception is beneficial because it allows us to disregard minor bits of information. Of course, this is helpful only if our basic perception is accurate. If selective perception causes us to ignore important information, however, it can become quite detrimental.

role structure

The set of defined roles and interrelationships among those roles that the group members define and accept

Under-rewarded

They will try to reduce the inequity. Such a person might decrease her inputs by exerting less effort, increase her outcomes by asking for a raise, distort the original ratios by rationalizing, try to get the other person to change her or his outcomes or inputs, leave the situation, or change the object of comparison.

Favorableness of the situation

This factor is determined by leader-member relations, task structure, and position power.

Overrewarded

This is not likely to be terribly disturbing to most people, but research suggests that some people who experience inequity under these conditions are somewhat motivated to reduce it. Under such a circumstance, the person might increase his inputs by exerting more effort, reduce his outcomes by producing fewer units (if paid on a per-unit basis), distort the original ratios by rationalizing, or try to reduce the inputs or increase the outcomes of the other person.

Avoidance

Used to strengthen behavior by avoiding unpleasant consequences that would result if the behavior were not performed ex: An employee may come to work on time to avoid a reprimand. In this instance, the employee is motivated to perform the behavior of punctuality to avoid an unpleasant consequence that is likely to follow tardiness.

Extinction

Used to weaken undesired behaviors by simply ignoring or not reinforcing them; especially behavior that has previously been rewarded ex: When an employee tells an inappropriate joke and the boss laughs, the laughter reinforces the behavior and the employee may continue to tell inappropriate jokes. By simply ignoring this behavior and not rein- forcing it, however, the boss may cause the behavior to subside and eventually become "________."

Punishment

Used to weaken undesired behaviors by using negative outcomes or unpleasant consequences when the behavior is performed ex: When an employee is loafing, coming to work late, doing poor work, or interfering with the work of others, the manager might resort to reprimands, discipline, or fines. The logic is that the unpleasant consequence will reduce the likelihood that the employee will choose that particular behavior again. Given the counterproductive side effects of punishment (such as resentment and hostility), though, it is often advisable to use the other kinds of reinforcement if at all possible.

Agreeableness

a person's ability to get along ________ causes some people to be gentle, cooperative, forgiving, understanding, and good- natured in their dealings with others. But it results in others' being irritable, short- tempered, uncooperative, and generally antagonistic toward other people. It would seem likely that highly agreeable people will be better able to develop good working relationships with coworkers, subordinates, and higher-level managers, whereas less agreeable people will not have particularly good working relationships.

Esteem

actually comprise two different sets of needs: the need for a positive self- image and self-respect, and the need for recognition and respect from others. A manager can help address these needs by providing a variety of extrinsic symbols of accomplishment, such as job titles, nice offices, and similar rewards, as appropriate. At a more intrinsic level, the manager can provide challenging job assignments and opportunities for the employee to feel a sense of accomplishment.

task oriented

analogous to job-centered and initiating-structure behavior

Existence needs

correspond to the physiological and security needs

Expert power

derived from information or expertise A manager who knows how to interact with an eccentric but important customer, a scientist who is capable of achieving an important technical breakthrough that no other company has dreamed of, and an administrative assistant who knows how to unravel bureaucratic red tape all have expert power over anyone who needs that information. The more important the information and the fewer the people who have access to it, the greater is the degree of expert power possessed by any one person. In general, people who are both leaders and managers tend to have a lot of expert power

Relatedness needs

focus on how people relate to their social environment.

Participative leader behavior

includes consulting with subordinates, soliciting suggestions, and allowing participation in decision making.

Supportive leader behavior

is being friendly and approachable, showing concern for subordinates' welfare, and treating team members as equals.

Goal specificity

is the clarity and precision of the goal. A goal of "increasing productivity" is not very specific; a goal of "increasing productivity by 3 percent in the next six months" is quite specific. Some goals, such as those involving costs, output, profitability, and growth, are readily amenable to specificity. Other goals, however, such as improving employee job satisfaction, morale, company image and reputation, ethics, and socially responsible behavior, may be much harder to state in specific terms. Like difficulty, specificity has been shown to be consistently related to performance.

Task structure

is the degree to which the group's task is well defined. The task is structured when it is routine, easily understood, and unambiguous, and when the group has standard procedures and precedents to rely on. An unstructured task is non-routine, ambiguous, and complex, with no standard procedures or precedents. You can see that high structure is more favorable for the leader, whereas low structure is less favorable. For example, if the task is unstructured, the group will not know what to do, and the leader will have to play a major role in guiding and directing its activities. If the task is structured, the leader will not have to get so involved and can devote time to nonsupervisory activities

Goal difficulty

is the extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort. If people work to achieve goals, it is reasonable to assume that they will work harder to achieve more difficult goals. But a goal must not be so difficult that it is unattainable.

Goal acceptance

is the extent to which a person accepts a goal as his or her own.

Goal commitment

is the extent to which she or he is personally interested in reaching the goal

Negotiation

is the process in which two or more parties (people or groups) reach agreement on an issue even though they have different preferences regarding that issue. In its simplest form the parties involved may be two individuals who are trying to decide who will pay for lunch.

Directive leader

lets subordinates know what is expected of them, gives guidance and direction, and schedules work.

Achievement-oriented leader

means setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at high levels, encouraging subordinates, and showing confidence in subordinates' abilities.

Security

needs for a secure physical and emotional environment. Examples include the desire for housing and clothing and the need to be free from worry about money and job security. These needs can be satisfied in the workplace by job continuity (no layoffs), insurance and retirement benefit package (for security against illness and provision of income in later life). Even today, however, depressed industries and economic decline can put people out of work and restore the primacy of security needs.

Belongingness

needs relate to social processes. They include the need for love and affection and the need to be accepted by one's peers. These needs are satisfied for most people by family and community relationships outside of work and by friendships on the job. A manager can help satisfy these needs by allowing social interaction and by making employees feel like part of a team or work group.

role overload

occurs when expectations for the role exceed the person's ability to perform

Leadership Grid

provides a means for evaluating leadership styles and then training managers to move toward an ideal style of behavior

Leader-member relations

refer to the nature of the relationship between the leader and the work group If the leader and the group have a high degree of mutual trust, respect, and confidence, and if they like one another, relations are assumed to be good. If there is little trust, respect, or confidence, and if they do not like one another, relations are poor.

individual incentive plan

reward individual performance on a real-time basis. In other words, rather than increasing a person's base salary at the end of the year, the worker instead receives some level of salary increase or financial reward in conjunction with demonstrated outstanding performance in close proximity to when that performance occurred.

relationship oriented

similar to employee-centered and consideration behavior

norms

standards of behavior that the group accepts for and expects of its members

job-centered leader behavior

the behavior of leaders who pay close attention to the job and work procedures involved with that job

Growth needs

the highest level in this schema, include the needs for self-esteem and self-actualization.

Conscientiousness

the number of things a person can effectively work on at one time People who focus on relatively fewer tasks and projects are likely to be organized, systematic, careful, thorough, responsible, and self-disciplined as they work to complete those tasks and projects. Others, however, tend to take on too many tasks and projects and/or to procrastinate and, as a result, are more disorganized, careless, and irresponsible, as well as less thorough and self-disciplined.

Position power

the power vested in the leader's position. If the leader has the power to assign work and to reward and punish employees, position power is assumed to be strong. But if the leader must get job assignments approved by someone else and does not administer rewards and punishment, position power is weak, and it is more difficult to accomplish goals. From the leader's point of view, strong position power is clearly preferable to weak position power. However, position power is not as important as task structure and leader- member relations.

out-group

they receive less of the supervisor's time and attention.

Physiological

things like food, sex, and air, which represent basic issues of survival and biological function. In organizations, these needs are generally satisfied by adequate wages and the work environment itself, which provides rest- rooms, adequate lighting, comfortable temperatures, and ventilation.