MGT 300: EXAM 3 Vocabulary (CH11-CH16)

Feedback barrier—the recipient doesn't respond enough

Example: You give someone driving directions, but since they only nod their heads and don't repeat the directions back to you, you don't really know whether you were understood.

extroversion

how outgoing, talkative, sociable, and assertive a person is

extinction

weakening a behavior by ignoring it or making sure it is not reinforced

punishment

weakening a behavior by presenting something negative or withholding something positive

project teams

- If you have ever completed a team project for a class, you have been part of a project team. - Project teams at work are assembled to solve a particular problem or complete a specific task, such as brainstorming new marketing ideas for one of the company's products. Members can meet just once or work together for many years, depending on the nature of the assignment, and they may meet virtually or face to face. They can come from the same or different departments or functional areas, and while serving on the project team, they continue to fulfill their primary responsibilities.

Is Money the Best Motivator?

- Most workers rate having a caring boss higher than they value monetary benefits, according to several surveys - A recent Jobvite survey of 2,287 U.S. adults showed that about 50 percent were willing to take a 10 percent pay cut to work at a job they found meaningful. *** motivating doesn't just involve money.

Intrinsic rewards—a reward given to yourself.

An intrinsic reward is the satisfaction, such as a feeling of accomplishment, a person receives from performing the particular task itself. An intrinsic reward is an internal reward; the payoff comes from pleasing yourself.

Avoiding

Avoiding is ignoring or suppressing a conflict. It is appropriate for trivial issues, when emotions are high and a cooling-off period is needed, or when the cost of confrontation outweighs the benefits of resolving the conflict.

what do we know about EI?

Daniel Goleman, a psychologist who popularized the trait of EI, concluded that EI is composed of four key components: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management

CONTENT McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory: Achievement, Affiliation, and Power

David McClelland, a well-known psychologist, investigated the needs for affiliation and power and as a consequence proposed the acquired needs theory, which states that three needs—achievement, affiliation, and power—are major motives determining people's behavior in the workplace. McClelland believes that we are not born with our needs; rather, we learn them from the culture—from our life experiences.

4. Expert Power: Influencing Behavior Because of One's Expertise

Expert power is power resulting from one's specialized information or expertise. Expertise, or special knowledge, can be mundane, such as knowing the work schedules and assignments of the people who report to you. Or it can be sophisticated, such as having computer or medical knowledge. Administrative assistants may have expert power because, for example, they have been in a job a long time and know all the necessary contacts. CEOs may have expert power because they have knowledge not shared with many others.

Five Basic Behaviors to Help You Better Handle Conflict

Whatever kind of organization you work for, you'll always benefit from knowing how to manage conflict. There are five basic behaviors that enable you to work on disagreements and keep them from flaring into out-of-control personality conflicts: openness, equality, empathy, supportiveness, and positiveness 1. openness 2. equality 3. empathy 4. supportiveness 5. positiveness

The Need to Manage E-Mail

While texting, social networking, and other forms of electronic and digital communication have begun to reduce the dominance of e-mail, it's predicted that the number of e-mail users worldwide will continue to grow, reaching nearly 4.1 billion people (or 52 percent of the world's population) by 2021. One reason is that so many other communications applications, as well as online shopping sites, require a valid e-mail address for access

semantic problems

a type of noise Even within the same culture, we can encounter semantic problems (problems that revolve around the meaning of words). When a supervisor tells you, "We need to get this done right away," what does it mean? Does "We" mean just you? You and your co-workers? Or you, your co-workers, and the boss? Does "right away" mean today, tomorrow, or next week?

a leader does not equal

a manager

Downsides of Social Media

cyberloafing, security breaches, privacy concerns, and the volume of e-mail.

contingency factors refer to the degree to which individuals want ____________.

personal and psychological development

control

Control is making something happen the way it was planned to happen

Steps in the Control Process (4 steps)

Control systems may be altered to fit specific situations, but generally they follow the same steps. The four control process steps are (1) establish standards; (2) measure performance; (3) compare performance to standards; and (4) take corrective action, if necessary.

controlling

Controlling is defined as monitoring performance, comparing it with goals, and taking corrective action as needed. Controlling is the fourth management function, along with planning, organizing, and leading, and its purpose is plain: to make sure that performance meets objectives.

the fundamental five

guardian - establishing trust navigator - clarifying purpose coach - strengthening people architect - building teams revolutionary - leading change

5 job characteristics

1. skill variety 2. task identity 3. task significance 4. autonomy 5. feedback

1. Physical Barriers: Sound, Time, Space

Try shouting at someone over the roar of earth-moving machinery on a construction site and you know what physical communication barriers are. Other such barriers are time-zone differences, telephone-line static, and crashed computers. Office design can be a physical barrier, too, if it isolates people in cubicles. But privacy does have advantages.

McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory a "control freak"

achievement is normal, but affiliation is small and power is large

McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory a "well-balanced" individual

achievement, affiliation, and power are of equal size

perception

process of interpreting and understanding one's environment

Reinforcement Theory

reinforcement theory, which attempts to explain behavior change by suggesting that behavior with positive consequences tends to be repeated, whereas behavior with negative consequences tends not to be repeated. The use of reinforcement theory to change human behavior is called behavior modification.

Self-Esteem: "I Like/Dislike Myself"

self-esteem, the extent to which people like or dislike themselves, their overall self-evaluation How worthwhile, capable, and acceptable do you think you are?

Employer Productivity benefits to company from social media

- Connect in real time over distance Employees, customers, communities, suppliers, prospective talent, and many others can communicate as needed and while work is being completed. -Collaborate within and outside organization Linking sources of knowledge is a means for realizing the potential of employee diversity and enhancing productivity. Social media are by definition a way of connecting people virtually, so their effective implementation benefits virtual teamwork. -Expand boundaries Social networks can become critical means for organizational innovation and effectiveness, allowing them to utilize knowledge, skills, and experience of people outside (not employed by) the organization.

which guidelines should be followed when giving positive reinforcement?

- be clear about what behavior is desired - give rewards as soon as possible

" IDEO building a better cubicle " video

- exercise in innovation and test to the workplace - to come up with ideas to change cubicles as we know them - think the outrageous " only think of the crazy ideas, go above and beyond" - embrace chaos but there is a method phone cubes in 1st group walls are alive in 2nd group making the cubicle more human cubicle that opens like an umbrella 3rd group in providing very different outrageous concepts, they compared all types and combined them all to make a more personal and more adaptive space a building block system that snaps into one another -computer monitor not on desk - now it is in the wall

positive/negative interpersonal attributes

-Extraversion (+) -Agreeableness (+) -Communication Skills (+) -Emotional Intelligence (+) -Narcissism (-) -Machiavellianism (-) -Psychopathy (-)

Five Dysfunctions of a Team - patrick lencioni

1. Absence of trust 2. Fear of conflict 3. Lack of commitment 4. Avoidance of accountability 5. Inattention to results Addressing Dysfunctions Trustone another Engage in unfiltered conflict Commit to decisions and plans of action Hold one another accountable Focus on achievement of collective results

Nonmonetary Ways of Motivating Employees

1. Flexible workplace 2. Thoughtfulness 3. Work-Life Benefits 4. Surroundings 5. Skill-building and educational opportunities 6. Sabbaticals

6 steps to apply the principles of self-management on a daily basis:

1. Identify Your "Wildly Important" Long-Term Goal 2. Break Your Wildly Important Goal into Short-Term Goals 3. Create a "To-Do" List for Accomplishing Your Short-Term Goals 4. Prioritize the Tasks 5. Create a Time Schedule 6. Work the Plan, Reward Yourself, and Adjust as Needed

Five Sources of Power

1. Legitimate Power 2. Reward Power 3. Coercive Power 4. Expert Power 5. Referent Power

1. Establish Standards: "What Is the Outcome We Want?"

A control standard, or performance standard or simply standard, is the desired performance level for a given goal. Standards may be narrow or broad, and they can be set for almost anything, although they are best measured when they can be made quantifiable.

Financial Statements: Summarizing the Organization's Financial Status

A financial statement is a summary of some aspect of an organization's financial status. The information contained in such a statement is essential in helping managers maintain financial control over the organization.

Fostering a Positive Approach

A positive approach represents a willingness to accept developmental feedback, to try and suggest new ideas, and to maintain a positive attitude at work. Maintaining a positive approach is hard given the hustle and bustle of life and employers' increased expectations for employees.

identity theft

A potentially devastating violation of privacy is identity theft, in which thieves hijack your name and identity and use your good credit rating to get cash or buy thing

Matching the Appropriate Medium to the Appropriate Situation Rich Medium: Best for Nonroutine Situations and to Avoid Oversimplification

A rich medium is more effective with nonroutine situations. Examples: In what way would you like your boss to inform you of a nonroutine change, like the introduction of a new employee benefit? Via a memo tacked on the bulletin board (a lean medium)? Or via a face-to-face meeting or phone call (a rich medium)?

2. The Path-Goal Leadership Model: House's Approach

A second situational approach, advanced by Robert House in the 1970s and revised by him in 1996, is the path-goal leadership model, which holds that the effective leader makes available to followers desirable rewards in the workplace and increases their motivation by clarifying the paths, or behavior, that will help them achieve those goals and providing them with support. A successful leader thus helps followers by tying meaningful rewards to goal accomplishment, reducing barriers, and providing support, so as to increase "the number and kinds of personal payoffs to subordinates for work-goal attainment."120

Social Media Policy

A social media policy describes the who, how, when, and for what purposes of social media use, and the consequences for noncompliance. Such a policy can not only clarify expectations and relieve guilt, but also prevent impulsive or abusive posts and messages that can damage an organization's or an individual's reputation

4. Overemphasis on Paperwork

A specific kind of misdirection of effort is management emphasis on getting reports done, to the exclusion of other performance activity. Reports are not the be-all and end-all. Undue emphasis on reports can lead to too much focus on quantification of results and even to falsification of data. Note that going paperless, while laudable, does not reduce the risk of over-focusing on reporting. 5. Overemphasis on

Using Empathy

Although researchers propose multiple types of empathy, the general consensus is that, as described in the Manage U feature at the start of the chapter, empathy is the ability to recognize and understand another person's feelings and thoughts

Obliging

An obliging or accommodating manager allows the desires of the other party to prevail. This style may be appropriate when it's possible to eventually get something in return or when the issue isn't important to you.

The Elements of Justice Theory: Distributive, Procedural, and Interactional

Beginning in the later 1970s, researchers in equity theory began to expand into an area called organizational justice, which is concerned with the extent to which people perceive they are treated fairly at work. Three different components of organizational justice have been identified: distributive, procedural, and interactional (1) Distributive justice—"How fairly are rewards being given out?" Distributive justice reflects the perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed or allocated. (2) Procedural justice—"How fair is the process for handing out rewards?" Procedural justice is defined as the perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions. (3) Interactional justice—"How fairly am I being treated when rewards are given out?" Interactional justice relates to the "quality of the interpersonal treatment people receive when procedures are implemented."53 This form of justice is not about how decision making or procedures are perceived but rather with whether people themselves believe they are being treated fairly when decisions are implemented. Fair interpersonal treatment necessitates that managers communicate truthfully and treat people with courtesy and respect.

Concurrent Control

Concurrent control entails collecting performance information in real time.

Consideration: "The Concerns and Needs of My Employees Are Highly Important"

Consideration is leader behavior that is concerned with group members' needs and desires and that is directed at creating mutual respect or trust. This is an important type of behavior to use in addition to task leadership because it promotes social interactions and identification with the team and leader. Considerate leader behavior has a moderately strong positive relationship with measures of leadership effectiveness.89

The Balanced Scorecard: A Dashboard-like View of the Organization

David Norton is co-founder of Balanced Scorecard Collaborative. Kaplan and Norton developed what they call the balanced scorecard, which gives top managers a fast but comprehensive view of the organization via four indicators: (1) customer satisfaction, (2) internal processes, (3) innovation and improvement activities, and (4) financial measures. "Think of the balanced scorecard as the dials and indicators in an airplane cockpit," write Kaplan and Norton. For a pilot, "reliance on one instrument can be fatal. Similarly, the complexity of managing an organization today requires that managers be able to view performance in several areas simultaneously."53 It is not enough, say Kaplan and Norton, to simply measure financial performance, such as sales figures and return on investment. Operational matters, such as customer satisfaction, are equally important

Decoding barrier—the recipient doesn't understand the message.

Example: You pulled an all-nighter traveling back from spring break and today your brain is fuzzy and unfocused during class lectures.

What Do Leaders Want in Their Followers?

Followers vary, of course, in their level of compliance with a leader, with helpers (most compliant) showing deference to their leaders, independents (less compliant) distancing themselves, and rebels (least compliant) showing divergence. Leaders clearly benefit from having helpers (and, to some extent, independents). They want followers who are productive, reliable, honest, cooperative, proactive, and flexible. They do not want followers who are reluctant to take the lead on projects, fail to generate ideas, are unwilling to collaborate, withhold information, provide inaccurate feedback, or hide the truth. We give some suggestions on how to be a better follower—and enhance your own career prospects—in the following Practical Action box.

Formal Communication Channels: Up, Down, Sideways, and Outward

Formal communication channels are recognized as official. official communications—memos, letters, reports, announcements—are supposed to be routed. Formal communication is of three types: (1) vertical—meaning upward and downward, (2) horizontal—meaning laterally (sideways), and (3) external—meaning outside the organization.

the wisdom of crowds

FrancisGaltonWest of England Fat Stock and Poultry Exhibition Regis Philbin Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? the wisdom of crowds: why the many are smarter than the few and how collective wisdom shapes business, economies, societies and nations - james surowiecki

CONTENT Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory: From Dissatisfying Factors to Satisfying Factors

Frederick Herzberg arrived at his needs-based theory as a result of a landmark study of 203 accountants and engineers who were interviewed to determine the factors responsible for job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Job satisfaction was more frequently associated with achievement, recognition, characteristics of the work, responsibility, and advancement. Job dissatisfaction was more often associated with working conditions, pay and security, company policies, supervisors, and interpersonal relationships. The result was Herzberg's two-factor theory, which proposed that work satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different factors—work satisfaction from motivating factors and work dissatisfaction from hygiene factors.

Gainsharing

Gainsharing is the distribution of savings or "gains" to groups of employees who reduced costs and increased measurable productivity. Gainsharing has been applied in a variety of industries, from manufacturing to nonprofit, and is said to be used in more than a quarter of Fortune 1,000 companies, as well as many small to mid-size businesses. In one version (the so-called Scanlon plan), a portion of any cost savings, usually 75 percent, is distributed to employees.

Network with a Purpose

Have a purpose for attending networking events. Do you want to reconnect with friends and acquaintances, or do you want to meet new people? What type of people do you want to meet? We encourage you to look for people with common interests who can help you and people whom you can help.243 Research shows that networkers tend to spend the majority of their time with people they already know, so we encourage you to avoid putting pressure on yourself to meet strangers. In support of this conclusion, The Wall Street Journal reported that "a wealth of research suggests that your less-cultivated business acquaintances, or 'weak ties,' have more information, opportunities and potential introductions to share with you than either your close contacts or total strangers."

Burnout

If stress is extreme, burnout can result. Burnout is a state of emotional, mental, and even physical exhaustion, expressed as listlessness, indifference, or frustration. Clearly, the greatest consequence for the organization is reduced productivity. Overstressed employees are apt to call in sick, miss deadlines, take longer lunch breaks, and show indifference to performance. However, some may put in great numbers of hours at work, making an unusual number of mistakes or getting less accomplished than before. They may also feel mentally and emotionally drained, or alienated or underappreciated

4. Supportiveness

Let the other person know you want to find a resolution that will benefit you both. Describe the specifics you have difficulty understanding, without evaluating or judging them. Support the other person's position when it makes sense to do so.

Age: More Older People in the Workforce

Not only are older workers staying in the workforce longer, but a trend called "unretirement" is also becoming more common, say economists. ** Recent studies have found that, thanks to longer life spans, less physical labor on the job, and better health, somewhere between 25 and 40 percent of workers who retire eventually return to the workforce, full- or part-time.

Leader-Member Exchange Leadership: Having Different Relationships with Different Subordinates

Proposed by George Graen and Fred Dansereau, the leader-member exchange (LMX) model of leadership emphasizes that leaders have different sorts of relationships with different subordinates.151 Unlike other models we've described, which focus on the behaviors or traits of leaders or followers, the LMX model looks at the quality of relationships between managers and subordinates. Also, unlike other models, which presuppose stable relationships between leaders and followers, the LMX model assumes each manager-subordinate relationship is unique. This model is one of the most researched approaches to studying leadership, and it has significant practical implications for managers and employees.

Psychopathy

Psychopathy ("sigh-kop-a-thee") is characterized by lack of concern for others, impulsive behavior, and a dearth of remorse when the psychopath's actions harm others. Not surprisingly, a person with a psychopathic personality can be a truly toxic influence in the workplace.

Punishment: Also Weakens Behavior

Punishment is the process of weakening behavior by presenting something negative or withdrawing something positive.

Self-Managing Your Emotions

Self-management reflects the ability to control your emotions and act with honesty and integrity in reliable and adaptable ways. Here are some tips for enhancing this ability Identify your emotional triggers and physiological responses. What words, sayings, or situations cause your emotions to ramp up? Do you get nervous before a presentation or when meeting strangers? Keeping a journal is good way to identify your emotional triggers. Simply take a few minutes during the day to jot down your feelings and what caused them. For example, one of your authors knows that he tends to react emotionally when people use judgmental or derogatory words to describe other people or when someone is lying. His body lets him know because he feels flushed or his heart starts to beat faster. This awareness enables him to notice his "emotionality" and to focus on reducing it. Engage in emotional regulation. Pausing and reflecting is a good solution. When you sense heightened emotions, stop and take a couple of deep breaths. This will relax the emotional brain and engage the thinking brain, thereby allowing you to react in a less emotional manner. Channel your emotions. Letting off steam is fine; just be sure to do it at the right place and time. Venting with a trusted friend is more effective than yelling at someone at work. Exercise is another way to fend off the potential stressors and emotions associated with being busy or overburdened

1. Strategic Control by Top Managers

Strategic control is monitoring performance to ensure that strategic plans are being implemented and taking corrective action as needed. Strategic control is mainly performed by top managers, those at the CEO and VP levels, who have an organizationwide perspectiv

Stage 2: Storming—"Why Are We Fighting over Who's in Charge and Who Does What?"

The second stage, storming, is characterized by the emergence of individual personalities and roles and conflicts within the group. For you as an individual, the question is "What's my role here?" For the group, the issue is "Why are we fighting over who's in charge and who does what?" This stage may be of short duration or painfully long, depending on the goal clarity and the commitment and maturity of the members.

Feedback Control

This form of control is extensively used by supervisors and managers. Feedback control amounts to collecting performance information after a task or project is done.

Need for affiliation—"I need close relationships."

This is the desire for friendly and warm relations with other people.

Need for power—"I need to control others."

This is the desire to be responsible for other people, to influence their behavior or to control them.

Need for achievement—"I need to excel at tasks."

This is the desire to excel, to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, to achieve excellence in challenging tasks

team

Thus, a team is defined as a small group of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable

The Three Innate Needs

To achieve psychological growth, according to the theory, people need to satisfy the three innate (that is, inborn) needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness: (1) Competence—"I want to feel a sense of mastery." People need to feel qualified, knowledgeable, and capable of completing a goal or task and to learn different skills. (2) Autonomy—"I want to feel independent and able to influence my environment." People need to feel they have freedom and the discretion to determine what they want to do and how they want to do it. (3) Relatedness—"I want to feel connected to other people." People need to feel a sense of belonging, of attachment to others.

dark side

We have discussed most positive interpersonal attributes elsewhere, but we need to describe the negative, or "dark side," traits of some leaders: narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. You want to avoid displaying these negative traits because they have a strong negative association with employees' mental health.43

Using Expectancy Theory to Motivate Employees

When attempting to motivate employees, managers should ask the following questions: 1. What rewards do your employees value? As a manager, you need to get to know your employees and determine what rewards (outcomes) they value, such as pay raises or recognition. 2. What are the job objectives and the performance level you desire? You need to clearly define the performance objectives and determine what performance level or behavior you want so that you can tell your employees what they need to do to attain the rewards. 3. Are the rewards linked to performance? You want to reward high performance, of course. Thus, employees must be aware that X level of performance within Y period of time will result in Z kinds of rewards. In a team context, however, research shows that it is best to use a combination of individual and team-based rewards. 4. Do employees believe you will deliver the right rewards for the right performance? Your credibility is on the line here. Your employees must believe that you have the power, the ability, and the will to give them the rewards you promise for the performance you are requesting.

four listening styles

active involved passive detached

formal groups

created to accomplish specific goals. a group assigned by organizations or its managers to accomplish specific goals. A formal group may be a division, a department, a work group, or a committee. It may be permanent or temporary. In general, people are assigned to them according to their skills and the organization's requirements.

an integrated model of motivation

personal factors and contextual factors separately going into "motivation & employee engagement" personal factors: personality ability core self-evaluations emotions attitudes needs values work attitudes contextual factors: organizational culture cross-cultural values physical environment rewards & reinforcement group norms communication tech leader behavior organizational design organizational climate job design

leadership

the ability to influence employees to voluntarily pursue organizational goals leaders have followers

Business skills to maximize the use of organizational assets

why leaders need it: Leaders increasingly need business skills as they advance up through an organization. Three valuable but often-overlooked skills that most people can develop with a little effort are mindfulness, curiosity, and optimism.71

skill variety

"How Many Different Skills Does Your Job Require?" Skill variety describes the extent to which a job requires a person to use a wide range of different skills and abilities. Example: The skill variety required by an executive chef is higher than that for a coffeehouse barista.

Task Significance

"How Many Other People Are Affected by Your Job?" Task significance describes the extent to which a job affects the lives of other people, whether inside or outside the organization.

Autonomy

"How Much Discretion Does Your Job Give You?" Autonomy describes the extent to which a job allows an employee to make choices about scheduling different tasks and deciding how to perform them.

Feedback

"How Much Do You Find Out How Well You're Doing?" Feedback describes the extent to which workers receive clear, direct information about how well they are performing the job.

Motivating factors

"What will make my people satisfied?" The higher-level needs, motivating factors, or simply motivators, are factors associated with job satisfaction—such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, and advancement—all of which affect the job content or the rewards of work performance. Motivating factors—challenges, opportunities, recognition—must be instituted, Herzberg believed, to spur superior work performance.

Hygiene factors

"Why are my people dissatisfied?" The lower-level needs, hygiene factors, are factors associated with job dissatisfaction—such as salary, working conditions, interpersonal relationships, and company policy—all of which affect the job context in which people work. We believe you can satisfy and motivate people by providing good hygiene factors. The Container Store, regularly rated as one of the top companies to work for by Fortune (No. 93 in 2018), is a good example. The company offers paid time off, sick days, and health insurance to part-timers, and its rate of full-time employee turnover, about 16%, is far lower than the industry average of 74.9%

So What Do We Know about the Behavioral Approaches?

(1) A leader's behavior is more important than his or her traits. It is important to train managers on the various forms of task and relationship leadership, and to avoid passive leadership. (2) There is no type of leader behavior that is best suited for all situations. Effective leaders learn how to match their behavior to the situation at hand. We discuss how to do this in the next section.

Applying the Job Characteristics Model

(1) Diagnose the work environment to see whether a problem exists. Hackman and Oldham developed a self-report instrument for managers to use called the job diagnostic survey. This will indicate whether an individual's so-called motivating potential score (MPS)—the amount of internal work motivation associated with a specific job—is high or low. (2) Determine whether job redesign is appropriate. If a person's MPS is low, an attempt should be made to determine which of the core job characteristics is causing the problem. You should next decide whether job redesign is appropriate for a given group of employees. Job design is most likely to work in a participative environment in which employees have the necessary knowledge and skills (3) Consider how to redesign the job. Here you try to increase those core job characteristics that are lower than national norms.

PROCESS Expectancy Theory: How Much Do You Want and How Likely Are You to Get It? 3 COMPONENTS:

(1) Expectancy—"Will I Be Able to Perform at the Desired Level on a Task?" Expectancy is the belief that a particular level of effort will lead to a particular level of performance. This is called the effort-to-performance expectancy. Example: If you believe that putting in more hours studying for this class will result in a higher grade, then you have high effort-to-performance expectancy. That is, you believe that your efforts will matter. (2) Instrumentality—"What Outcome Will I Receive if I Perform at This Level?" Instrumentality is the expectation that successful performance of the task will lead to the outcome desired. This is called the performance-to-reward expectancy. (3) Valence—"How Much Do I Want the Outcome?" Valence is value, the importance a worker assigns to the possible outcome or reward.

Some Practical Results of Goal-Setting Theory

(1) Goals Should Be Specific Goals that are specific and difficult lead to higher performance than general goals like "Do your best" or "Improve performance." This is why it is essential to set specific, challenging goals. Goals such as "Sell as many cars as you can" or "Be nicer to customers" are too vague. Instead, goals need to be specific—usually meaning quantitative, as in "Boost your revenues 25 percent" and "Cut absenteeism by 10 percent. (2) Certain Conditions Are Necessary for Goal Setting to Work People must have the ability and resources needed to achieve the goal, and they need to be committed to the goal. Goal commitment can be fostered by allowing employees to participate in the process of establishing goals. (3) Goals Should Be Linked to Action Plans An action plan outlines the activities or tasks that need to be accomplished in order to obtain a goal and reminds us of what we should be working on. Both individuals (such as college students) and organizations are more likely to achieve their goals when they develop detailed action plans. (4) Performance Feedback and Participation in Deciding How to Achieve Goals Are Necessary but Not Sufficient for Goal Setting to Work Feedback and participation enhance performance only when they lead employees to set and commit to a specific, difficult goal. SMART: specific, measurable, attainable, results-oriented, and having target dates.

learning opportunities can take 3 forms:

(1) Studying co-workers. Managers can see that workers are matched with co-workers from whom they can learn, allowing them, for instance, to "shadow" (watch and imitate) workers in other jobs or be in interdepartmental task forces. (2) Tuition reimbursement. There can also be tuition reimbursement for part-time study at a college or university. (3) Learning and development. According to Training magazine, U.S. companies spent a record $93.6 billion on employee learning and development in 2016, representing the largest annual increase in 31 years.157 Although instructor-led classrooms are still the dominant training method, 28.6 percent of learning hours were spent on online or other computer-based programs, including virtual classrooms and webcasts. Blended learning techniques accounted for about 35 percent of learning hours, and nearly 4 percent were conducted via mobile devices.

McClelland identifies 2 forms of the need for power—personal and institutional.

(1) The negative kind is the need for personal power, as expressed in the desire to dominate others, and involves manipulating people for one's own gratification. (2) The positive kind, characteristic of top managers and leaders, is the desire for institutional power, as expressed in the need to solve problems that further organizational goals.

So What Do We Know about Leadership Traits?

(1) We cannot ignore the implications of leadership traits. Traits play a central role in the way we perceive leaders, and they do ultimately affect leadership effectiveness.73 For instance, focus, confidence, transparency, and integrity were among the top traits listed in a survey of current business leaders, along with patience, openness, and generosity.74Page 549 More specifically, many companies attempt to define leadership traits important for their context. BNSF Railway Company, for example, identified the traits it wanted leaders to exhibit (such as questioning, listening, and being mindful) in pursuit of its sales goals. The company then designed a leadership development program to help its employees learn and apply these traits (2) The positive and "dark triad" traits suggest the qualities you should cultivate and avoid if you want to assume a leadership role in the future. Martha Stewart, founder of a several successful business ventures, admits to being a "maniacal" micromanager, for instance, who needs to "understand every part of the business to be able to maximise those businesses."76 Personality tests and other trait assessments can help evaluate your strengths and weaknesses on these traits. The website for this book contains a host of tests you can take for this purpose. (3) Organizations may want to include personality and trait assessments in their selection and evaluation processes. Among the growing number of companies using psychometric testing are Citigroup, ExxonMobil, Ford Motor, Procter & Gamble, Hewlett-Packard (HP), and J.P. Morgan. (4) Cross-cultural competency is an increasingly valued task-oriented trait. It's also a career readiness competency. As more companies expand their international operations and hire more culturally diverse people for domestic operations in the United States, they want to enhance employees' global mind-set.78 A global mind-set is your belief in your ability to influence dissimilar others in a global context. ●

barriers to communication

(5 types) physical, personal, cross-cultural, nonverbal, and gender differences. If you have ever been served the wrong drink because the server couldn't hear you in a noisy restaurant, clicked on a broken web link, missed your boarding call because the airport's public address system was full of static, or taken offense at a text you later found you misinterpreted, you've experienced a barrier to communication. Some barriers occur within the communication process itself, as shown below.

SUMMARY Process theories focus on the thoughts and perceptions that motivate behavior.

- Equity/justice theory proposes that people seek fairness and justice in their interactions and relationships. - Expectancy theory says people are motivated by how much they want something and how likely they think it is they will get it. - Goal-setting theory says goals that are specific, challenging, and achievable will motivate behavior.

PROCESS Equity/Justice Theory: How Fairly Do You Think You're Being Treated in Relation to Others? COMPONENTS:

- Inputs—"What do you think you're putting into the job?" The inputs that people perceive they give to an organization are their time, effort, training, experience, intelligence, creativity, seniority, status, and so on. - Outputs or rewards—"What do you think you're getting out of the job?" The outputs are the rewards that people receive from an organization: pay, benefits, praise, recognition, bonuses, promotions, status perquisites (corner office with a view, say, or private parking space), and so on. - Comparison—"How do you think your ratio of inputs and rewards compares with those of others?" Equity theory suggests that people compare the ratio of their own outcomes to inputs against the ratio of someone else's outcomes to inputs. When employees compare the ratio of their inputs and outputs (rewards) with those of others—whether co-workers within the organization or even other people in similar jobs outside it—they then make a judgment about fairness. Either they perceive there is equity, and so they are satisfied with the ratio and don't change their behavior, or they perceive there is inequity, and so they feel resentful and act to change the inequity

SUMMARY Content theories emphasize needs as motivators.

- Maslow's hierarchy of needs has five levels to be met in order. - McClelland's acquired needs theory posits three needs, for achievement affiliation, and power. - Deci and Ryan's self-determination theory assumes people seek innate needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness in order to grow. - Herzberg's two-factor theory differentiates hygiene and motivators that determine work satisfaction and dissatisfaction.

Using Acquired Needs Theory to Motivate Employees

- Need for Achievement People motivated by the need for achievement prefer working on challenging, but not impossible, tasks or projects. They like situations in which good performance relies on effort and ability rather than luck, and they like to be rewarded for their efforts. High achievers also want to receive a fair and balanced amount of positive and negative feedback. This enables them to improve their performance. - Need for Power If you, like most effective managers, have a high need for power, that means you enjoy being in control of people and events and being recognized for this responsibility. Accordingly, your preference would probably be for work that allows you to control or have an effect on people and be publicly recognized for your accomplishments. - Need for Affiliation If you tend to seek social approval and satisfying personal relationships, you may have a high need for affiliation. In that case, you may not be the most efficient manager because at times you will have to make decisions that will make people resent you. Instead, you will tend to prefer work, such as sales, that provides for personal relationships and social approval.

Match Tactics to Influence Outcomes

- Rely on the core. Core influence tactics—rational persuasion, consultation, collaboration, and inspirational appeals—are most effective at building commitment. - Be authentic. Don't try to be someone else. Be authentic to your values and beliefs. - Consult rather than legitimate. Some employees are more apt to accept change when managers rely on a consultative strategy and are more likely to resist change when managers use a legitimating tactic. - "Ingratiation" is not a good long-term strategy. Ingratiation improved short-term sales goal achievement but reduced it in the long term in a study of salespeople. Glad handing may help today's sales but not tomorrow's. - Be subtle. Subtle flattery and agreement with the other person's opinion (both forms of ingratiation) were shown to increase the likelihood that executives would win recommendation to sit on boards of directors. - Learn to influence. Research with corporate managers of a supermarket chain showed that influence tactics can be taught and learned. Managers who received 360-degree feedback on two occasions regarding their influence tactics showed an increased use of core influence tactics.

SUMMARY Job design theories focus on designing jobs that lead to employee satisfaction and performance.

- Scientific management theory attempted to fit people to jobs by reducing the number of tasks workers had to perform to achieve a goal. - Job enlargement and job enrichment are ways to fit jobs to people by offering more variety, challenges, and responsibility. - The job characteristics model is an outgrowth of job enrichment that traces the effect of five job characteristics on employees' psychological states and work outcomes.

paraphrasing

-a part of feedback occurs when people restate in their own words the crux of what they heard or read. It clarifies that a message was accurately understood. If you want to ensure that someone understands something you said, ask him or her to paraphrase your message.

The Keys to Your Managerial Success

-adopt a proactive approach to life-long learning -Find your passion and follow it. -Encourage self-discovery, and be realistic. -Every situation is different, so be flexible -Fine-tune your people skills -Learn how to develop leadership skills -Treat people as if they matter, because they do -Draw employees and peers into your management process -Be flexible, keep your cool, and take yourself lightly -Go with the flow, and stay positive.

Machiavellianism

. Inspired by the pessimistic beliefs of Niccolò Machiavelli, a philosopher and writer (The Prince) in the Italian Renaissance, Machiavellianism (pronounced "mah-kyah-vel-yahn-izm") displays a cynical view of human nature and condones opportunistic and unethical ways of manipulating people, putting results over principles. This view is manifested in such expressions as "All people lie to get what they want" and "You have to cheat to get ahead." Like narcissism, Machiavellianism is also associated with counterproductive work behaviors, especially as people begin to understand that they are being coldly manipulated.

Here are five more generic tips for managing your career. They go far beyond having a good résumé.

1. Make Every Day Count 2. Stay Informed and Network 3. Promote Yourself 4. Roll with Change and Disruption 5. Small Things Matter during Interviews

why is control needed?

1. To adapt to change & uncertainty -Markets shift. Consumer tastes change. New competitors appear. Technologies are reborn. New materials are invented. 2. To discover irregularities & errors 3. To reduce costs, increase productivity, or add value 4. To detect opportunities 5. To deal with complexity 6. To decentralize decision making & facilitate teamwork

" miserable at work " video three signs of a miserable job

1. anonymity are you invisible no one is interested in who you are as a person, boss doesn't care 2. irrelevance do you feel your job is meaningful? 3. inmeeasurement can you measure success? am i making a difference for myself? talk to your manager happier employer makes a happier employee and vise versa

what are the elements to building an effective team?

1. collaboration 2. trust 3. performance goals and feedback 4. motivation through mutual accountability and interdependence 5. team composition 6. roles 7. norms 8. effective team processes

Four Key Behaviors of Transformational Leaders

1. inspirational motivation 2. idealized influence 3. individualized consideration 4. intellectual stimulation

positive task-oriented traits

1. intelligence 2. conscientiousness 3. open to experience 4. emotional stability - positive affect

Popular Incentive Compensation Plans

1. pay for performance 2. bonuses 3. profit sharing 4. gainsharing 5. stock options 6. pay for knowledge

tips for effective listening

1. show respect 2. listen from the first sentence 3. be mindful 4. keep quiet 5. ask questions 6. paraphrase and summarize 7. remember what was said 8. involve your body

Barriers to Control Success

1. too much control 2. too little employee participation 3. overemphasis on means instead of ends 4. overemphasis on paperwork 5. overemphasis on one instead of multiple approaches

trait theories four conclusions

1. we cannot ignore the implications of leadership traits 2. the traits suggest the qualities you should cultivate and avoid if you want to assume a leadership role in the future 3. organizations may want to include personality and trait assessments in their selection and evaluation processes 4. a global mind-set is an increasingly valued task-oriented trait

How to Stimulate Constructive Conflict

1.Spur competition among employees. 2.Change the organization's culture and procedures. 3.Bring in outsiders for new perspectives. 4.Use programmed conflict

how to ease anxiety for public speaking

5 And you can do away with a great deal of anxiety about speaking in public by knowing what and how to prepare. For instance, ask ahead of time about who the audience will be, how much time you will be allowed, what technology might be available for incorporating audio or visual material, who else may be speaking, and whether there will be a question-and-answer session afterward. Arrive early and check the room to be sure promised equipment is in place and working

the truth about leading

80% of front-line leaders fail in the job of supervising 40% of new executives fail within the first 18 months Only 13% of companies rate themselves "excellent" in developing leaders

channels used for recruitting

82% of companies used social media 96% used linkedin 66% used facebook 53% used twitter

Using Equity and Justice Theories to Motivate Employees

5 practical lessons can be drawn from equity and justice theories, as follows. (1) Employee Perceptions Are What Count No matter how fair management thinks the organization's policies, procedures, and reward system are, each employee's perception of the equity of those factors is what counts. (2 )Employees Want a Voice in Decisions That Affect Them Managers benefit by allowing employees to participate in making decisions about important work outcomes. In general, employees' perceptions of procedural justice are enhanced when they have a voice in the decision-making process. Voice is defined as "employees' upward expression of challenging but constructive opinions, concerns, or ideas on work-related issues to their managers. -Findings showed that 83 percent of employees desired a voice in improving customer issues, product perceptions, and opportunities for improving the work environment. (3) Employees Should Be Given an Appeals Process Employees who are given the opportunity to appeal decisions that affect their welfare enhance the perceptions of distributive and procedural justice. (4) Leader Behavior Matters Employees' perceptions of justice are strongly influenced by the leadership behavior exhibited by their managers (leadership is discussed in Chapter 14). Thus, it is important for managers to consider the justice-related implications of their decisions, actions, and public communications. (5) A Climate for Justice Makes a Difference Managers need to pay attention to the organization's climate for justice. For example, an aggregation of 38 research studies demonstrated that an organization's climate for justice was significantly related to team performance. Researchers also believe a climate of justice can significantly influence the type of customer service provided by employees. In turn, this level of service is likely to influence customers' perceptions of "fair service" and their subsequent loyalty and satisfaction

Tuckman's Five-Stage Model

5 stages of group/team development 1. forming 2. storming 3. norming 4. performing 5. adjourning

3. Create a "To-Do" List for Accomplishing Your Short-Term Goals

A "to-do" list identifies the daily activities needed to achieve your short-term goals. It is your detailed plan for achieving them. You may want to use task management software to help create and organize your tasks.

The Balance Sheet: Picture of Organization's Financial Worth for a Specific Point in Time

A balance sheet summarizes an organization's overall financial worth—that is, assets and liabilities—at a specific point in time. Assets are the resources that an organization controls; they consist of current assets and fixed assets. Current assets are cash and other assets that are readily convertible to cash within one year's time. Examples are inventory, sales for which payment has not been received (accounts receivable), and U.S. Treasury bills or money market mutual funds. Liabilities are claims, or debts, by suppliers, lenders, and other nonowners of the organization against a company's assets.

Budgets: Formal Financial Projections

A budget is a formal financial projection. It states an organization's planned activities for a given period of time in quantitative terms, such as dollars, hours, or number of products. Budgets are prepared not only for the organization as a whole but also for the divisions and departments within it. The point of a budget is to provide a yardstick against which managers can judge how well they are controlling monetary expenditures. Various software tools are also available to help you manage personal or freelance budgeting, such as QuickBooks and apps like Mint and Venmo.65 Historically, managers have used three budget-planning approaches. Two of them—the planning programming budgeting system and zero base budgeting—are no longer favored and are now infrequently used. The dominant approach today is incremental budgeting

5. Structural Area

A company's structure functions as a control mechanism by specifying a chain of command (identifying who reports to whom) and officially sanctioned communication channels. Two examples are bureaucratic control and decentralized control. 1. Bureaucratic control is an approach to organizational control that is characterized by use of rules, regulations, and formal authority to guide performance. This form of control attempts to elicit employee compliance, using strict rules, a rigid hierarchy, well-defined job descriptions, and administrative mechanisms such as budgets, performance appraisals, and compensation schemes (external rewards to get results). The foremost example of use of bureaucratic control is the traditional military organization. Bureaucratic control works well in organizations in which the tasks are explicit and certain. While rigid, it can be an effective means of ensuring that performance standards are being met. However, it may not be effective if people are looking for ways to stay out of trouble by simply following the rules, or if they try to beat the system by manipulating performance reports, or if they try to actively resist bureaucratic constraints. 2. Decentralized control is an approach to organizational control that is characterized by informal and organic structural arrangements, the opposite of bureaucratic control. This form of control aims to get increased employee commitment, using the corporate culture, group norms, and workers taking responsibility for their performance. Decentralized control is found in companies with a relatively flat organization.

how is a group different from a crowd or an organization?

A group is different from a crowd, a transitory collection of people who don't interact with one another, such as a crowd gathering on a sidewalk to watch a fire. And it is different from an organization, such as a labor union, which is so large that members also don't interact.

Matching the Appropriate Medium to the Appropriate Situation Lean Medium: Best for Routine Situations and to Avoid Overloading

A lean medium is more effective in routine situations. Examples: In what manner would you as a sales manager like to get routine monthly sales reports from your 50 sales reps? Via time-consuming phone calls (a somewhat rich medium)? Or via e-mails or text messages (a somewhat lean medium)? The danger of using a lean medium for nonroutine matters (such as an announcement of a company reorganization) is that it results in information oversimplification—it doesn't provide enough of the information the receiver needs and wants. * E-mail and social media like Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter vary in media richness, being leaner if they impersonally blanket a large audience and are anonymous (or posted under a screen name), and richer if they mix personal textual and video information that prompts quick conversational feedback

Maintenance Roles: Keeping the Team Together

A maintenance role, or relationship-oriented role, consists of behavior that fosters constructive relationships among team members. Maintenance roles foster positive working relationship among team members. If someone at a team meeting says, "Let's hear from those who oppose this plan," he or she is playing a maintenance role. Examples are encouragers, who foster group solidarity by praising various viewpoints; standard setters, who evaluate the quality of group processes; harmonizers, who mediate conflict through reconciliation or humor; and compromisers, who help resolve conflict by meeting others "halfway."

Task Roles: Getting the Work Done

A task role, or task-oriented role, consists of behavior that concentrates on getting the team's tasks done. Task roles keep the team on track and get the work done. If you stand up in a team meeting and say, "What is the real issue here? We don't seem to be getting anywhere," you are performing a task role. Examples: Coordinators, who pull together ideas and suggestions; orienters, who keep teams headed toward their stated goals; initiators, who suggest new goals or ideas; and energizers, who prod people to move along or accomplish more are all playing task roles.

Create a team charter

A team charter outlines how a team will manage teamwork activities. It "represents an agreement among members as to how the team will work as an empowered partnership in making binding decisions and sharing accountability for delivering quality products/services that meet user/customer needs in a timely and cost-efficient way."92 Your author Angelo Kinicki requires teams in his classes to create charters. He does this because research shows team charters are associated with higher, sustained performance, particularly for teams that are low on team conscientiousness

4. Prioritize the Tasks

A to-do list can get overwhelming if you don't organize it. Organize by prioritizing the tasks in the order in which you need to complete them. Prioritizing in this way enables you to schedule your time to maximize your efficiency and smooth your achievement of interdependent tasks. ** There is one common error to avoid during this step. Research shows that people tend to work on "easy to complete" tasks rather than harder ones as a task list grows. This strategy actually makes you less productive because easier tasks are generally not as important as more difficult or time-consuming tasks. One useful suggestion is to rank the tasks from (1) for low importance to (5) for high importance.

Managerial Leadership: Can You Be Both a Manager and a Leader?

Absolutely. The latest thinking is that individuals are able to exhibit a broad array of the contrasting behaviors shown in Table 14.1 (a concept called behavioral complexity). Thus, in the workplace, many people are capable of exhibiting managerial leadership, defined as "the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives." Here, the "influencing" part is leadership and the "facilitating" part is management. Managerial leadership may be demonstrated not only by managers appointed to their positions, but also by those who exercise leadership on a daily basis but don't carry formal management titles (such as certain co-workers on a team).

The Need to Expand Skills

According to a recent Gallup poll, "87% of millennials rate 'professional or career growth and development opportunities' as important to them in a job—far more than the 69% of non-millennials who say the same Young workers in particular, having watched their parents undergo downsizing, are apt to view a job as a way of gaining skills that will enable them to earn a decent living in the future. Employers have another point of view: They see it as developing human capital, is the economic or protective potential of employee knowledge, experience, and actions

how the job characteristic model works

According to the job characteristics model, these five core characteristics affect a worker's motivation because they affect three critical psychological states: meaningfulness of work, responsibility for results, and knowledge of results. In turn, these positive psychological states fuel high motivation, high performance, high satisfaction, and low absenteeism and turnover. Research shows that experienced meaningfulness is the most important psychological stat

active listening and being an effective listener

Actively listening, truly listening, requires more than just hearing, which is merely the physical component. Active listening is the process of actively decoding and interpreting verbal messages. Active listening requires full attention and processing of information, which hearing does not.

active listening

Active—I'm fully invested. active listeners are "all in." They are motivated to listen and give full attention when others are talking. They focus on what is being communicated and expend energy by participating in the discussion. They put their phone away, withhold judgment, and listen silently. They also use positive body language, such as leaning in or making direct eye contact, to convey their interest

Using Equity Theory to Motivate Employees

Adams suggests that employees who feel they are being underrewarded will respond to the perceived inequity in one or more negative ways, as by reducing their inputs ("I'm just going to do the minimum required"), trying to change the outputs or rewards they receive ("If they won't give me a raise, I'll just take stuff"), distorting the inequity ("They've never paid me what I'm worth"), changing the object of comparison ("They think I don't work as hard as Bob? He's a slacker compared to Sid"), or leaving the situation ("I'm outta here!"). By contrast, employees who think they are treated fairly are more likely to support organizational change, more apt to cooperate in group settings, and less apt to turn to arbitration and the courts to remedy real or imagined wrongs

Write down your priorities.

All good leaders identify what must get done and then allocate time and resources to get those goals accomplished. Self-awareness begins with identifying your top priorities for the next day, week, month, and year. The clarity you can gain from this practice enables you to target your efforts and resources on things that truly matter. It also helps you make decisions that support important goals while minimizing time spent on activities that are not consistent with your primary interests.

Statistical Process Control: Taking Periodic Random Samples

All kinds of products require periodic inspection during their manufacture: hamburger meat, breakfast cereal, flashlight batteries, wine, and so on. The tool often used for this is statistical process control, a statistical technique that uses periodic random samples from production runs to see if quality is being maintained within a standard range of acceptability. If quality is not acceptable, production is stopped to allow corrective measures. Statistical process control is the technique that McDonald's uses, for example, to make sure that the quality of its burgers is always the same, no matter where in the world they are served. Companies such as Intel and Motorola use statistical process control to ensure the reliability and quality of their products.

Dominating

Also known as "forcing," dominating is simply ordering an outcome, when a manager relies on his or her formal authority and power to resolve a conflict. It is appropriate when an unpopular solution must be implemented and when it's not important that others commit to your viewpoint.

Variable budgets—where resources are varied in proportion with various levels of activity.

Also known as a flexible budget, a variable budget allows the allocation of resources to vary in proportion with various levels of activity. That is, the budget can be adjusted over time to accommodate pertinent changes in the environment. For example, you might have a budget that allows you to hire temporary workers or lease temporary equipment if production exceeds certain levels.

fixed budgets —where resources are allocated on a single estimate of costs.

Also known as a static budget, a fixed budget allocates resources on the basis of a single estimate of costs. That is, there is only one set of expenses; the budget does not allow for adjustment over time. For example, you might have a budget of $50,000 for buying equipment in a given year—no matter how much you may need equipment exceeding that amount.

Pay for knowledge

Also known as skill-based pay, pay for knowledge ties employee pay to the number of job-relevant skills or academic degrees they earn.139 Example: The teaching profession is a time-honored instance of this incentive, in which elementary and secondary teachers are encouraged to increase their salaries by earning further college credit. However, firms such as FedEx also have pay-for-knowledge plans.

hand gestures

An experimental study demonstrated the power of using positive, defensive, or no hand gestures when communicating. Participants were shown a video of a leader giving a speech while displaying either positive (community hands—palms facing up, humility—hands clasped at waist level, and steepling—hands form a steeple with fingertips touching), defensive (hands in pockets, crossed arms, hands clasped behind the back), or no hand gestures (keeping hands at one's side). They then rated the extent to which they liked the leader and their positive emotions toward the person. Results showed that people had more positive reactions and emotions toward leaders employing positive hand gestures. * But keep in mind that interpretations of body language can depend on context and culture. For instance, waving your hand with your palm facing away from you means "good-bye" in the United States but "come here" in Korea

External Audits—Financial Appraisals by Outside Financial Experts

An external audit is a formal verification of an organization's financial accounts and statements by outside experts. The auditors are certified public accountants (CPAs) who work for an accounting firm (such as PricewaterhouseCoopers) that is independent of the organization being audited. Their task is to verify that the organization, in preparing its financial statements and in determining its assets and liabilities, followed generally accepted accounting principles

Extrinsic rewards—a reward given by others

An extrinsic reward is the payoff, such as money, a person receives from others for performing a particular task. Motivation is driven by receiving a valued reward from another person or entity

Internal Audits—Financial Appraisals by Inside Financial Experts

An internal audit is a verification of an organization's financial accounts and statements by the organization's own professional staff. Their jobs are the same as those of outside experts—to verify the accuracy of the organization's records and operating activities. Internal audits also help uncover inefficiencies and thus help managers evaluate the performance of their control systems.

Reduced Cycle Time: Increasing the Speed of Work Processes

Another TQM technique is the emphasis on increasing the speed with which an organization's operations and processes can be performed. This is known as reduced cycle time, or reduction in steps in a work process, such as fewer authorization steps required to grant a contract to a supplier. The point is to improve the organization's performance by eliminating wasteful motions, barriers between departments, unnecessary procedural steps, and the like.

jargon

Another language barrier is jargon. Jargon is terminology specific to a particular profession or group. (Example: "The HR VP wants the RFP to go out ASAP." Translation: "The vice president of human resources wants the request for proposal to go out as soon as possible.") Buzzwords are designed to impress rather than inform. (Example: "Could our teams interface on the ad campaign that went viral, and then circle back with the boss?"

4. Financial Area

Are bills being paid on time? How much money is owed by customers? How much money is owed to suppliers? Is there enough cash on hand to meet payroll obligations? What are the debt-repayment schedules? What is the advertising budget? Clearly, the organization's financial controls are important because they can affect the preceding three areas

How to Stimulate Constructive Conflict

As a manager you are being paid not just to manage conflict but even to create some, where it's constructive and appropriate, in order to stimulate performance. Constructive conflict, if carefully monitored, can be very productive under a number of circumstances: when your work group seems afflicted with inertia and apathy, resulting in low performance; when there's a lack of new ideas and resistance to change; when there seem to be a lot of yes-men and yes-women (expressing groupthink) in the work unit; when there's high employee turnover; or when managers seem unduly concerned with peace, cooperation, compromise, consensus, and their own popularity rather than in achieving work objectives.

Transactional Leadership: "Here's What We Do to Get the Job Done, and Here Are the Rewards"

As a manager, your power stems from your ability to provide rewards (and threaten reprimands) in exchange for your subordinates' doing the work. When you do this, you are performing transactional leadership, focusing on clarifying employees' roles and task requirements and providing rewards and punishments contingent on performance. Like initiating-structure leadership, transactional leadership also encompasses setting goals and monitoring progress.83

dale carnegie for presentations

As for the content of your presentation, Dale Carnegie's classic advice still holds: (1) Tell them what you're going to say. (2) Say it. (3) Tell them what you said 1. tell them what you're going to say -The introduction should take 5 percent-15 percent of your speaking time, and it should prepare the audience for the rest of the speech 2. say it - The main body of the speech takes up 75 percent-90 percent of your time. The most important thing to realize is that your audience won't remember more than a few points anyway. Choose them carefully and cover them as succinctly as possible. Needless to say, your success rests largely on how well you deliver this part of the speech. Be sure you have done your homework. Speak about what you know best, understand your audience's point of view and preconceptions, and check and recheck your facts. These preparatory steps enhance your confidence and ensure you have credibility with your listeners. When you practice this part of your presentation, be particularly attentive to transitions during the main body of the speech. Listening differs from reading in that the listener has only one chance to get your meaning. Thus, be sure you constantly provide your listeners with guidelines and transitional phrases so they can see where you're going. 3. tell them what you said - The end might take 5 percent-10 percent of your time. Many professional speakers consider the conclusion to be as important as the introduction, so don't drop the ball here. You need a solid, strong, persuasive wrap-up. Use some sort of signal phrase that cues your listeners that you are heading into your wind-up. Examples: "Let's review the main points . . ." "In conclusion, what CAN you do to protect against unauthorized invasion of your private files? I point out five main steps. One . . ." Give some thought to the last thing you will say. It should be strongly upbeat, a call to action, a thought for the day, a little story, a quotation.

2. Too Little Employee Participation

As highlighted by W. Edwards Deming, which was discussed in Chapter 2, employee participation can enhance productivity. Involving employees in both the planning and the execution of control systems can bring legitimacy to the process and heighten employee morale.

Audits: External versus Internal

Audits are formal verifications of an organization's financial and operational systems. external and internal you can imagine that audits of medium and large companies entail collecting, analyzing, and interpreting large amounts of information. Because of this, more and more companies are using data analytics to conduct audits; we discussed data analytics in Chapter 7. Regarding the use of analytics, one expert concluded, "The use of analytics in the audit process results in better audit planning, focus, and recommendations

2. Personal Barriers: Individual Attributes That Hinder Communication

Because communication is a perceptual process in which people use different frames of reference and experiences to interpret the world around them, they are selective about what things have meaning to them and what don't. These differences affect what we say and what we think we hear. Some believe technology is changing the very way we communicate, with clicks and swipes substituting for words as people engage in multiple conversations at once, only one of which might be taking place in person What differentiates effective communicators, according to communications expert Zamira Jones, is their understanding that ensuring the receiver's correct interpretation of the intended message is up to the sender. "Effective communication is defined by the receiver. If your receiver fails to understand your message, it is your fault, not theirs.

5. Positiveness

Be positive about the other person and your relationship. Express your willingness to work toward a resolution that will be feasible for everyone. Before beginning to try to adopt these behaviors preparatory to dealing with a dispute, you should also try to be aware of your customary conflict-handling style with Self-Assessment 13.5 on the next page.

Benchmarking

Benchmarking is a way to measure something against a standard, the benchmark. Companies use internal benchmarks to set performance standards, competitive benchmarking to assess themselves against their competitors, and strategic benchmarking when they are ready to look outside their industry, such as when adopting Six Sigma, to learn from world-class performers wherever they are. As a personal tool, benchmarking is a useful way to measure your own growth as an employee and eventually as a manager. At the most basic level, for instance, you can look at colleagues and fellow team members who are valued by the organization and measure your own performance against theirs. What is each person particularly good at? Perhaps someone in your group is always asked to prepare the project report because he has excellent writing skills. Or you may notice a manager who is always the first one in the room for a scheduled meeting, ready to start on time and prepared with an insightful question. As we mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, you can also Page 670think of your mentor as someone against whose (likely high) standards of performance and expertise you can benchmark yourself. Using these benchmarks as gauges to measure your own growth and development at work, you can look for ways to improve your technical and interpersonal skills.

Bonuses

Bonuses are cash awards given to employees who achieve specific performance objectives.

bored or tired?

Bored or tired? People's behavior doesn't always reflect what's going on around them. It may reflect what's going on inside of them. Perhaps this man on the right was up late the night before with a sick child or working to meet a project deadline. Even so, when speaking, you need to watch your audience for their reactions.

4. Roll with Change and Disruption

Careers rarely follow an organized trajectory. It's more likely your career will have tributaries, roundabouts, and personal diversions. Experts suggest that people change jobs 10 to 15 times over a career, with an average of 12.159 These changes are either voluntary, such as moving for a better opportunity, or involuntary, such as being fired or laid off. If you move voluntarily, congratulations! You now have the opportunity to reinvent yourself. If the departure is not by choice, you'll likely feel disappointed, angry, or humiliated. Give yourself time to recover. Job loss is one of the most stressful life events we experience.160 It's essential to learn from the situation and put bitterness behind you. No recruiter wants to hear job applicants bad-mouth previous employers.

3. Coercive Power: Influencing Behavior by Threatening or Giving Punishment

Coercive power, which all managers have, results from managers' authority to punish their subordinates. Punishment can range from verbal or written reprimands to demotions to terminations. In some lines of work, fines and suspensions may be used. Coercive power has to be used judiciously, of course, since a manager who is seen as being constantly negative will produce a lot of resentment among employees. Before Alan Mulally took over at Ford Motor Co., for instance, the expectation fostered by a culture of blame at the firm was that any manager who had bad news to report would be fired. Mulally's corrective action was to say a manager had a problem, not that he or she was the problem.26

the most essential considerations in building a group into an effective team

Collaboration Trust Performance Motivation Composition Roles Norms

1. Collaboration—the Foundation of Teamwork

Collaboration is the act of sharing information and coordinating efforts to achieve a collective outcome. As you might expect, teams are more effective when members collaborate. Collaboration is the secret sauce enabling teams to produce more than the sum of their parts. Many factors can influence collaboration, including how teams are rewarded. For example, Whole Foods reinforces teamwork in its team-based structure by focusing rewards on team rather than individual performance

Managerial Implications of Texting

Common sense says that a colleague or customer standing in front of you or talking to you by phone or videoconference deserves your full and immediate attention, while the person texting you about your plans for the evening can wait. But texting does have some legitimate workplace applications. How can managers best make use of its capabilities? Many feel that those who deal directly with customers should not be texting at work. A cashier, a crossing guard, a customer service rep, and a salesperson—not to mention a cab or bus driver—are good examples of employees whose phones should be tucked in a bag or a drawer at all times.194 At the same time, some very limited use of texting for personal reasons at work, in the right time and place, can be a big help in increasing work-life balance and relieving stress If texting is an integral part of your workplace communications—not least because it can reduce costs and eliminate the time phone customers spend waiting on hold

Communication has been said to be a process consisting of

Communication has been said to be a process consisting of "a sender transmitting a message through media to a receiver who responds

Communication

Communication—the transfer of information and understanding from one person to another—is an activity that you as a manager will have to do a lot.

Stretch goals

Companies committed to break-out growth sometimes adopt stretch goals, which are goals beyond what they actually expect to achieve. Rationales for stretching include forcing people out of their comfort zones to achieve more, building their confidence when they succeed, insulating the company against future setbacks, and accepting the challenge of higher performance standards. -- Other managers find, however, that this type of goal has drawbacks and should be used with care. For example, stretch goals can demotivate employees because they set aims that seem unattainable, they can encourage unethical behavior as employees try to reach the goals in whatever way they can, and they can lead companies to take unnecessary risks

Learn your strengths and weaknesses

Completing self-assessments like the ones featured in this textbook and studying the feedback is a good first step. Because self-assessments can be positively biased, you should also ask family, friends, colleagues, and mentors for feedback. They observe you on a regular basis and can be a good source of information, especially when you let them know it's safe to give you really honest feedback. If there is a particular behavior you really want to change, ask a trusted person to let you know every time you exhibit it.

what is conflict

Conflict, an enduring feature of the workplace, is a process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party. Conflict can be negative (bad) or functional (good). Indeed, either too much or too little conflict can affect performance. This section identifies four sources of conflict in organizations and describes four ways to stimulate constructive conflict.

Avoid the Dunning-Kruger effect.

Consider the following statements: "If I was just intelligent, I'd be okay. But I am fiercely intelligent, which most people find very threatening" (actress Sharon Stone). "People the world over recognize me as a great spiritual leader" (actor Steven Seagal). Most overly gifted people do not go around boasting like this. You never heard Albert Einstein, for example, tell people that he was "fiercely intelligent.

2. Improvement Orientation—Focusing Everyone on Continuously Improving Work Processes

Continuous improvement is defined as ongoing, small, incremental improvements in all parts of an organization—all products, services, functional areas, and work processes. Kia Motors, the Korean car maker that has sold autos in the United States for about 20 years, has worked hard to establish a reputation for quality. Its Global Command and Control Center monitors live feeds from all its assembly plants in real time from South Korea, and production is limited to 7 million cars a year to ensure that quality remains high. Said one industry analyst about Kia's parent firm Hyundai, "All the people I meet at Hyundai are hell-bent on making sure quality is getting better all the time. This special mind-set . . . says that 'we will be best at what we do, wherever we go and whatever it takes. * This improvement orientation focuses on increasing operational performance and makes the following assumptions - It's less expensive to do it right the first time. TQM assumes that it's better to do things right the first time than to do costly reworking. To be sure, creating high-quality products and services requires a costly investment in training, equipment, and tools, for example. But it is less expensive than dealing with poor quality and the poor customer relationships that result. - It's better to make small improvements all the time. This is the assumption that continuous improvement must be an everyday matter, that no improvement is too small, that there must be an ongoing effort to make things better a little bit at a time all the time. At Daimler, for instance, finished cars are packed so tightly together in storage yards that it's difficult for workers to read the RFID (radio frequency identification) tags used to control inventory. That's where drones come in, reading the tags quickly and inexpensively and at any hour when humans are not in the lot. The next small improvement? Smaller drones.92 - Accurate standards must be followed to eliminate small variations. TQM emphasizes the collection of accurate data throughout every stage of the work process. It also stresses the use of accurate standards (such as benchmarking) to evaluate progress and eliminate small variations, which are the source of many quality defects. - There must be strong commitment from top management. Employees and suppliers won't focus on making small, incremental improvements unless managers go beyond lip service to support high-quality work, as do the top managers at Ritz-Carlton, Amazon.com, and Ace Hardware

1. They Are Strategic and Results Oriented

Control systems support strategic plans and are concentrated on significant activities that will make a real difference to the organization. Thus, when managers are developing strategic plans for achieving strategic goals, that is the point at which they should pay attention to developing control standards that will measure how well the plans are being achieved.132 Example: Companies whose strategies include a commitment to sustainable methods can be guided by standards set by the Sustainability Accounting Standards Board, which sets reporting guidelines for "[disclosing] sustainability performance information to stakeholders."133

1. Financial Perspective: "How Do We Look to Shareholders?"

Corporate financial strategies and goals generally fall into two buckets: revenue growth and productivity growth. Revenue growth goals might focus on increasing revenue from both new and existing customers. Equipment manufacturer John Deere, for instance, is pursuing new revenue by developing software services that provide information and guidance to farmers in the field. It is doing this to offset a recent 5 percent decrease in revenue.55 Productivity metrics like revenue per employee or total output produced divided by number of employees are common organization-level goals. We can also measure productivity in terms of costs. For example, Bob Evans Farms Inc. is closing 27 underperforming restaurants in an attempt to decrease costs and improve profitability

Employment Recruiting and Social Media

Craig Fisher, head of employer brand at software firm CA Technologies and CEO of TalentNet, agrees that it's easier to find people with specific skill sets with social media tools. Managers should be savvy, however. Says Fisher, they should "keep good content flowing that is helpful to their social communities and avoid just 'asking' all the time, so that when candidates see these ads and check out the company, they see a helpful resource and interesting culture. On the job applicant's side, 59 percent used social media to conduct research on companies of interest, and they preferred Facebook (67 percent) over Twitter (35 percent).116 As you probably know, most company websites have a "Jobs" or "Employment" tab where interested job seekers can search and apply for open positions. Beyond this fairly simple interaction, you also can customize your searches on job posting sites like Monster and Indeed.com and apply directly to the hiring firm, attaching résumés, writing samples, links to blogs and videos, and other pertinent information. Companies can also post jobs on industry-specific hosting and social networking platforms, like GitHub (software developers), Dribble (web designers),117 and Mediabistro (media professionals). More than 60,000 jobs are tweeted on Monster every day.118 And according to Career Builder's website, 52 percent of companies check out potential hires' social media pages, including their sometimes unguarded profiles on Facebook and LinkedIn

cross-functional teams

Cross-functional teams are designed to include members from different areas within an organization, such as finance, operations, and sales. Cross-functional teams can serve any purpose, they can be work teams or project teams, and their assignment can be long- or short-term.

3. Cross-Cultural Barriers

Culture "encompasses the ideas, values, practices, and material objects that allow a group of people, even an entire society, to carry out their collective lives in relative order and harmony Because the norms and beliefs of our culture are so deeply ingrained in our thoughts and behaviors, culture naturally affects the way we communicate, both with those who share that culture and especially with those from other cultures. One obvious reason is that language differences often exist. For example, jokes and humor are very much linked to culture.69 One of your authors found that good American jokes don't necessarily get laughs in Europe, Asia, and Scandinavia. Even the United States and Great Britain, whose cultures share many elements, are often said to be "two countries divided by a common language" (an ironic observation often attributed to the British playwright George Bernard Shaw). Other causes of cultural differences that can impede communication are nonverbal signs and symbols (such as crossed fingers or thumbs-up, which mean very different things around the world), prejudice and bias, religious and other beliefs, and the tendency to value our own culture above all others, called ethnocentrism

Sender barrier — no message gets sent.

Example: If a manager has an idea but is afraid to voice it because he or she fears criticism, then obviously no message gets sent.

Face-to-Face Communication

Despite the entrenched use of quick and efficient electronic communication in our lives, face-to-face conversation is still justifiably a major part of most people's work day. Employees value authentic human contact with the boss and welcome the implication that their manager cares about them. Face time builds relationships and trust, shows respect for employees as individuals, and thus is highly motivating. Netflix CEO Reed Hastings doesn't have an office at all. "I just had no need for it," he says. "It is better for me to be meeting people all around the building."29 And as one writer noted, while Millennials may spend a lot of time texting, a major reason is that they're making plans to get together in person

detached listening

Detached—I'm uninterested. Detached listeners tend to withdraw from the interaction. They appear inattentive, bored, distracted, and uninterested. They may start using mobile devices during the speaking-listening exchange. Their body language will reflect lack of interest, such as slumping and avoiding direct eye contact. It is all too easy to tune out an unimaginative PowerPoint presentation during a meeting, for example.

CONTENT Deci and Ryan's Self-Determination Theory: Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness

Developed by Edward Deci (pronounced "Dee-see") and Richard Ryan, psychologists at the University of Rochester, self-determination theory assumes that people are driven to try to grow and attain fulfillment, with their behavior and well-being influenced by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness`

JOB DESIGN The Job Characteristics Model: Five Job Attributes for Better Work Outcomes

Developed by researchers J. Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham, the job characteristics model of design is an outgrowth of job enrichment.108 The job characteristics model consists of (a) five core job characteristics that affect (b) three critical psychological states of an employee that in turn affect (c) work outcomes—the employee's motivation, performance, and satisfaction

Becoming More Self-Aware

Developing self-awareness is not just an intellectual exercise. It entails understanding who you are and what you stand for. It requires thinking about your life vision, values, personality, needs, behavioral tendencies, and social skills. One expert summarized the power of self-awareness by concluding that it provides "the ability to lead with a sense of purpose, authenticity, openness, and trust.

Encoding barrier — the message is not expressed correctly.

Example: If people have a different first language the meaning of words can be misinterpreted.

Medium barrier—the communication channel is blocked.

Example: When a computer network is down, the network is an example of a blocked medium.

Faulty Listening Skills

Do you find your mind wandering over the course of a day? Do you forget people's names shortly after meeting them? These are signs of mindlessness. Mindlessness is a state of reduced attention. It is expressed in behavior that is rigid, or thoughtless.58 Life's dynamics put all of us into occasional states of mindlessness. Our brains simply can't keep up with all the stimuli we receive, according to noted psychiatrist Edward Hallowell. "Never in history has the human brain been asked to track so many data points," Hallowell says. He believes overloading of our brains is a primary cause of poor listening and poor performance at school and work. "We're simply expecting more of our brains than they have the energy to handle."59 Another barrier to listening, ironically, is cell phones. If we're looking at our screens all the time, how can we really be listening to those who are right before us?

4. Motivation through Mutual Accountability and Interdependence

Do you work harder when you're alone or when you're in a group? When clear performance goals exist, when the work is considered meaningful, when members believe their efforts matter, and when they don't feel they are being exploited by others—this kind of culture supports teamwork.71 Being mutually accountable to other members of the team rather than to a supervisor makes members feel mutual trust and commitment—a key part in motivating members for team effort. Mutual accountability is fostered by having team "members share accountability for the work, authority over how goals are met, discretion over resource use, and ownership of information and knowledge related to the work. Do you like it when your performance is contingent on someone else's efforts? Your answer reflects your experience with team member interdependence. Team member interdependence reveals the extent to which team members rely on common task-related team inputs, such as resources, information, goals, and rewards, and the amount of interpersonal interactions needed to complete the work.73 A recent study of more than 7,000 teams showed that interdependence affects team functioning, which in turn influences team performance.74 The key takeaway from this study is reinforcement of the need for team leaders to monitor the quality of team member interdependence.

two conditions needed for social media to create positive outcomes

Don't assume that the mere use of social media automatically results in more sales and brand recognition. Recent research suggests that social media won't create positive outcomes unless two conditions are present.143 First, the company must possess both competence in social media skills and technology and commitment in the form of dedicated resources. Second, a successful social media strategy requires consumers or customers with social media skills. A PR specialist writing in Forbes suggests companies should also make sure their messages are relevant, timely, and surprising and that marketers should track their results to learn what works

Downward communication—from top to bottom.

Downward communication flows from a higher level to a lower level (or levels). In small organizations, top-down communication may be delivered face-to-face. In larger organizations, it's delivered via meetings, e-mail, official memos, company publications, and town hall meetings.

The U.S. Productivity Track Record

During the 1960s, productivity in the United States averaged a hefty 2.9 percent a year, then sank to a disappointing 1.5 percent right up until 1995. Because the decline in productivity no longer allowed Page 669the improvement in wages and living standards that had benefited so many U.S. workers in the 1960s, millions of people took second jobs or worked longer hours to keep from falling behind. From 1995 to 2000, however, during the longest economic boom in U.S. history, the productivity rate jumped to 2.5 percent annually, as the total output of goods and services rose faster than the total hours needed to produce them. From the business cycle peak in the first quarter of 2001 to the end of 2007, productivity grew at an annual rate of 2.7 percent

Receiver barrier—no message gets received.

Example: Because you were texting during a class lecture, you weren't listening when the professor announced a new assignment due to tomorrow.

Become a More Effective Collaborator

Earlier we defined collaboration as the act of sharing information and coordinating efforts to achieve a collective outcome. Collaboration is essential for teamwork, but it isn't the same thing as teamwork. Teamwork requires some formal structure such as a team leader, agendas for meetings, and organization. Collaboration is more spontaneous, less structured, and less hierarchical. You don't need an agenda item that says "collaborate." Here are some tips for becoming a more effective collaborator. (1) Listen and learn. Author Ken Blanchard said it well: "None of us is as smart as all of us." You can't get the best from people if you don't encourage them to share their ideas, opinions, and beliefs. You may not agree with them, but people need to be heard. Remember that sharing different perspectives is essential for collaboration.128 Listening is the flip side of talking. Active listening requires effort and motivation. You can improve your listening by: withholding judgment, asking questions, showing respect, keeping your concentration and focus in the present moment, and remaining quiet. (2) Be open-minded. You can't collaborate if you aren't open to others' ideas. You won't get the benefit of your teammates' experience and knowledge if you fail to consider their input. Being open also requires you to stop trying to impress others by having the best or brightest ideas. Just contribute what you can and let the team decide what ideas work best

Concentrate on the Content of the Message

Effective listening is a learned skill, so it takes energy and desire to develop it. Basically, however, it comes down to paying attention to the content of the message.

Empowering Leadership: "I Want My Employees to Feel They Have Control over Their Work"

Empowering leadership represents the extent to which a leader creates perceptions of psychological empowerment in others. Psychological empowerment is employees' belief that they have control over their work. Empowering leadership was found to have positive effects on performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and creativity for individuals and teams.90 Let's see how this process works. Increasing employee psychological empowerment requires four kinds of behaviors—leading for (1) meaningfulness, (2) self-determination, (3) competence, and (4) progress.

PROCESS Equity/Justice Theory: How Fairly Do You Think You're Being Treated in Relation to Others?

Equity theory is a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships. Pioneered by psychologist J. Stacey Adams, equity theory is based on the idea that employees are motivated to see fairness in the rewards they expect for task performance and are motivated to resolve feelings of injustice. -extension of equity theory into what is called justice theory.

Ethical Leadership: "I Am Ready to Do the Right Thing"

Ethical leadership represents normatively appropriate behavior that focuses on being a moral role model. This includes communicating ethical values to others, rewarding ethical behavior, and treating followers with care and concern. Ethical leadership is clearly driven by personal factors related to our beliefs and values. It also has a reciprocal relationship with an organization's culture and climate. In other words, an ethical culture and climate promote ethical leadership, and ethical leadership in turn promotes an ethical culture and climate. Such leadership is positively related to employee job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behavior, motivation, and task performance. It also is negatively associated with job stress, counterproductive work behavior, and intentions to quit. It appears that ethical leadership has many positive benefits.

Dealing with Disagreements: Five Conflict-Handling Styles

Even if you're at the top of your game as a manager, working with groups and teams of people will now and then put you in the middle of disagreements, sometimes even destructive conflict. There are five conflict-handling styles, or techniques, you can use for handling disagreements with individuals: avoiding, obliging, dominating, compromising, and integrating. 1. avoiding 2. obliging 3. dominating 4. comprising 5. integrating

1. Make Every Day Count

Every action you display at work is a paint stroke on the canvas of your brand. If you want people to perceive you as a motivated, skilled, passionate, and career-ready employee, then act that way. Improving your self-management skills, which were discussed in the Career Corner for Chapter 12, is a good starting point. We then recommend that you brush up your time management skills. They are essential for handling the workload and competing priorities you will experience in your first job.155 We want to warn you about one time management mistake that can affect your long-term success. People who focus on completing easy, short-term tasks were found to be less effective in the long term. The short-term sense of accomplishment leads people to ignore the critically more important and difficult activities that produce long-term success.156

3. External Communication: Outside the Organization

External communication flows between people inside and outside the organization. This form of communication is increasingly important because organizations desire to communicate with other stakeholders—customers, suppliers, shareholders, or other owners—in pursuit of their strategic goals. Small business owners particularly rely on external communication to help grow their businesses. A recent study, for example, revealed that small business owners tended to seek input or counsel from two sources: peers in the same community or online from a peer they had never met.

Extinction: Weakens Behavior

Extinction is the weakening of behavior by ignoring it or making sure it is not reinforced. Example: You fail to pick up a cell phone call from a solicitor because you want the person to stop calling. By ignoring the call, you hope the person on the other end will give up trying to reach you.

Feedforward Control

Feedforward control focuses on preventing future problems. It does this by collecting performance information about past performance and then planning to avoid pitfalls or roadblocks prior to starting a task or project, essentially helping people learn from mistakes.26 Southwest Airlines' top two HR executives recently told a radio host that employees at the company who make a mistake on the customer's behalf are coached or retrained instead of being punished

An Integrated Model of Leadership

Figure 14.1 provides an overview of what you will learn in this chapter. It presents an integrated model of leadership. Starting at the far right of the model, you see that leadership effectiveness is the outcome we want to explain. The center of the model shows this outcome is influenced by four types of leadership behavior: task-oriented, relationship-oriented, passive, and transformational: Passive leadership is bad and should be avoided. In turn, our ability to effectively engage in these leader behaviors is affected by traits, gender, and leadership skills (the left side of the model).

Fitting Jobs to People

Fitting jobs to people is based on the assumption that people are underutilized at work and that they want more variety, challenges, and responsibility. This philosophy, an outgrowth of Herzberg's theory, is one of the reasons for the popularity of work teams in the United States. The main challenge for managers is "How can we make the work most compatible with the worker so as to produce both high performance and high job satisfaction?"

Flex-time

Flex-time is a characteristic of the flexible workplace—including part-time work, flex-time, a compressed workweek, job sharing, and telecommuting. Among the top 10 companies offering flex-time arrangements are AT&T, United Healthcare Group, Kaplan, and Hilton Worldwide - In one flex-time experiment, in which employees were told they could work wherever and whenever they chose as long as projects were completed on time and goals were met, such employees not only met their goals (as well as did a control group) but were sleeping better, less stressed, and less interested in leaving the organization a year later

Dysfunctional conflict—bad for organizations

From the standpoint of the organization, dysfunctional conflict is conflict that hinders the organization's performance or threatens its interests. For example, Emily Cho, vice president at Korean Air, created dysfunctional conflict by throwing water in the face of an advertising agency employee during a meeting. As a manager, you need to do what you can to remove dysfunctional conflict, sometimes called negative conflict. In the case of Emily Cho, her father, Cho Yang-ho, chairman of Hanjin Group and Korean Air, apologized for her behavior and encouraged her to resign. The "I Wish ..." feature illustrates what can happen when dysfunctional conflict is not effectively managed.

The Four Motivational Mechanisms of Goal-Setting Theory

Goal setting helps motivate you by doing the following: 1. It Directs Your Attention Goal setting directs your attention toward goal-relevant tasks and away from irrelevant ones. 2. It Regulates the Effort Expended The effort you expend is generally proportional to the goal's difficulty and time deadlines. 3. It Increases Your Persistence Goal setting makes obstacles become challenges to be overcome, not reasons to fail. 4. It Fosters Use of Strategies and Action Plans The use of strategies and action plans make it more likely that you will realize success.

PROCESS Goal-Setting Theory: Objectives Should Be Specific and Challenging but Achievable

Goal-setting theory suggests that employees can be motivated by goals that are specific and challenging but achievable. According to psychologists Edwin Locke and Gary Latham, who developed the theory, it is natural for people to set and strive for goals; however, the goal-setting process is useful only if people understand and accept the goals.

2. They Are Timely, Accurate, and Objective

Good control systems—like good information of any kind—should be: 1. Timely—meaning when needed. The information should not necessarily be delivered quickly, but it should be delivered at an appropriate or specific time, such as every week or every month. And it certainly should be often enough to allow employees and managers to take corrective action for any deviations. 2. Accurate—meaning correct. Accuracy is paramount, if decision mistakes are to be avoided. Inaccurate sales figures may lead managers to mistakenly cut or increase sales promotion budgets. Inaccurate production costs may lead to faulty pricing of a product. 3. Objective—meaning impartial. Objectivity means control systems are impartial and fair. Although information can be inaccurate for all kinds of reasons (faulty communication, unknown data, and so on), information that is not objective is inaccurate for a special reason: It is biased or prejudiced. Control systems need to be considered unbiased for everyone involved so that they will be respected for their fundamental purpose—enhancing performance.

Punctuated Equilibrium

Groups don't always follow the distinct stages of Tuckman's model. In another type of group development, called punctuated equilibrium, they establish periods of stable functioning until an event causes a dramatic change in norms, roles, and/or objectives. The group then establishes and maintains new norms of functioning, returning to equilibrium Punctuated equilibrium often occurs in the wake of unexpected change.47 Since a slim majority of voters in the UK voted in 2016 in favor of leaving the European Union, for example, the 27 remaining member countries will face major changes in the economic and political stability of the 26-year-old economic and trade group. An 18-month transition period has been negotiated, but alterations in the way they trade, share resources, and maintain peaceful borders are expected to develop over many years as the EU remakes itself following the loss of one of Europe's largest economies, officially scheduled for March 29, 2019.48 In the world of retailing, Walmart's low-price approach was a change that revolutionized an industry. Companies and teams that can adapt will realize tremendous new opportunities, but those that don't often find themselves obsolete. Punctuated equilibrium can drive significant change, development, and opportunity.

2. Horizontal Communication: Within and between Work Units

Horizontal communication flows within and between work units; its main purpose is coordination. As a manager, you will spend perhaps as much as a third of your time in this form of communication—consulting with colleagues and co-workers at the same level as you within the organization. In this kind of sideways communication, you will be sharing information, coordinating tasks, solving problems, resolving conflicts, and getting the support of your peers. Horizontal communication is encouraged through the use of meetings, committees, task forces, and matrix structures.

Social Media and Innovation: Crowdsourcing

If you are looking for an innovative solution to a problem, you might conclude that the more people you have thinking about the problem, the more potential ideas will be generated. That's the idea behind crowdsourcing, using the Internet and social media to enlist a group outside the organization for help solving a problem. The strategy has drawn a lot of attention, especially for its use in fundraising (crowdfunding) on such sites as Kickstarter, but it has a mixed record of success Some crowdsourcing efforts are organized as competitions, with teams volunteering to solve a problem by a certain deadline and win a cash prize. New York's Metropolitan Transportation Authority recently ran a contest, which it called a "genius challenge," to solicit the public's ideas for fixing the city's aging subway system. The agency received more than 400 submissions from people in 23 countries and says it will "absolutely follow up on" the eight winning ideas, whose contributors shared a $1 million prize.136 Some companies recruit temporary or contingent workers through crowdsourcing and pay them for their time and efforts whether or not they succeed

Generational Differences

If you've tried to teach an older relative how to text or use Facebook, you may have some appreciation for how difficult it can be for older generations to adapt to new technologies. On the other hand, U.S. Senator Bernie Sanders, 77, maintains an active Twitter feed with almost 8 million followers. With office norms generally becoming less formal as younger people move into the workplace, a preference has grown for the ease of text and e-mail, which can easily reach many people with the same message.63 You may not be surprised to learn that a European telecom company found the voice-call function was only the fifth most Page 595frequently used app on most people's cell phones.64 Kevin Castle, a 30-something chief technology officer at Technossus in Irvine, California, even keeps his office phone in a cabinet, unplugged, believing that being respectful of others' needs means e-mailing first before making a potentially intrusive phone call

CONTENT Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory: Five Levels

In 1943, one of the first researchers to study motivation, Brandeis University psychology professor Abraham Maslow put forth his hierarchy of needs theory, which proposes that people are motivated by five levels of needs: (1) physiological (bottom) (2) safety, (3) love, (4) esteem, and (5) self-actualization (top)

5. Lack of Support for Family Demands

In 2016, 50.7 million U.S. children lived in families with two parents. In 60.6 percent of such families, both parents worked; in 20.8 percent, only the father worked; and in 5.3 percent, only the mother worked. Yet in a great many households, it is still women who primarily take care of children, as well as other domestic chores. When organizations aren't supportive in offering flexibility in hours and job responsibilities, these women may find it difficult to work evenings and weekends or to take overnight business trips.

Characteristics of the Best Incentive Compensation Plans

In accordance with most of the theories of motivation we described earlier, for incentive plans to work, certain criteria are advisable, as follows. (1) Rewards must be linked to performance and be measurable. (2) The rewards must satisfy individual needs. (3) The rewards must be agreed on by manager and employees. (4) The rewards must be believable and achievable by employees.

Compromising

In compromising, both parties give up something to gain something. It is appropriate when both sides have opposite goals or possess equal power.

Coping with Complexity versus Coping with Change: The Thoughts of John Kotter

In considering management versus leadership, retired Harvard Business School professor John Kotter suggests that one is not better than the other, that in fact they are complementary systems of action. The difference is that . . . Management is about coping with complexity. Leadership is about coping with change.

enterprise resource planning (ERP)

In particular, many companies have implemented enterprise resource planning (ERP) software systems, information systems for integrating virtually all aspects of a business, helping managers stay on top of the latest developments.

Stage 4: Performing—"Can We Do the Job Properly?"

In performing, members concentrate on solving problems and completing the assigned task. For individuals, the question here is "How can I best perform my role?" For the group/team, the issue is "Can we do the job properly?" During this stage, the leader should allow members the empowerment they need to work on tasks.

The Five Levels of Needs

In proposing this hierarchy of five needs, ranging from basic to highest level, Maslow suggested that needs are never completely satisfied. That is, our actions are aimed at fulfilling the "deprived" needs, the needs that remain unsatisfied at any point in time. Thus, for example, once you have achieved safety (security), which is the second most basic need, you will then seek to fulfill the third most basic need—love (belongingness)

Stage 5: Adjourning—"Can We Help Members Transition Out?"

In the final stage, adjourning, members prepare for disbandment. Having worked so hard to get along and get something done, many members feel a compelling sense of loss. For the individual, the question now is "What's next?" For the team, the issue is "Can we help members transition out?" The leader can help ease the transition by rituals celebrating "the end" and "new beginnings." Parties, award ceremonies, graduations, or mock funerals can provide the needed punctuation at the end of a significant teamwork project. The leader can emphasize valuable lessons learned in group dynamics to prepare everyone for future group and team efforts.

Stage 3: Norming—"Can We Agree on Roles and Work as a Team?"

In the third stage, norming, conflicts are resolved, close relationships develop, and unity and harmony emerge. For individuals, the main issue is "What do the others expect me to do?" For the group, the issue is "Can we agree on roles and work as a team?" Note, then, that the group may now evolve into a team. Groups that make it through stage 2 generally do so because a respected member other than the leader challenges the group to resolve its power struggles so something can be accomplished. Questions about authority are resolved through unemotional, matter-of-fact group discussion. A feeling of team spirit is experienced because members believe they have found their proper roles. Group cohesiveness, a "we feeling" binding group members together, is the principal by-product of stage 3

Integrating

In this collaborative style, the manager strives to confront the issue and cooperatively identify the problem, generating and weighing alternatives and selecting a solution. It is appropriate for complex issues plagued by misunderstanding. ●

in-group exchange

In-group exchange: trust and respect. In the in-group exchange, the relationship between leader and follower becomes a partnership characterized by mutual trust, respect and liking, and a sense of common fates. Subordinates may receive special assignments and special privileges.

social media's impact on productivity is context-driven

Increases efficiencies with communication, particularly among those who work remotely Provides periodic breaks which enhance overall mental focus Organizations resisting embracing social media in their workplace may be fighting a losing battle

The Toll of Workplace Stress

Indeed, historically researchers have generally believed that there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between stress and performance. That is, low levels of stress lead to low performance (because people are not "charged up" to perform), but high levels of stress also lead to an energy-sapping fight-or-flight response that produces low performance. Optimal performance, according to this hypothesis, results when people experience moderate levels of stress.

Managing Individual Productivity

Individual employees, managers, and organizations all share responsibility for increasing individual productivity. Individuals contribute by proactively bringing their skills, energy, talents, and motivation to work on a daily basis. They also can increase productivity by engaging in self-development and organizational citizenship. This is most likely to happen, however, when employees work for supportive and talented managers. This is where managers enter the productivity equation. Managers need to bring their "best selves" to work just like any other employee. In addition, they can use many of the concepts, tools, and techniques discussed throughout this book to help develop their managerial and leadership skills. Managerial behavior is a key input to individual productivity. We believe it is essential for managers to take a learning orientation toward their jobs. This implies that managers will attempt to continuously improve their leadership skills. This might involve taking courses at a local college or university, enrolling in company-sponsored training programs, obtaining advice from an executive coach or mentor, or reading relevant books. Organizations contribute to individual productivity by providing positive work environments and cultures that promote employee engagement, satisfaction, and flourishing. This ultimately involves investing in training and development for all employees. Companies can also invest in information technology that helps people to reduce distractions and focus on completing tasks. Cloud computing tools, for example, are a way to reduce manual tasks, share responsibility, and eliminate most paperwork

Common Influence Tactics

Influence tactics are conscious efforts to affect and change behaviors in others. The nine most common ways people try to get their bosses, co-workers, and subordinates to do what they want are listed in Table 14.2, beginning with the most frequently used.

Match Tactics to Influence Outcomes

Influence tactics can be learned and improved to move: -resistive individuals to compliant individuals -compliant individuals to committed individuals

Informal Communication Channels

Informal communication channels develop outside the formal structure and do not follow the chain of command—they are more spontaneous, can skip management levels, and can cut across lines of authority. Two types of informal channels are (1) the grapevine and (2) face-to-face communication.

Initiating-Structure Leadership: "Here's What We Do to Get the Job Done"

Initiating-structure leadership is leader behavior that organizes and defines—that is, "initiates the structure for"—what employees should be doing to maximize output. Clearly, this is a very task-oriented approach. Example: Meg Whitman, CEO of HP, likes to use initiating structure. Fortune reported that she is a "punctuality zealot, she'd chide staff for starting meetings a couple of minutes later. Some managers were put off when she personally checked their travel schedules."81 David Miliband, president and CEO of the nonprofit International Rescue Committee, echoes the "get the job done" mindset when he says, "Whatever is going on, your number-one responsibility is to have a mind-set at work that says, 'We can solve this.

Revisiting the Role of OB

Interdisciplinary field dedicated to better understanding, explaining, and ultimately improving attitudes and behaviors of individuals (i.e. values, attitudes, personality, perception, and learning) and groups(i.e. norms, roles, and teams) • Helps managers explain and predict work behavior so they can better lead and motivate the organization's most valuable asset—the team

difference between those with an internal locus and those with an external locus?

Internals exhibit less anxiety, greater work motivation, and stronger expectations that effort leads to performance. They also obtain higher salaries. Most importantly, one's internal locus of control can be improved by providing more job autonomy.

PROCESS Expectancy Theory: How Much Do You Want and How Likely Are You to Get It?

Introduced by Victor Vroom, expectancy theory boils down to deciding how much effort to exert in a specific task situation. This choice is based on a two-stage sequence of expectations—moving from effort to performance and then from performance to outcomes

involved listening

Involved—I'm partially invested. Involved listeners devote only some of their attention and energy to listening. They reflect on what is being said and half-halfheartedly participate in the discussion. Their nonverbal cues can show interest and noninterest in the same conversation. If you tend to check your texts while having a meal with friends, you may be only an involved listener in the real-life Page 619interaction. Next time try having everyone put his or her phone in the center of the table until the check arrives.

Sexual Orientation: LGBTQ People Become More Visible

It is difficult to accurately estimate the number of people in the United States who identify as part of the LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender) community. One likely reason is that surveys on the topic have used different definitions of the terms and asked inconsistent questions. Another is the possibility that negative attitudes about non-normative sexuality have made people reluctant to identify themselves as LGBT. A recent Gallup poll found 4.1 percent of the population so identified, or about 10 million people, up from 8.3 million in 2012.188 A fifth term, Q for "queer," is sometimes added as a deliberately ambiguous umbrella term *** Transgender is a term for people whose sense of their gender differs from what is expected based on the sex characteristics with which they are born. That is, these are the estimated 0.03 percent of the population who feel their bodies and genders do not match, that the gender label they received at birth does not fit.191 They may use labels such as gender fluid and nonbinary. People in the United States have become far more tolerant of gay and lesbian behavior over time, with 63 percent saying in 2016 that society should accept homosexuality, up from 51 percent 10 years before.192 No doubt things will change further, since the U.S. Supreme Court made it clear in June 2015 that marriage is no longer solely a legal union between a man and a woman. "The right to marry is a fundamental right inherent in the liberty of the person," Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote (in Obergefell v. Hodges) in support of the majority ruling that states may not refuse to marry same-sex couples. "Under the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment couples of the same sex may not be deprived of that right and that liberty. Meanwhile the pay gap that used to hold for gay and bisexual men has disappeared, and according to one report, gay men now earn on average 10 percent more than straight men in similar employment. While studies are inconclusive, it appears that lesbian women have enjoyed a pay advantage over straight women (though not over men of any sexual orientation) and continue to do so, possibly because of career choices they make and the fact that women earn lower salaries overall

increasing empowerment: Leading for competence: supporting and coaching employees

It goes without saying that employees need to have the necessary knowledge to perform their jobs. Accomplishing this goal involves managers' supporting and coaching their employees. When Sandberg joined Facebook as COO, she stopped at hundreds of employees' desks to introduce herself, letting them know that she was willing to engage with and learn from them. She enjoys asking questions and encouraging debate

Why Is Motivation Important?

It seems obvious that organizations would want to motivate their employees to be more productive. But motivation also plays a role in influencing a host of outcomes, including employee engagement, organizational citizenship, absenteeism, and service quality In order of importance, you as a manager want to motivate people to: (1) Join your organization. You need to instill in talented prospective workers the desire to come to work for you. (2) Stay with your organization. Whether you are in good economic times or bad, you always want to be able to retain good people. (3) Show up for work at your organization. In many organizations, absenteeism and lateness are tremendous problems. (4) Be engaged while at your organization. Engaged employees produce higher-quality work and better customer service. (5) Do extra for your organization. You hope your employees will perform extra tasks above and beyond the call of duty (be organizational "good citizens").

Vacations and sabbaticals

It used to be a badge of honor for Citigroup's junior bankers to put in 100-hour work weeks. Now, says CEO Michael Corbat, "I want people to have family lives, personal lives." Recently, the bank unveiled a program that lets young employees take a long sabbatical—an extended vacation—during which the Citigroup volunteers are paid 60 percent of their salary and take a year off to do charitable work helping, say, businesses develop growth plans in Kenya

So What Do We Know about Transformational Leadership?

It works! Research shows that transformational leadership is associated with many positive outcomes such as increased organizational, team, and individual performance; job satisfaction; employee identification with their leaders and with their immediate work groups; employee engagement; and intrinsic motivation.148

2. Stay Informed and Network

It's really important to stay abreast of changes in your field and industry. Look for new trends, changing regulations, best practices, and applications of new technology. You can do this by: Becoming active in professional organizations. Attending workshops or training programs. Enrolling in online or face-to-face college classe

Can Too Little or Too Much Conflict Affect Performance?

It's tempting to think that a conflict-free work group is a happy work group, as indeed it may be. But is it a productive group? In the 1970s, social scientists specializing in organizational behavior introduced the revolutionary idea that organizations could suffer from too little or too much conflict. Neither scenario is good. Too little conflict—inactivity. Work groups, departments, or organizations that experience too little conflict tend to be plagued by apathy, lack of creativity, indecision, and missed deadlines. The result is that organizational performance suffers Too much conflict—warfare. Excessive conflict, on the other hand, can erode organizational performance because of political infighting, dissatisfaction, lack of teamwork, and turnover. Workplace aggression and violence are manifestations of excessive conflict Thus, it seems that a moderate level of conflict can induce creativity and initiative. As you might expect, however, what constitutes "moderate" will vary among managers.

5. Create a Time Schedule

It's time to establish start and stop dates for each task once you have made your task list. Dates enable you to organize your schedule and monitor your progress. Here again you may find it useful to employ task management software.

Job Design

Job Design is (1) the division of an organization's work among its employees and (2) the application of motivational theories to jobs to increase satisfaction and performance. There are two different approaches to job design—one traditional, one modern—that can be taken in deciding how to design jobs. The traditional way is fitting people to jobs; the modern way is fitting jobs to people

Job Enrichment: Putting More Responsibility and Other Motivating Factors into a Job

Job enrichment is the practical application of Frederick Herzberg's two-factor motivator-hygiene theory of job satisfaction. Specifically, job enrichment consists of building into a job such motivating factors as responsibility, achievement, recognition, stimulating work, and advancement. However, instead of the job-enlargement technique of simply giving employees additional tasks of similar difficulty (known as horizontal loading), with job enrichment employees are given more responsibility (known as vertical loading)

Job Satisfaction: How Much Do You Like or Dislike Your Job?

Job satisfaction is the extent to which you feel positive or negative about various aspects of your work. based off of components such as: work, pay, promotions, co-workers, and supervision. Among the key correlates of job satisfaction are stronger motivation, job involvement, organizational commitment, and life satisfaction and less absenteeism, tardiness, turnover, and perceived stress

leadership

Leadership is the ability to influence employees to voluntarily pursue organizational goals. "Leadership" is a broad term, as this definition implies. It can describe a formal position in an organization, which usually carries a title like CEO or CFO, or an informal role, such as that played by an expert whose opinion in some area we value. Although not everyone is suited to being a good leader, evidence shows that people can be trained to be more effective leaders. In response, more companies are using management development programs to build a pipeline of leadership talent. They also provide leadership coaching to targeted employees. Leadership coaching is "about enhancing a person's abilities and skills to lead and to help the organization meet its operational objectives. It's about boosting the person's ability to perform as a leader and to achieve the vision," according to one expert.It is estimated that U.S. companies spent $14 billion on coaching in 2016

4. Innovation and Learning Perspective: "Can We Continue to Improve and Create Value?"

Learning and growth of employees are the foundation for all other goals in the balanced scorecard. The idea here is that capable and motivated employees, who possess the resources and culture needed to get the job done, will provide higher-quality products and services in a more efficient manner. Making this happen requires a commitment to invest in progressive human resource practices and technology. Typical metrics in this perspective are employee satisfaction/engagement, employee retention, employee productivity, training budget per employee, technology utilization, and organizational climate and culture. Many are tracked with employee surveys to gauge attitudes and opinions.

1. Legitimate Power: Influencing Behavior Because of One's Formal Position

Legitimate power, which all managers have, is power that results from managers' formal positions within the organization. All managers have legitimate power over their employees, deriving from their position, whether it's a construction boss, ad account supervisor, sales manager, or CEO. This power may be exerted both positively or negatively—as praise or as criticism, for example.

cyberloafing

Lost productivity due to cyberloafing—using the Internet at work for personal use—is a primary concern for employers in their adoption of social media. Some studies put the cost at $85 billion per year and report that employees spend 60 percent-80 percent of their time at work pretending to do actual or legitimate work. It also exposes companies to computer viruses and uses up bandwidth

improving nonverbal skills

Maintain eye contact Lean toward the speaker Speak at a moderate rate Speak in a quiet, reassuring tone Smile and show animation Occasionally nod your head in agreement Be aware of your facial expressions

make the most of face-to-face communication

Make time for face-to-face Listen more and talk less. Deliver good news up front; lead in to bad. Hold employee town hall meetings. Use webcasts when you can't be there. - You can still achieve face time even if your employees work remotely. Use webcasts, video conferencing, or a social video portal to communicate with geographically dispersed people. It is important to ensure, however, that the technical aspects of these communications are arranged prior to using them. Keep communications direct and personal. If possible, try to make sure everyone has the same communication experience. That is, try to avoid having meetings that mix in-person and remote attendees

Using Self-Determination Theory to Motivate Employees

Managers can apply this theory by engaging in leader behavior that fosters the experience of competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Following are some specific suggestions: (1) Competence. Managers like Della Jerkan can provide tangible resources, time, contacts, and coaching to improve employee competence, making sure that employees have the knowledge and information they need to perform their jobs. (2) Autonomy. To enhance feelings of autonomy, managers can develop trust with their employees and empower them by delegating meaningful tasks to them. Example: Results-only work environments (ROWE) are focused on results rather than on when or how the work is done, which gives employees a great deal of freedom (3) Relatedness. Many companies use camaraderie to foster relatedness. Example: Salesforce.com is number one on Fortune's 2018 list of the world's best places to work with good reason.

increasing empowerment: Leading for self-determination: delegating meaningful tasks

Managers can lead for employee self-determination by delegating meaningful tasks to them. Delegation is most effective when managers can truly let go. "Leadership is about making others better as a result of your presence," says Sandberg, "and making sure that impact lasts in your absence

difference between leaders and managers

Managers conduct Leaders inspire, encourage, and rally others to achieve great goals. Managers implement a company's vision and strategic plan. Leaders create and articulate that vision and plan. managers: - planning, organizing, directing, and control. - Executing plans and delivering goods and services - Managing resources - Being conscientious - Acting responsibly - Putting customers first—responding to and acting for customers - Mistakes can happen when managers don't appreciate people are the key resource, underlead by treating people like other resources, or fail to be held accountable leaders: - Being visionary - Being inspiring, setting the tone, and articulating the vision - Managing people - Being inspirational (charismatic) - Acting decisively - Putting people first—responding to and acting for followers - Mistakes can happen when leaders choose the wrong goal, direction, or inspiration; overlead; or fail to implement the vision

how managers and leaders cope with change

Managers cope with complexity by: planning and budgeting organizing and staffing controlling and problem solving Leaders cope with change by: setting a direction aligning people (communications) motivating and inspiring

increasing empowerment: Leading for meaningfulness: inspiring and modeling desirable behaviors.

Managers lead for meaningfulness by inspiring their employees and modeling desired behaviors. Example: Employees may be helped to identify their passions at work by the leader's creating an exciting organizational vision that employees can connect with emotionally. "True leadership," according to Sheryl Sandberg, Facebook's COO, "stems from individuality that is honestly and sometimes imperfectly expressed . . . Leaders should strive for authenticity over perfection.

leader - manager distinctions

Managers managethings; leaders lead people Managers do things right; leaders do the right things Managers keep things the same; leaders change things

2. Customer Perspective: "How Do Customers See Us?"

Many companies view customers as one of their most important constituents. The balanced scorecard translates this belief into measures such as market share, customer acquisition, customer retention, customer satisfaction/loyalty, product/service quality, response time (the time between order and delivery), and percentage of bids won.

what is the difference between a group and a team?

McKinsey & Company management consultants Jon R. Katzenbach and Douglas K. Smith say it is a mistake to use the terms group and team interchangeably. Successful teams, they say, tend to take on a life of their own.

Motivation and Compensation

Most people are paid an hourly wage or a weekly or monthly salary. Both of these are easy for organizations to administer, of course. But by itself a wage or a salary gives an employee little incentive to work hard. Incentive compensation plans try to do so, although ** no single plan will boost the performance of all employees

Is a Medium Rich or Lean in Information?

Media richness indicates how well a particular medium conveys information and promotes learning. That is, the "richer" a medium is, the better it is at conveying information.18 The term media richness was proposed by respected organizational theorists Richard Daft and Robert Lengel as part of their contingency model for media selection

leadership traits in women versus men

Men displayed more task leadership and women more relationship leadership. 2.Women used a more democratic or participative style than men, and men used amore autocratic and directive style. 3.Female leadership was associated with more cohesion, cooperative learning, and participative communication among team members. 4.Peers, managers, direct reports, and trained observers rated women executives as more effective than men. Men rated themselves as more effective than women evaluated themselves.

Do Men and Women Vary in Terms of Leadership Style and Effectiveness?

Men were observed to display more task leadership and women more relationship leadership. Women used a more democratic or participative style than men, and men used a more autocratic and directive style A study conducted by the BI Norwegian Business School of nearly 3,000 managers' personalities and characteristics concluded that on almost every criterion, women performed better than men. Women ranked ahead of men in initiative and communication, openness and innovation, sociability and supportiveness, and methodical approach to management and goal setting. Men were rated better at dealing with stress and remaining emotionally stable. According to one of the study's coauthors, women "are decidedly more suited to management positions than their male counterparts. If decision-makers ignore this truth, they could effectively be employing less qualified leaders and impairing productivity." Peers, managers, direct reports, and judges/trained observers rated women executives as more effective than men. Men also rated themselves as more effective than women evaluated themselves. One study of 10,000 global leaders conducted by Development Dimensions International (DDI) found almost no differences between men and women in their levels of hard or soft skills.56 Another study, by DDI and the Conference Board, found only a few differences, notably in confidence levels. - An article combining the results of these two studies drew these broad conclusions from the data: (1) Women leaders are less confident than men and less likely to rate themselves highly. (2) Women and men are very similar on management skills like "building high-performance cultures; engaging employees; cultivating a customer-focused culture; creating alignment and accountability; enhancing organizational talent; building strategic partnerships and relationships, driving process innovation and driving efficiency." Says DDI's vice president, "The disparity in gender diversity has little to do with competence levels."

Phubbing and FOMO

Microaggressions, or acts of unconscious bias, include a number of seemingly tiny but repeated actions, like interrupting others, mispronouncing or mistaking someone's name, and avoiding eye contact. A particular form of microaaggression is called phubbing, for phone snubbing or ignoring those present in order to pay attention to a mobile phone. The urge to phub others springs from the fear of missing out—FOMO—or of being out of touch with something happening in our social network,168 Page 609a growing phenomenon although research shows that conversations are actually less rewarding for both parties when interrupted by one person's textin

Take the time to reflect.

Most of us are so busy accomplishing our daily activities or short-term goals that we leave ourselves no time to reflect and learn. This pattern gets tasks done but can prevent our learning the new skills needed for more difficult assignments or promotions. However, it's the people who are motivated to learn and change who are more likely to be noticed for promotions and leadership roles.172 You can build intentional reflection into your life by considering the following questions on a regular basis: What happened? What did I learn in general? What did I learn about me? What will I do to improve in the future? Try recording your answers in a journal. Research shows that this practice will increase your critical thinking and self-reflection.174 You need to choose the frequency of journaling, but once a week is a minimum. Your author Angelo Kinicki has his students journal on a daily basis and then submit a weekly summary. Students find it invaluable.

motivation

Motivation may be defined as the psychological processes that arouse and direct goal-directed behavior. Motivation is difficult to understand because you can't actually see it or know it in another person; it must be inferred from one's behavior. Nevertheless, it's imperative that you as a manager understand the process of motivation if you are to guide employees in accomplishing your organization's objectives.

Physiological need-the most basic human physical need

Need for food, clothing, shelter, comfort, self-preservation. Workplace example: these are covered by wages

Love need:

Need for love, friendship, affection. Workplace examples: office parties, company softball teams, management retreats.

Safety need:

Need for physical safety, emotional security, avoidance of violence. Workplace examples: health insurance, job security, work safety rules, pension plans satisfy this need.

Self-actualization need-the highest level need:

Need for self-fulfillment: increasing competence, using abilities to the fullest. Workplace example: sabbatical leave to further personal growth

Esteem need:

Need for self-respect, status, reputation, recognition, self-confidence. Workplace examples: bonuses, promotions, awards.

Negative Reinforcement: Also Strengthens Behavior

Negative reinforcement is the process of strengthening a behavior by withdrawing something negative. Example: A supervisor who has been nagging a salesperson might say, "Well, so you exceeded your quota" and stop the nagging. Note the neutral statement; there is no praise but also no longer any negative statements. This could cause the sales rep to maintain his or her existing behavior.

4. Nonverbal Communication: How Unwritten and Unspoken Messages May Mislead

Nonverbal communication consists of messages sent outside of the written or spoken word. We primarily express nonverbal communication through (1) eye contact, (2) facial expressions, (3) body movements and gestures, and (4) touch. Some research suggests that about 55 percent of what we communicate is transmitted nonverbally

7. Norms: Unwritten Rules for Team Members

Norms are more encompassing than roles. Norms are general guidelines or rules of behavior that most group or team members follow. Norms point out the boundaries between acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Although some norms can be made explicit, typically they are unwritten and seldom discussed openly; nevertheless, they have a powerful influence on group and organizational behavior.

4. Touch

Norms for touching vary significantly around the world. For example, kissing on the cheek, patting on the shoulder, and embracing may be appropriate in the United States, but many people in Asia find these actions offensive. These type of behaviors are in appropriate in the Middle East Western women tend to use touching of other women to show friendship or sympathy, whereas men are less likely to touch other men and more likely to associate being touched with sexual behavior.91 Other cultures are often more conservative about the use of touch between men and women

Why Norms Are Enforced: Four Reasons

Norms tend to be enforced by group or team members for four reasons: (1) To help the group survive—"Don't do anything that will hurt us." Norms are enforced to help the group, team, or organization survive. Example: The manager of your team or group might compliment you because you've made sure it has the right emergency equipment. (2) To clarify role expectations—"You have to go along to get along." Norms are also enforced to help clarify or simplify role expectations. Example: At one time, new members of Congress wanting to buck the system by which important committee appointments were given to those with the most seniority were advised to "go along to get along"—go along with the rules in order to get along in their congressional careers. (3) To help individuals avoid embarrassing situations—"Don't call attention to yourself." Norms are enforced to help group or team members avoid embarrassing themselves. Examples: You might be ridiculed by fellow team members for dominating the discussion during a report to top management ("Be a team player, not a show-off"). Or you might be told not to discuss religion or politics with customers, whose views might differ from yours. (4) To emphasize the group's important values and identity—"We're known for being special." Finally, norms are enforced to emphasize the group's, team's, or organization's central values or to enhance its unique identity. Examples: Nordstrom's department store chain emphasizes the great lengths to which it goes in customer service. Some colleges give an annual award to the instructor whom students vote best teacher.

reduce stress

Numerous Outlets to Relieve or Reduce Stress•Exercise•Establish a support system•Express yourself•Good nutrition and rest•Spiritual/Religious involvement•Meditation•Vacations

The Three Dimensions of Situational Control

Once the leadership orientation is known, then you determine situational control—how much control and influence a leader has in the immediate work environment. There are three dimensions of situational control: leader-member relations, task structure, and position power. (1) Leader-member relations—"Do my subordinates accept me as a leader?" This dimension, the most important component of situational control, reflects the extent to which a leader has or doesn't have the support, loyalty, and trust of the work group. (2) Task structure—"Do my subordinates perform unambiguous, easily understood tasks?" This dimension refers to the extent to which tasks are routine, unambiguous, and easily understood. The more structured the jobs, the more influence a leader has. (3) Position power—"Do I have power to reward and punish?" This dimension refers to how much power a leader has to make work assignments and reward and punish. More power equals more control and influence.

Social Media and Reputation

One of the biggest dangers managers face is negative comments about the organization posted by disgruntled customers or even employees. Some tips for defusing these and limiting the harm they can do are: - Create and enforce a social media policy for employees. We'll discuss social media policies in more detail. At a minimum, your policy should limit what employees can say on the organization's web pages and ensure that all posted content meets the highest ethical standards. - Appoint experienced managers to monitor your social media presence and respond quickly and appropriately to negative posts. Vitamin Water waited 24 hours before responding to customers voicing anger on Facebook about its new flavor. A Mississippi woman received an insensitive e-mail from her state representative about her problems getting medical supplies for her diabetic child. She posted the legislator's crass response on Facebook, where it went viral.A great deal of damage can occur online in a short time, and all of it in the public eye. - Acknowledge there is a problem. Gracefully accepting that someone has a genuine issue with the organization, its product or service, or its posts—even if the problem is a misunderstanding on his or her part—can go a long way toward defusing bad feelings. If the organization is in error, the appropriate manager should say so and apologize. - Take the conversation offline if necessary. If a customer refuses to be satisfied, take the conversation to a private sphere such as phone or e-mail. Not only will this keep it out of the public eye and prevent further damage to the brand but the individualized attention may also reduce the customer's ire.

full-range leadership,

One recent approach proposed by Bernard Bass and Bruce Avolio, known as full-range leadership, suggests that leadership behavior varies along a full range of leadership styles, from passive (laissez-faire) "leadership" at one extreme, through transactional leadership, to transformational leadership at the other extreme.127 As we stated, passive leadership is not leadership, but transactional and transformational leadership behaviors are both positive aspects of being a good leader.128 We considered transactional leadership in Section 14.3. Here let's consider transformational leadership.

Fitting People to Jobs

One technique is scientific management, the process of reducing the number of tasks a worker performs. When a job is stripped down to its simplest elements, it enables a worker to focus on doing more of the same task, thus increasing employee efficiency and productivity - research shows that simplified, repetitive jobs lead to job dissatisfaction, poor mental health, and a low sense of accomplishment and personal growth

5. Overemphasis on One Instead of Multiple Approaches

One type or method of control may not be enough. By having multiple control activities and information systems, an organization can have multiple performance indicators, thereby increasing accuracy and objectivity. A recent study found that control systems affect each other and thus must be integrated.

3. Body Movements and Gestures

Open body positions, such as leaning slightly backward, express openness, warmth, closeness, and availability for communication. Closed body positions, such as folded arms or crossed legs, represent defensiveness. Angling your body away from the other person generally makes you look un-interested.87 You can use these conclusions to improve communications with others.

3. Operational Control by First-Line Managers

Operational control is monitoring performance to ensure that operational plans—day-to-day goals—are being implemented and taking corrective action as needed. Operational control is done mainly by first-line managers, those with titles such as "department head" or "supervisor." It also includes team leaders. Reporting is done on a daily basis.

4. Organizational Dimensions

Organizational dimensions include management status, union affiliation, work location, seniority, work content, and division or department.

Oversized Egos

Our egos—our pride, our self-esteem, even arrogance—are a fourth barrier. Egos can cause political battles, turf wars, and the passionate pursuit of power, credit, and resources. They influence the way we treat each other and how receptive we are to being influenced by others. Too much ego—the trait of narcissism —is a handicap, but so is too little. Some successful leaders and communicators are what one expert calls "productive narcissists," such as Bill Gates and Steve Jobs.54 But for most of us, a little perspective on our ego is in order. Most of the time, it's not about us, and that's a good thing.

out-group exchange

Out-group exchange: lack of trust and respect. In the out-group exchange, leaders are characterized as overseers who fail to create a sense of mutual trust, respect, or common fate. Subordinates receive less of the manager's time and attention than those in in-group exchange relationships.

Outsourcing: Let Outsiders Handle It

Outsourcing (discussed in detail in Chapter 4) is the subcontracting of services and operations to an outside vendor. Usually, this is done to reduce costs or increase productivity.118 Outsourcing short-term and project work to freelance or contract workers in the so-called gig economy also saves companies many employee-related expenses. Outsourcing is also being done by many state and local governments, which, under the banner known as privatization, have subcontracted traditional government services such as fire protection, correctional services, and medical services. As many as 1.5 million U.S. jobs were reportedly outsourced in 2016

Passive Leadership: The Lack of Leadership Skills

Passive leadership is a form of leadership behavior characterized by a lack of leadership skills. For example, in the type of passive leadership called the management-by-exception style, managers do not intervene until problems are brought to their attention or until the problems become serious enough to demand action. Another passive type is laissez-faire leadership, a form of "leadership" characterized by a general failure to take responsibility for leading. Not taking responsibility can hardly be considered leadership (although it often seems to be manifested by CEOs whose companies get in trouble, as when they say, "I had no idea about the criminal behavior of my subordinates"). Interestingly, laissez-faire ("lay-zay fair") leadership is seen more in men than women. Examples of laissez-faire leadership are seen in various kinds of failure—failing to deal with conflict, to coach employees on difficult assignments, to help set performance goals, to give performance feedback, to deal with bullying, and so on. This passive leadership has a huge negative impact on employee perceptions of leaders—outweighing their positive perceptions of contributions by initiating structure, transactional, and consideration forms of leadership.117

passive listening

Passive—It's not my responsibility to listen. Passive listeners are not equal partners in a speaking-listening exchange. They assume the speaker is responsible for the quality of the interaction and believe their role is to passively take in information. Passive listeners will display attentiveness, but they can fake it at times. Overall, they don't expend much motivation or energy in receiving and decoding messages. Is this your listening style during course lectures?

pay for performance

Pay for performance. Also known as merit pay, pay for performance bases pay on one's results. Thus, different salaried employees might get different pay raises and other rewards (such as promotions) depending on their overall job performance. Another is the sales commission, in which sales representatives are paid a percentage of the earnings the company made from their sales, so that the more they sell, the more they are paid

power

People who pursue personalized power—power directed at helping oneself—as a way of enhancing their own selfish ends may give the word power a bad name. However, there is another kind of power, socialized power—power directed at helping others. This is the kind of power you hear in expressions such as "My goal is to have a powerful impact on my community.

situational approach

Perhaps leadership is not characterized by universally important traits or behaviors. There is no one best style that will work in all situations. This is the point of view of proponents of the situational approach (or contingency approach) to leadership, who believe that effective leadership behavior depends on the situation at hand. That is, as situations change, different styles become appropriate.

Applying TQM to Services

Perhaps you're beginning to see how judging the quality of services is a different animal from judging the quality of manufactured goods, because it comes down to meeting the customer's satisfaction, which may be a matter of perception. (After all, some hotel guests, restaurant diners, and supermarket patrons, for example, are more easily satisfied than others.)

What Contributes to Employee Engagement?

Person Factors: (1) Personality. (2) Positive psychological capital. (3) Human and social capital.

planning, organizing, leading and controlling

Planning is setting goals and deciding how to achieve them. Organizing is arranging tasks, people, and other resources to accomplish the work. Leading is motivating people to work hard to achieve the organization's goals. Controlling is concerned with seeing that the right things happen at the right time in the right way.

Positive Reinforcement: Strengthens Behavior

Positive reinforcement is the use of positive consequences to strengthen a particular behavior. Example: A supervisor who has asked an insurance salesperson to sell more policies might reward successful performance by saying, "It's great that you exceeded your sales quota, and you'll get a bonus for it. Note the rewards: praise, more money, recognition, awards. Presumably this will strengthen the behavior and the sales rep will work even harder in the coming months.

power

Power is the ability to marshal human, informational, and other resources to get something done. Defined this way, power is all about influencing others. The more influence you have, the more powerful you are, and vice versa.

Deming Management: The Contributions of W. Edwards Deming to Improved Quality

Previously, Frederick Taylor's scientific management philosophy, designed to maximize worker productivity, had been widely instituted. But by the 1950s, scientific management had led to organizations that were rigid and unresponsive to both employees and customers. W. Edwards Deming's challenge, known as Deming management, proposed ideas for making organizations more responsive, more democratic, and less wasteful. 1. Quality Should Be Aimed at the Needs of the Consumer "The consumer is the most important part of the production line," Deming wrote.77 Thus, the efforts of individual workers in providing the product or service should be directed toward meeting the needs and expectations of the ultimate user. 2. Companies Should Aim at Improving the System, Not Blaming Workers 3. Improved Quality Leads to Increased Market Share, Increased Company Prospects, and Increased Employment 4. Quality Can Be Improved on the Basis of Hard Data, Using the PDCA Cycle Deming suggested that quality could be improved by acting on the basis of hard data. The process for doing this came to be known as the PDCA cycle, a Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle using observed data for continuous improvement of operations. (See Figure 16.7.) Like the steps in the control process in Figure 16.3, step 3 ("Check") is a feedback step, in which performance is compared to goals. Feedback is instrumental to control.

Privacy: Keeping Things to Yourself

Privacy is the right of people not to reveal information about themselves. Threats to privacy can range from name migration, as when a company sells its customer list to another company, to online snooping, to government prying and spying.

Process Perspectives

Process perspectives are concerned with the thought processes by which people decide how to act—how employees choose behavior to meet their needs. ** whereas need-based perspectives simply try to understand employee needs, process perspectives go further and try to understand why employees have different needs, what behaviors they select to satisfy them, and how they decide if their choices were successful. 3 process perspectives: (1) Equity/justice theory (2) Expectancy theory (3) Goal-setting theory

3. Informational Area

Production schedules, sales forecasts, environmental impact statements, analyses of competition, and public relations briefings all are controls on an organization's various information resources. Among the factors that will govern a Page 643decision about whether a high-speed passenger-rail line is to be built in Oregon, for instance, is an environmental impact statement being prepared by the state's Department of Transportation.

What Is Productivity?

Productivity can be applied at any level, whether for you as an individual, for the work unit you're managing, or for the organization you work for. Productivity is defined by the formula of outputs divided by inputs for a specified period of time. Outputs are all the goods and services produced. Inputs are not only labor but also capital, materials, and energy.

Profit sharing

Profit sharing is the distribution to employees of a percentage of the company's profits.

4. Use Programmed Conflict: Devil's Advocacy and the Dialectic Method

Programmed conflict is designed to elicit different opinions without inciting people's personal feelings. Sometimes decision-making groups become so bogged down in details and procedures that nothing of substance gets done. The idea here is to get people, through role-playing, to defend or criticize ideas based on relevant facts rather than on personal feelings and preferences.

5. Referent Power: Influencing Behavior Because of One's Personal Attraction

Referent power is power deriving from one's personal attraction. As we will see later in this chapter (under the discussion of transformational leadership, Section 14.5), this kind of power characterizes strong, visionary leaders who are able to persuade their followers through their charisma. Referent power may be associated with managers, but it is more likely to be characteristic of leaders.

4 types of Reinforcement: Positive, Negative, Extinction, and Punishment

Reinforcement is anything that causes a given behavior to be repeated or inhibited, whether praising a child for cleaning his or her room or scolding a child for leaving a tricycle in the driveway. There are four types of reinforcement: (1) positive reinforcement, (2) negative reinforcement, (3) extinction, and (4) punishment.

SUMMARY Reinforcement theory is based on the notion that motivation is a function of behavioral consequences and not unmet needs.

Reinforcement theory is based on the notion that motivation is a function of behavioral consequences and not unmet needs.

Relationship-Oriented Leader Behavior: Consideration, Empowerment, Ethical Leadership, and Servant Leadership

Relationship-oriented leadership is primarily concerned with the leader's interactions with his or her people. The emphasis is on enhancing employees' skills and creating positive work relationships among co-workers and between the leader and the led. Such leaders often act as mentors, providing career advice, giving employees assignments that will broaden their skills, and empowering them to make their own decisions.87 One of the simplest and best ways to engage relationship-leadership is to ask open questions and listen attentively.88 There are four kinds of relationship-oriented behaviors: Consideration Empowering leadership Ethical leadership Servant-leadership

Using the Hierarchy of Needs Theory to Motivate Employees

Research does not clearly support Maslow's theory, although it remains popular among managers. Still, the importance of Maslow's contribution is that he showed that workers have needs beyond that of just earning a paycheck. To the extent the organization permits, managers should first try to meet employees' level 1 and level 2 needs, of course, so that employees won't be preoccupied with them. - This is exactly what Amazon did in 2018 by raising the minimum wage of all its workers to at least $15 per hour. Then, however, organizations need to give employees a chance to fulfill their higher-level needs in ways that also advance the goals of the organization

What Do Followers Want in Their Leaders?

Research shows that followers seek and admire leaders who create feelings of Significance. Such leaders make followers feel that what they do at work is important and meaningful. Community. These leaders create a sense of unity that encourages followers to treat others with respect and to work together in pursuit of organizational goals. Excitement. The leaders make people feel energetic and engaged at work

2. Break Your Wildly Important Goal into Short-Term Goals

Research tells us you are more likely to achieve your Wildly Important Goal if you break it down into smaller bite-size goals.

2. Reward Power: Influencing Behavior by Promising or Giving Rewards

Reward power, which all managers have, is power that results from managers' authority to reward their subordinates. Rewards can range from praise to pay raises, from recognition to promotions. Example: The top-performing employees at Home Mortgage Alliance, a mortgage lender based in Denver and a "top small workplace" in 2018, are rewarded with a vacation trip each year. Recent destinations have included Hawaii and Mexico

6. Roles: How Team Members Are Expected to Behave

Roles are socially determined expectations of how individuals should behave in a specific position. As a team member, your role is to play a part in helping the team reach its goals. Members develop their roles based on the expectations of the team, of the organization, and of themselves, and they may do different things. You, for instance, might be a team leader. Others might do some of the work tasks. Still others might communicate with other teams. Two types of team roles are task and maintenance.

increasing empowerment: Leading for progress: monitoring and rewarding employees

Sandberg is widely credited with spurring many companies to take a more compassionate view of employees facing difficult family crises such as illness and death. She suffered the sudden loss of her husband in 2015, and in 2017 she challenged companies to improve their stingy policies. "I think we need to do better for the people who work for us, and I think what companies need to understand is that this is not a Page 553trade-off. People should not have to choose between being a great employee and a mother, sister, a wife, a father. But if we invest in people, they invest in us, and this stuff is good for everyone Managers lead for progress by monitoring and rewarding others

Security: Guarding against Cyberthreats

Security is defined as a system of safeguards for protecting information technology against disasters, system failures, and unauthorized access that result in damage or loss. Security is a continuing challenge, with computer and cell-phone users constantly having to deal with threats ranging from malicious software (malware) that tries to trick people into yielding passwords and personal information to viruses that can destroy or corrupt data According to the Norton Cyber Crime Report for 2017, nearly 980 million people in 20 countries were victims of cybercrime in 2017, with an average cost per person of $142 and three full days to deal with the effects. More than four in five consumers believe cybercrime is, in fact, a crime and should be prosecuted as such, but 42 percent find it acceptable to commit "morally questionable online behaviors in certain circumstances,"178 which may help explain why employees are often called the weakest link in a company's defense against the threat. Even app-laden personal cell phones brought to the workplace can introduce a grave risk to a company's security. Citing recent cyberattacks on major companies like Equifax, Verizon, and Target, Harvard Business Review noted that "attackers didn't need to break down a wall of ones and zeros, or sabotage a piece of sophisticated hardware; instead they simply needed to take advantage of predictably poor user behavior."180 Such behavior crosses generations; younger workers are just as likely as their older peers to ignore or underuse common safeguards.181 For example, one in four Millennials use the same password for all their accounts, while only 10 percent of Boomers do.182 A motivating strategy called "social proof" can help nudge employees toward safer online behavior at work by showing or informing them of how others act in the same circumstances and then giving them the tools and education they need to follow suit

Focus on Intrinsic Motivation

Self-determination theory focuses primarily on intrinsic motivation and rewards (such as feeling independent) rather than on extrinsic motivation and rewards (such as money or fame). Intrinsic motivation is longer lasting than extrinsic motivation and has a more positive impact on task performance

Self-Efficacy: "I Can/Can't Do This Task"

Self-efficacy is the belief in one's personal ability to do a task. This is about your personal belief that you have what it takes to successfully complete a specified task in a specific situation Generalized self-efficacy represents "individuals' perception of their ability to perform across a variety of different situations.

self-managed teams

Self-managed teams are defined as groups of workers who are given administrative oversight for their task domains. Experts estimate about 80 percent of Fortune 1,000 and 81 percent of manufacturing firms use self-managed teams. They are expected to foster increased productivity and employee quality of work life because employees are delegated greater authority and granted increased autonomy The most common chores of today's self-managed teams are work scheduling and customer interaction, and the least common are hiring and firing. Most self-managed teams are also found at the shop-floor level in factory settings, although some experts predict growth of the practice in service operations and even management ranks. Self-managed teams have been found to have a positive effect on productivity and attitudes of self-responsibility and control, although there is no significant effect on job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

Six Sigma and Lean Six Sigma: Data-Driven Ways to Eliminate Defects

Six Sigma and Lean Six Sigma may not be perfect because they cannot compensate for human error or control events outside a company.126 Still, they let managers approach problems with the assumption that there's a data-oriented, tangible way to approach problem solving. Six Sigma - is a rigorous statistical analysis process that reduces defects in manufacturing and service-related processes. By testing thousands of variables and eliminating guesswork, a company using the technique attempts to improve quality and reduce waste to the point where errors nearly vanish. In everything from product design to manufacturing to billing, the attainment of Six Sigma means there are no more than 3.4 defects per million products or procedure Six Sigma may also be thought of as a philosophy—to reduce variation in your company's business and make customer-focused, data-driven decisions. The method preaches the use of Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control (DMAIC). Team leaders may be awarded a Six Sigma "black belt" for applying DMAIC. - More recently, companies are using an approach known as Lean Six Sigma, which focuses on problem solving and performance improvement—speed with excellence—of a well-defined project 3M Company's latest five-year plan includes improvements to its supply chain and an increased focus on Lean Six Sigma in order to bring about "improved customer service, operational efficiencies, and an increased cash flow.

2. Fear of Discrimination against Majority Group Members

Some employees are afraid that attempts to achieve greater diversity in their organization will result in bias against the majority group—that more black or Asian employees will be promoted to fire captain or police lieutenant, for example, over the heads of supposedly more qualified whites.

2. Individual Task Demands: The Stress Created by the Job Itself

Some occupations are more stressful than others. Low-level jobs can be more stressful than high-level jobs because employees often have less control over their lives and thus have less work satisfaction. Being a barista, day care teacher, hotel concierge, or purchasing agent, jobs that don't usually pay very well, can be quite stressful

1. Too Much Control

Some organizations, particularly bureaucratic ones, try to exert too much control. They may try to regulate employee behavior in everything from dress code to timing of coffee breaks. This leads to micromanagement, which frustrates employees and may lead them to ignore or try to sabotage the control process. Among the telltale signs that you (or your boss) might be a micromanager, someone who is unable to delegate tasks and decisions and insists on taking an inappropriately detailed focus on subordinates' work, are - Working excessive hours and weekends and skipping vacation. - Checking everyone's work because no one else can do things right. - Needing to be copied on and approve everything. - Requiring others to continually check in and be constantly available. - Having to hire new people all the time because turnover is so high. Micromanagement is a form of over-control that is counterproductive for several reasons. Employees are more effective and achieve greater job satisfaction if they feel empowered to use their own judgment as far as possible to get the job done. And micromanagers can become bottlenecks who actually slow the flow of work and decisions, if not stop it altogether. Some solutions, if you recognize yourself in this profile, are to start by delegating small decisions, recognizing that the worst-case scenario you likely imagine if you let go is probably not going to happen, and accepting that some degree of uncertainty is inevitable in management, and in life.136 Another helpful strategy is to give employees regular opportunities to discuss expectations, so they feel empowered to act independently. At the online discount clearinghouse called FatWallet, for instance, employees and managers meet quarterly to evaluate successes and failures and to reset goals as needed. Bridge Worldwide, a marketing agency, makes many everyday decisions by allowing employees to vote

Hard versus Soft Tactics

Some refer to the first five influence tactics—rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, ingratiation, and personal appeals—as "soft" tactics because they are friendlier than, and not as coercive as, the last four tactics—exchange, coalition, pressure, and legitimating tactics, which are "hard" tactics because they exert more overt pressure.

1. Openness

State your views openly and honesty, not trying to disguise the real object of your disagreement. Look at the conflict as a way to better understand the situation and find a solution. Concentrate on identifying the problem and taking a problem-solving approach.

building effective teams

Status and Ego Low Standards Ambiguity Artificial Harmony Invulnerability

1. Stereotyping: "Those Sorts of People Are Pretty Much the Same"

Stereotyping is the tendency to attribute to an individual the characteristics one believes are typical of the group to which that individual belongs

The Keys to Successful Control Systems

Successful control systems have a number of common characteristics: (1) They are strategic and results oriented. (2) They are timely, accurate, and objective. (3) They are realistic, positive, and understandable and they encourage self-control. (4) They are flexible.

Takeaways from TQM Research

TQM principles have been used by thousands of organizations through the years. Although companies do not always use the tools, techniques, and processes as suggested by experts, a team of researchers concluded that the vast majority of TQM adopters follow its general principles, which in turn fosters improved operational performance. * Researchers also identified four key inhibitors to successfully implementing TQM: (1) the failure to provide evidence supporting previous improvement activities, (2) the lack of a champion who is responsible for leading the implementation, (3) the inability to measure or track results of the program, and (4) the failure to develop a culture of quality or continuous learning. Managers need to overcome these roadblocks for TQM to deliver its intended benefits

TQM total quality management

TQM: 1. Make continuous improvement a priority. 2. Get every employee involved. 3. Listen to and learn from customers and employees. 4. Use accurate standards to identify and eliminate problems. These may be summarized as two core principles of TQM—namely, (1) people orientation—everyone involved with the organization should focus on delivering value to customers—and (2) improvement orientation—everyone should work on continuously improving the work processes.78 Let's look at these further.

2. Tactical Control by Middle Managers

Tactical control is monitoring performance to ensure that tactical plans—those at the divisional or departmental level—are being implemented and taking corrective action as needed. Tactical control is done mainly by middle managers, those with such titles as "division head," "plant manager," and "branch sales manager." Reporting is done on a weekly or monthly basis.

general differences in communication between genders

Taking credit men: Greater use of "I" statements (e.g., "I did this" and "I did that"); more likely to boast about their achievements women: Greater use of "We" statements, (e.g., "We did this" and "We did that"); less likely to boast about their achievements Displaying confidence men: Less likely to indicate that they are uncertain about an issue women: Mostly likely to indicate a lack of certainty about an issue Being polite men: More likely to appear certain and definitive women: Greater use of qualifiers and hedging Focus of messaging men: Focused on self and more likely to mention "Me" or "I" women: Focused on other person and more likely to mention "We" or "You" Talking patterns men: More apt to interrupt women and talk over others women: Less apt to interrupt men and talk over others Listening men: More likely to take in words and content, less likely to use positive overlaps such as "Yea" or "I see" to demonstrate listening women: More likely to hear words and the emotions behind them, more likely to use positive overlaps such as "I agree" or "That's right" to demonstrate listening Nonverbal patterns men: Less expressive (e.g., smile less) and focus more on words than nonverbal cues, less likely to touch women: More expressive (e.g., smile more) and skilled at deciphering nonverbal cues, more likely to touch Answering questions men: Quick and to the point women: Tend to provide more information than needed Using emoticons men: Use emoticons more often to express sarcasm and banter women: Use smiling and laughing emoticons more than men

Task Identity

Task Identity—"How Many Different Tasks Are Required to Complete the Work?" Task identity describes the extent to which a job requires a worker to perform all the tasks needed to complete the job from beginning to end

team charter

Team charters should be written. This provides teams with written documentation regarding norms and other operational agreements. 1. create a team charter 2. engage in team reflexivity 3. give team members a voice

5. Team Composition

Team composition reflects the collection of jobs, personalities, values, knowledge, experience, and skills of team members

Engage in team reflexivity

Team reflexivity is a process in which team members collectively reflect on the team's objectives, strategies, and processes and adapt accordingly."94 It helps improve team performance and reduce team members' burnout because it provides them a sense of control and support. From a management perspective, teams must be given the time to engage in reflexivity.

Give team members a voice

Team voice reflects the extent to which team members feel free to "engage in the expression of constructive opinions, concerns, or ideas about work-related issues."95 Google's research on high-performing teams showed that team voice fostered a feeling of psychological safety, which is essential for innovation

8. Effective Team Processes

Teams, like individuals, get things done by turning inputs into desired outputs. High-performing teams accomplish this task by using effective team processes. Team processes are "members' interdependent acts that convert inputs to outcomes through cognitive, verbal, and behavioral activities directed toward organizing taskwork to achieve collective goals." 1. create a team charter 2. engage in team reflexivity 3. give team members a voice

Become a More Effective Team Member

Teamwork requires a group of people to integrate their efforts in the pursuit of achieving a common goal. Below are four actions you can employ to become a better team member. (1 ) Commit to the team. Vince Lombardi, considered one of the all-time best coaches in professional football, lived this philosophy. He said, "Individual commitment to a group effort—that is what makes a team work, a company work, a society work, a civilization work." We all know that one player cannot do it all in team sports. Great players, such as LeBron James, formerly from the Cleveland Cavaliers, are strategic in their approach toward teamwork. They realize that their job is to help team members raise their level of play while also inspiring and motivating them to achieve specific goals. It's the same at school and work. Consider your school project teams as an opportunity to apply your best talents toward the goal of increasing the team's overall grade. Commitment to a team comes down to your willingness to put the needs of others over self-interests. Yes, you may sacrifice some individual recognition in this process, but the team benefits. The key action here is the willingness to focus on the greater good of the team. (2) Support team members. Author Will Smith states, "If you're not making someone else's life better, then you're wasting your time. Your life will become better by making other lives better." This sentiment is precisely what it means to be a good teammate. You can provide emotional support in the form of the time you take to listen to and discuss personal matters with others. Instrumental support might entail showing someone how to complete a task or learn a new skill. It also means putting in extra hours to help the team achieve its goals. Sharing information and providing positive feedback are other forms of support. While your goal in supporting others should not be to expect something in return, you will find that the norm of reciprocity motivates others to put in more effort to help the team or you down the line. The norm of reciprocity is a powerful social norm by which we feel obligated to return favors or assistance after people have provided favors or assistance to us. (3) Bring positive emotions to the team. Leave criticism and negativity outside team meetings. They are toxic and reinforce others' tendency to complain. In contrast, positive emotions such as happiness, gratefulness, and kindness create upward spirals of positivity in others. Positive emotions in team meetings make people feel welcome and truly part of the team, which in turn fosters improved performance.126 (4) Lead by example. Demonstrate the behaviors you desire in others. If you want full commitment to team goals, commit to them yourself. If you want people to come prepared to team meetings, come overprepared. Show your colleagues that you are willing to go the extra mile to help the team achieve its goals. Like positive emotions, leadership by example creates a positive contagion motivating others to participate and increase their performance.

ISO 14000.

The ISO 14000 series extends the concept, identifying standards for environmental performance. ISO 14000 dictates standards for documenting a company's management of pollution, efficient use of raw materials, and reduction of the firm's impact on the environment.

ISO 9000.

The ISO 9000 series consists of quality-control procedures companies must install—from purchasing to manufacturing to inventory to shipping—that can be audited by independent quality-control experts, or "registrars." The goal is to reduce flaws in manufacturing and improve productivity by adopting eight "big picture" Quality Management Principles: Customer focus. Leadership. Involvement of people. Process approach. System approach to management. Continual improvement. Factual approach to decision making. Mutually beneficial supplier relationships

Behavioral Approaches: Do Leaders Show Distinctive Patterns of Behavior?

The Integrated Model of Leadership shown in Figure 14.1 showed that a leader's traits, gender, and skills directly affect the choice of four categories of leader behavior. The focus of those interested in behavioral leadership approaches is to determine the key behaviors displayed by effective leaders. These approaches identified four categories of leader behavior: Task-oriented behavior. Relationship-oriented behavior. Passive behavior. Transformational behavior

How Much of the U.S. Workforce Is Actively Engaged?

The U.S. workforce appears to be achieving at above the global average % of highly or moderately engaged employees 1. The World - 62% 2. North America - 66% 3. Europe - 57% 4. Asia Pacific - 64% 5. Latin America - 71% 6. Africa-Middle East - 67%

Being an Effective Speaker

The ability to talk to a room full of people—to make an oral presentation—is one of the greatest skills you can have. And in case you think you don't have this skill, "everyone has public speaking ability," according to one writer for the London Speaker Bureau. It's simply that some people are more practiced because they have the opportunity to use it more than others While 20 percent of more than 2,000 working U.S. professionals in a recent survey said they take almost any steps to avoid public speaking, 70 percent agreed that the ability to make a skillful presentation was "critical" to their careers. And even more said they would like to be better at it.232 In fact, reports of how widespread fear of public speaking is are probably exaggerated; it's possible that as much as 75 percent of the population shares this fear.233 Some people find public speaking a stimulating challenge and an opportunity to showcase their professional skills and reputation

The Income Statement: Picture of Organization's Financial Results for a Specified Period of Time

The balance sheet depicts the organization's overall financial worth at a specific point in time. By contrast, the income statement summarizes an organization's financial results—revenues and expenses—over a specified period of time, such as a quarter or a year.

The Balanced Scorecard: Four "Perspectives"

The balanced scorecard establishes (a) goals and (b) performance measures according to four "perspectives," or areas—financial, customer, internal business, and innovation and learning.

5. Small Things Matter during Interviews

The best résumé, experience, and career readiness will not withstand interpersonal blunders that occur during the recruitment process. Jobvite's 2017 national survey of 831 recruiters identified the following deal-breakers: "Being rude to the receptionist or other support staff (85%), checking your phone (71%), showing up late (58%), and bad hygiene (52%) are the top bad behaviors to automatically disqualify a candidate during an interview. . . . "Dressing too casually for an interview can be a deal-breaker for nearly 1 in 4 recruiters."

6. Work the Plan, Reward Yourself, and Adjust as Needed

The best-laid plans generally have unforeseen inhibitors like illness, a car breakdown, or a crashed computer. Be flexible while working your task plan. Finally, make the process fun by rewarding yourself for achieving various milestones. The reward should be something you value. One of your authors uses golf as his reward for completing his designated tasks.

Nondefensive Communication

The better alternative is nondefensive communication—communication that is assertive, direct, and powerful.

6. Cultural Area

The company's culture is an informal method of control. It influences the work process and levels of performance through the set of accepted norms and behaviors that develop as a result of the values and beliefs that constitute an organization's culture. If an organization's culture values innovation and collaboration, as at many tech start-ups, for instance, then employees are likely to be evaluated on the basis of how much they engage in collaborative activities and enhance or create new products.

2 Types of Goal Orientations

The concept of goal orientation proposes that we may have one of two reasons for trying to achieve a goal depending on our orientation (1) The learning goal orientation sees goals as a way of developing competence through the acquisition of new skills (2) the performance goal orientation sees them as a way of demonstrating and validating a competence we already have by seeking the approval of others. -people with a strong learning goal orientation appreciate opportunities to enhance their skills, such as through training, performance feedback, and the assignment of challenging tasks, while those with a strong performance orientation may be less willing to take on new challenges for fear of failure and may set lower goals for themselves to avoid making themselves vulnerable to criticism. -The learning goal orientation is generally the better of the two for jobs that call for creativity, willingness to embrace new ideas or adapt to new environments, making effective use of performance feedback, and taking a proactive, problem-solving approach. In a separate study the performance goal orientation was found to be "either unrelated or negatively related to performance" on the job.

2. Human Resources Area

The controls used to monitor employees include personality tests and drug testing for hiring, performance tests during training, performance evaluations to measure work productivity, and employee surveys to assess job satisfaction, engagement, and leadership. Adidas human resource function has expanded its role and likely its control functions as well, as the following Example box describes.

2. Intergroup Conflicts: Clashes among Work Groups, Teams, and Departments

The downside of collaboration, or the "we" feeling discussed earlier, is that it can translate into "we versus them." This produces conflict among work groups, teams, and departments within an organization. Some ways in which intergroup conflicts are expressed are as follows: Inconsistent goals or reward systems—when people pursue different objectives. It's natural for people in functional organizations to be pursuing different objectives and to be rewarded accordingly, but this means that conflict is practically built into the system. Ambiguous jurisdictions—when job boundaries are unclear. "That's not my job and those aren't my responsibilities." "Those resources belong to me because I need them as part of my job." When task responsibilities are unclear, that can often lead to conflict. This cause was partly to blame for the altercation between a store manager and two African American nonpaying guests at a Philadelphia Starbucks in 2018. The manager called police when the two guests, who were waiting to meet a friend, refused to leave. The guests were arrested. The manager's decision to call police stemmed from the company's lack of policy regarding treatment of lingering nonpaying guests Status differences—when there are inconsistencies in power and influence. It can happen that people who are lower in status according to the organization chart actually have disproportionate power over those theoretically above them, which can lead to conflicts.

Stage 1: Forming—"Why Are We Here?"

The first stage, forming, is the process of getting oriented and getting acquainted. This stage is characterized by a high degree of uncertainty as members try to break the ice and figure out who is in charge and what the group's goals are

3. Promote Yourself

The goal of self-promotion is to inform others about your value and potential impact on organizational goals. Don't confuse this with grandstanding or overtly boasting about your greatness. Use humility. You also should not assume that your good work will always be recognized and publicized, or you'll be disappointed. Here are some suggestions for effective self-promotion: Discuss your accomplishments and the specific actions you took to make them happen. Focus on facts and figures rather than personality to avoid a perception of self-interest. Discuss the benefits your actions had on your team, department, or division. This forces you to take a "big picture" perspective, which also minimizes the impression of self-interest. Discuss how others contributed to the accomplishments. Sharing the limelight reinforces that you are a team player, which is another career readiness competency.

Functional conflict—good for organizations

The good kind of conflict is functional conflict, which benefits the main purposes of the organization and serves its interests. This type of conflict is also called productive conflict and occurs "when team members openly discuss disagreements and divergent perspectives without fear, anxiety, or perceived threat For instance, Facebook's recent acknowledgement that the personal data of 87 million users was improperly accessed by marketing and political consulting firms raised multiple questions for the company. Public anger and mistrust brought founder and CEO Mark Zuckerberg before a wary Congress to testify about the company's security procedures and transparency. It seems possible that the result will be revamped internal policies and perhaps even new government regulations that will make the company a more trusted platform for its nearly 1.5 billion daily users worldwide

The Grapevine

The grapevine is the unofficial communication system of the informal organization, a network of in-person and online gossip and rumor. Workplace gossip can be positive or negative, and it serves important functions.26 For example, research shows that the grapevine delivers as much as 70 percent of all organizational communication, although only a little more than half of executives understand that the rumor mill is more active when official communication is lacking.

Job Enlargement: Putting More Variety into a Job

The opposite of scientific management, job enlargement consists of increasing the number of tasks in a job to increase variety and motivation. For instance, the job of installing flat screens in television sets could be enlarged to include installation of the circuit boards as well.

3. Internal Business Perspective: "At What Must We Excel?"

The internal business perspective focuses on "what the organization must excel at" to effectively meet its financial objectives and customers' expectations. A team of researchers identified four critical high-level internal processes that managers are encouraged to measure and manage: Innovation. Customer service and satisfaction. Operational excellence, which includes safety and quality. Good corporate citizenship.58 These processes influence productivity, efficiency, quality, safety, and a host of other internal metrics. Companies tend to adopt continuous improvement programs in pursuit of upgrades to their internal processes.

Build Personal Connections

The key is to draw people into meaningful conversations. People will remember more about you if the conversation is meaningful and has some degree of emotionality. For example, you probably won't be remembered if you lead with: So where do you work? Where are you from? Do live nearby? You'll get a more positive response by asking insightful or interesting questions. One consultant suggested using questions such as, "Have you been working on anything exciting recently?" or "Any exciting plans this summer?"245 To create emotionality in the conversation, you might ask, "What was the highlight of your day?" or "What's keeping you awake at night?"246 By asking good questions you not only create a positive first impression, but you might cause the other person to learn something that helps him or her grow.

Is the LMX Model Useful?

The key takeaway for you is to take ownership of bad relationships with bosses. You should not expect your boss to change if you have a poor relationship. Yes! Consider that a high LMX is associated with individual-level behavioral outcomes like task performance, turnover, organizational citizenship, counterproductive behavior, and attitudinal outcomes such as organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and justice.153 More importantly, a recent study showed that task, relationship, and transformational leadership all have their positive effects on employees via their immediate impact on the quality of an LMX. This led a team of researchers to conclude that "If leaders want to serve as a catalyst for high levels of follower performance, our results suggest that they need to focus on one particular follower perception."154 This is important because it tells us that "the effectiveness of any given leadership behavior is likely to be influenced by the followers' perceptions of their relationship with their leader, such that followers with good relationships with their leader will respond more positively in terms of performance to a given leadership behavior, compared to followers with poor relationship with their leader."

the medium

The means by which you as a communicator send a message is important, whether it is typing a text or an e-mail, hand-scrawling a note, or communicating by voice in person or by phone or videoconference. the medium, the pathway by which a message travels: Sender [Encoding] → Message [Medium] Message → [Decoding] Receiver

Devil's advocacy and dialect method

The method for getting people to engage in this debate of ideas is to do disciplined role-playing, for which two proven methods are available: devil's advocacy and the dialectic method. These two methods work as follows: Devil's advocacy is the process of assigning someone to play the role of critic to voice possible objections to a proposal and thereby generate critical thinking and reality testing. The dialectic method—role-playing two sides of a proposal to test whether it is workable. Requiring a bit more skill training than devil's advocacy does, the dialectic method is the process of having two people or groups play opposing roles in a debate in order to better understand a proposal. After the structured debate, managers are more equipped to make an intelligent decision

self-awareness

The most essential trait. This is the ability to read your own emotions and gaugeyour moods accurately, so you know how you're affecting other

1. The Contingency Leadership Model: Fiedler's Approach

The oldest model of the contingency approach to leadership was developed by Fred Fiedler and his associates in 1951.118 The contingency leadership model determines if a leader's style is (1) task-oriented or (2) relationship-oriented and if that style is effective for the situation at hand. Fiedler's work was based on 80 studies conducted over 30 years.

1. Physical Area

The physical area includes buildings, equipment, and tangible products.

Task-Oriented Leader Behaviors: Initiating-Structure Leadership and Transactional Leadership

The primary purpose of task-oriented leadership behaviors is to ensure that people, equipment, and other resources are used in an efficient way to accomplish the mission of a group or organization.79 Examples of task-oriented behaviors are planning, clarifying, monitoring, and problem solving. However, two kinds are particularly important: (1) initiating-structure leadership and (2) transactional leadership.80

4. The Recency Effect: "The Most Recent Impressions Are the Ones That Count"

The recency effect is the tendency to remember recent information better than earlier information, perhaps because when you activate your recall, the later recollections are still present in working memory. You see this misperception often operating among investors (even professionals), who are more likely to buy a stock if they see something about it in the news or if it has a high one-day return

When relationship-oriented style is best

The relationship-oriented style works best in situations of moderate control. Example: Suppose you were working in a government job supervising a group of firefighters fighting wildfires. You might have (1) low leader-member relations if you are promoted over others in the group but (2) high task structure, because the job is fairly well defined. (3) You might have low position power, because the rigidity of the civil-service job prohibits you from doing much in the way of rewarding and punishing. Thus, in this moderate-control situation, relationship-oriented leadership would be most effective. What do you do if your leadership orientation does not match the situation? Then, says Fiedler, it's better to try to move leaders into suitable situations rather than try to alter their personalities to fit the situations.119 Fiedler does not believe that people can change their basic leadership style.

2. Measure Performance: "What Is the Actual Outcome We Got?"

The second step in the control process is to measure performance, such as by number of products sold, units produced, time to completion, or cost per item sold. Performance data are usually obtained from five sources: (1) employee behavior and deliverables, (2) peer input or observations, (3) customer feedback, (4) managerial evaluations, and (5) output from a production process. Example: This is harder than you think. Consider the example of measuring the length of a marathon. Kimberly Nickel thought she ran a personal best of 4 hours 37 minutes in the PNC Milwaukee Marathon. She proudly posted a selfie on Facebook showing the medal she received. Later that day, however, she received a note from race organizers indicating that "the 26.2 mile course had been laid out incorrectly, making it about 0.8 miles too short and disqualifying the race as an official or certified marathon." Nickel sadly took down the posted photos.

The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy, or Pygmalion Effect

The self-fulfilling prophecy, also known as the Pygmalion ("pig-mail-yun") effect, describes the phenomenon in which people's expectations of themselves or others lead them to behave in ways that make those expectations come true.

Six Areas of Control

The six areas of organizational control are physical, human, informational, financial, structural, and cultural.

Controlling the Supply Chain

The supply chain is the sequence of suppliers that contribute to creating and delivering a product, from raw materials to production to final buyers. Supply chains are a major cost center for most companies, and the way firms structure the distribution of their products can have enormous financial impact.

Three Kinds of Conflict: Personality, Intergroup, and Cross-Cultural

There are a variety of sources of conflict—so-called conflict triggers. Three of the principal ones are (1) between personalities, (2) between groups, and (3) between cultures. By understanding these, you'll be better able to take charge and manage the conflicts rather than letting the conflicts take you by surprise and manage you.

When task-oriented style is best.

The task-oriented style works best in either high-control or low-control situations. Example of a high-control situation (leader decisions produce predictable results because he or she can influence work outcomes): Suppose you were supervising parking-control officers ticketing cars parked illegally in expired meter zones, bus zones, and the like. You have (1) high leader-member relations because your subordinates are highly supportive of you and (2) high task structure because their jobs are clearly defined. (3) You have high position control because you have complete authority to evaluate their performance and dole out punishment and rewards. Thus, a task-oriented style would be best. Example of a low-control situation (leader decisions can't produce predictable results because he or she can't really influence outcomes): Suppose you were a high school principal trying to clean up graffiti on your private-school campus, helped only by students you can find after school. You might have (1) low leader-member relations because many people might not see the need for the goal. (2) The task structure might also be low because people might see many different ways to achieve the goal. And (3) your position power would be low Page 559because the committee is voluntary and people are free to leave. In this low-control situation, a task-oriented style would also be best.

Servant-Leadership: "I Want to Serve Others and the Organization, Not Myself"

The term servant leadership, coined by Robert Greenleaf in 1970, reflects not only his onetime background as a management researcher for AT&T but also his views as a lifelong philosopher and devout Quaker.110 Servant-leadership focuses on providing increased service to others—meeting the goals of both followers and the organization—rather than to yourself. CEOs Mike DeFrino from Kimpton Hotels and Marc Benioff from Salesforce.com are servant leaders (see the Example feature below).

3. Compare Performance to Standards: "How Do the Desired and Actual Outcomes Differ?"

The third step in the control process is to compare measured performance against the standards established. Most managers are delighted with performance that exceeds standards, which becomes an occasion for handing out bonuses, promotions, and perhaps offices with a view. For performance that is below standards, they need to ask: Is the deviation from performance significant? The greater the difference between desired and actual performance, the greater the need for action. How much deviation is acceptable? That depends on the range of variation built in to the standards in step 1. In voting for political candidates, for instance, there is supposed to be no range of variation; as the expression goes, "every vote counts." In political polling, however, a range of 3 percent-4 percent error is considered an acceptable range of variation. In machining parts for the solar-powered space probe Juno, currently orbiting Jupiter after a five-year journey, NASA engineers could tolerate a range of variation a good deal smaller than someone machining parts for a power lawnmower. Employees and managers use control charts to monitor the amount of variation in a work process. Control charts are a visual statistical tool used for quality control purposes. They help managers set upper and lower quality limits on a process and then monitor (control) performance in order to keep it within these limits, correcting course if results stray above the upper or below the lower limit over time.18 Managers construct control charts by looking at historical data for the process they want to measure, such as number of tax returns completed by a CPA firm per week, tons of steel produced by a manufacturer per day, or dollar volume of charitable contributions solicited by a nonprofit during a month-long fund drive. They then use that information to establish the normal or desired performance and its allowable upper and lower limits. (See Figure 16.4.) Each of these flows has a separate horizontal line on the chart, which also functions as a timeline

Levels of Control: Strategic, Tactical, and Operational

There are three levels of control, which correspond to the three principal managerial levels: strategic planning by top managers, tactical planning by middle managers, and operational planning by first-line (supervisory) managers and team leaders.

Social Media Has Changed the Fabric of Our Lives

The widespread use of social media is changing our personal lives and the very nature of how businesses operate and the principles of management. A recent survey of 9,200 travelers across 31 countries, for example, provides insight into the impact of social media in our lives. Eighty-one percent reported that they would rather travel with their mobile devices than with a loved one. From a business perspective, Facebook's new live streaming feature may not yet rival its main social media site in popularity, but it has already attracted small business users who compare its features and benefits with that of Periscope, a similar application from Twitter. Despite some differences, both channels allow business managers to reach and interact with customers in new ways. R * researchers suggest that application of such tools can increase a company's brand awareness and sales

Types of Controls

There are three types of control: feedforward, concurrent, and feedback. They vary based on timing.

Reducing Stressors in the Organization

There are all kinds of buffers, or administrative changes, that managers can make to reduce stressors and improve employee well-being Build resilience. Resilience represents the capacity to consistently bounce back from adversity and to sustain yourself when confronted with challenges. It is a career readiness competency desired by employers. - Do you think people are born resilient, or is it something that is learned over time? The consensus is that it represents a capacity that is developed over time.271 Consider the example of inventor James Dyson. Dyson spent five years testing more than 5,000 versions of what he hoped would be a better vacuum cleaner that operated on the same principle as a cyclone. Today, his company, named after him, markets the Dual Cyclone bagless vacuum and almost 60 other products and is worth $4.8 billion. Roll out employee assistance programs. Employee assistance programs (EAPs) include a host of programs aimed at helping employees to cope with stress, burnout, substance abuse, health-related problems, family and marital issues, and any general problem that negatively influences job performance Recommend a holistic wellness approach. A holistic wellness program focuses on self-responsibility, nutritional awareness, relaxation techniques, physical fitness, and environmental awareness. This approach goes beyond stress reduction by encouraging employees to try to balance physical, mental, and social well-being by accepting personal responsibility for developing and adhering to a health promotion program. Google's wellness program is discussed in the Example box.

Using Reinforcement to Motivate Employees Positive Reinforcement

There are several aspects of positive reinforcement, which should definitely be part of your toolkit of managerial skills: - Reward only desirable behavior. You should give rewards to your employees only when they show desirable behavior. Thus, for example, you should give praise to employees not for showing up for work on time (an expected part of any job) but for showing up early. - Give rewards as soon as possible. You should give a reward as soon as possible after the desirable behavior appears. Thus, you should give praise to an early-arriving employee as soon as he or she arrives, not later in the week. - Be clear about what behavior is desired. Clear communication is everything. You should tell employees exactly what kinds of work behaviors are desirable, and you should tell everyone exactly what he or she must do to earn rewards. - Have different rewards and recognize individual differences. Recognizing that different people respond to different kinds of rewards, you should have different rewards available. Thus, you might give a word of praise verbally to one person, text or e-mail a line or two to another person, or send a hand-scrawled note to another.

The Four Major Perspectives on Motivation: An Overview

There is no theory accepted by everyone as to what motivates people. In this chapter, therefore, we present the four principal perspectives. From these, you may be able to select what ideas seem most workable to you. The four perspectives on motivation are (1) content, (2) process, (3) job design, and (4) reinforcement

Using Two-Factor Theory to Motivate Employees

There will always be some employees who dislike their jobs, but the basic lesson of Herzberg's research is that you should first eliminate dissatisfaction (hygiene factors), making sure that working conditions, pay levels, and company policies are reasonable. You should then concentrate on spurring motivation by providing opportunities for achievement, recognition, responsibility, and personal growth (motivating factors).

Ralph Stogdill

These are the five traits that researcher Ralph Stogdill in 1948 concluded were typical of successful leaders.38 Stogdill is one of many contributors to trait approaches to leadership, which attempt to identify distinctive characteristics that account for the effectiveness of leaders.

Task-oriented leadership behaviors

These ensure that people, equipment, and other resources are used in an efficient way to accomplish the mission. two types - initiating-structure - leadership organizes and defines what employees should be doing to maximize output. -Transactional leadership clarifies employees' roles and task requirements and provides rewards and punishments contingent on performance

Step 2: Identify "good attitude" behaviors.

This step aims to assist you in breaking down the concept of "good attitudes" into specific behaviors. Once you identify the behaviors, your task is to focus on displaying them at work. Follow these recommendations Begin by defining what it means to have a good attitude. Think of people you know who display great attitudes. Next, generate a list of the characteristics they possess and the positive behaviors they exhibit at work. Take the first item on your list and break it down into smaller behavioral components. Describe it; then describe it some more. For example, if being "pleasant to others" is an exemplar of a good attitude, describe what this looks like. A pleasant person says hello to all colleagues. Describing this further leads to, "She walks over to each person's desk in the morning and says, 'Hello, did you have a good evening?'" Describing it further shows that this person occasionally brings breakfast treats such as sweet rolls to share. Repeat the above step for each item on your "good attitude" list. Review the list of detailed behaviors and identify any themes. Are there any recurring behaviors, expressions, or gestures? Select a minimum of three behavioral themes or specific behaviors you want to focus on over the next two weeks. Consider situations in which these behaviors might be exhibited. Exhibit the targeted behaviors in the targeted situations. Observe how people react to you when you exhibit these positive behaviors. If the reaction is not positive, consider why. Repeat the last two steps for another set of behaviors.

4. Take Corrective Action, If Necessary: "What Changes Should We Make to Obtain Desirable Outcomes?"

This step concerns feedback—modifying, if necessary, the control process according to the results or effects. This might be a dynamic process that will produce different effects every time you put the system to use. There are three possibilities here: (1) Make no changes. (2) Recognize and reinforce positive performance. (3) Take action to correct negative performance. When performance meets or exceeds the standards set, managers should give rewards, ranging from giving a verbal "Job well done" to more substantial payoffs such as raises, bonuses, and promotions to reinforce good behavior.

Behavior: How Values and Attitudes Affect People's Actions and Judgments

Together, however, values and attitudes influence people's workplace behavior—their actions and judgments

Core TQM Principles: Deliver Customer Value and Strive for Continuous Improvement

Total quality management (TQM) is defined as a comprehensive approach—led by top management and supported throughout the organization—dedicated to continuous quality improvement, training, and customer satisfaction. TQM is not easy to achieve. Ayesha Al Mehairbi, for example, discusses the challenges of pursuing continuous improvement in a plastics solutions company.

2. Idealized Influence: "We Are Here to Do the Right Thing"

Transformational leaders are able to inspire trust in their followers because they express their integrity by being consistent, single-minded, and persistent in pursuit of their goal. Not only do they display high ethical standards and act as models of desirable values, but they are also able to make sacrifices for the greater good.

4. Intellectual Stimulation: "Let Me Describe the Great Challenges We Can Conquer Together"

Transformational leaders are gifted at communicating the organization's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats so that subordinates develop a new sense of purpose. Employees become less apt to view problems as insurmountable or "that's not my department." Instead they learn to view them as personal challenges that they are responsible for overcoming, to question the status quo, and to seek creative solutions.

3. Individualized Consideration: "You Have the Opportunity Here to Grow and Excel"

Transformational leaders don't just express concern for subordinates' well-being. They actively encourage them to grow and to excel by giving them challenging work, more responsibility, empowerment, and one-on-one mentoring.

1. Inspirational Motivation: "Let Me Share a Vision That Transcends Us All"

Transformational leaders have charisma ("kar-riz-muh"), a form of interpersonal attraction that inspires acceptance and support. At one time, charismatic leadership—which was assumed to be an individual inspirational and motivational characteristic of particular leaders, much like other trait-theory characteristics—was viewed as a category of its own, but now it is considered part of transformational leadership.139 Someone with charisma, then, is more able to persuade and influence people and to make others feel comfortable and at ease than someone without charisma.

Transformational Leaders

Transformational leadership transforms employees to pursue organizational goals over self-interests. Transformational leaders, in one description, "engender trust, seek to develop leadership in others, exhibit self-sacrifice, and serve as moral agents, focusing themselves and followers on objectives that transcend the more immediate needs of the work group."129 Whereas transactional leaders try to get people to do ordinary things, transformational leaders encourage their people to do exceptional things—significantly higher levels of intrinsic motivation, trust, commitment, and loyalty—that can produce significant organizational change and results. influenced by 2 factors: Individual characteristics. The personalities of such leaders tend to be more extroverted, agreeable, proactive, and open to change than nontransformational leaders. (Female leaders tend to use transformational leadership more than male leaders do.)130 Organizational culture. Adaptive, flexible organizational cultures are more likely than are rigid, bureaucratic cultures to foster transformational leadership.

2. Equality

Treat the other's status and ideas as equal to yours, allowing that person time to completely express his or her opinions. Evaluate all ideas fairly and logically, without regard to ownership.

2. Trust: "We Need to Have Reciprocal Faith in Each Other"

Trust is defined as reciprocal faith in others' intentions and behaviors. The word reciprocal emphasizes the give-and-take aspect of trust—that is, we tend to give what we get: Trust begets trust, distrust begets distrust. Trust is based on credibility—how believable you are based on your past acts of integrity and follow-through on your promises. Four decades of research supports a positive relationship between team members' trust and team performance

3. Empathy

Try to connect with the other person's feelings and point of view, showing you are truly listening by using such expressions as "I suspect you are disappointed in . . ."

visual representation of the four perspectives

Visual representation of the four perspectives of thebalanced scorecard thatenables managers tocommunicate their goalsso that everyone in thecompany can understandhow their jobs are linkedtothe overall objectives of the organization

Tips for Better E-mail Handling

Turn off all noncritical notifications and unsubscribe from newsletters. An important first step is to reduce the amount of unnecessary e-mail you get. Set aside one or two 15-minute periods each day to review e-mail. Don't check it compulsively, and try not to read or send e-mails before or after work hours. About 40% of Gen X and Gen Y employees say they do so, but intrusions into off-work hours can disrupt work-life balance. Treat all e-mail as confidential. See the discussion of privacy above. Also think twice about including other people in your message who may not need to read it. Be brief and professional, and proofread (twice). Keep your message as short as possible and avoid spelling, grammatical, and other errors, especially in people's names and titles. Save emojis for personal messages. Remember that not every topic belongs on e-mail. Complicated or controversial topics may be better discussed on the phone or in person to avoid misunderstandings. Remember that e-mails represent business records. E-mails can become the subject of disclosure in lawsuits. Be careful what you write; it may be used against you or your company in a court of law.

contingency factors

Two contingency factors, or variables—employee characteristics and environmental factors—cause some leadership behaviors to be more effective than others. Employee characteristics. Five employee characteristics are locus of control (described in Chapter 11), task ability, need for achievement, experience, and need for path-goal clarity. Environmental factors. Two environmental factors are task structure (independent versus interdependent tasks) and work group dynamics. Leader behaviors. Originally, House proposed that there were four leader behaviors, or leadership styles—directive ("Here's what's expected of you and here's how to do it"), supportive ("I want things to be pleasant, since everyone's about equal here"), participative ("I want your suggestions in order to help me make decisions"), and achievement-oriented ("I'm confident you can accomplish the following great things"). The revised theory expands the number of leader behaviors from four to eight

noise

Unfortunately, the entire communication process can be disrupted at several different points by noise—any disturbance that interferes with the transmission of a message. Noise can occur in the medium, of course, in the form of static in a radio transmission, fadeout on a cell phone, or loud music when you're trying to talk in a restaurant. Laptops, for example, are a source of noise when used by college students to take notes during lectures. A growing body of research shows that "college students learn less when they use computers or laptops during lectures

Using Reinforcement to Motivate Employees Punishment

Unquestionably there will be times when you'll need to threaten or administer an unpleasant consequence to stop an employee's undesirable behavior. Sometimes it's best to address a problem by combining punishment with positive reinforcement. Some suggestions for using punishment are as follows. - Punish only undesirable behavior. You should give punishment only when employees show frequent undesirable behavior. Otherwise, employees may come to view you negatively, as a tyrannical boss. Thus, for example, you should reprimand employees who show up, say, a half hour late for work but not 5 or 10 minutes late.Page 486 - Give reprimands or disciplinary actions as soon as possible. You should mete out punishment as soon as possible after the undesirable behavior occurs. Thus, you should give a reprimand to a late-arriving employee as soon as he or she arrives. - Be clear about what behavior is undesirable. Tell employees exactly what kinds of work behaviors are undesirable and make sure the severity of the disciplinary action or reprimand matches the severity of the behavior. A manager should not, for example, dock an hourly employee's pay if he or she is only 5 or 10 minutes late for work. - Administer punishment in private. You would hate to have your boss chew you out in front of your subordinates, and the people who report to you also shouldn't be reprimanded in public, which would lead only to resentments that may have nothing to do with an employee's infractions. Combine punishment and positive reinforcement. If you're reprimanding an employee, be sure to also say what he or she is doing right and state what rewards the employee might be eligible for. For example, while reprimanding someone for being late, say that a perfect attendance record over the next few months will put that employee in line for a raise or promotion

Upward communication—from bottom to top.

Upward communication flows from a lower level to a higher level(s). Often, this type of communication is from a subordinate to his or her immediate manager, who in turn will relay it up to the next level, if necessary. Effective upward communication depends on an atmosphere of trust. Employees are less likely to pass on bad news when they don't trust the boss.

So What Do We Know about the Situational Approaches?

Use more than one leadership style. Effective leaders possess and use more than one style of leadership. Thus, you are encouraged to study the eight styles offered in path-goal theory so that you can try new leader behaviors when a situation calls for them. Help employees achieve their goals. Leaders should guide and coach employees in achieving their goals by clarifying the path and removing obstacles to accomplishing them. Effective coaching was found to increase employees' performance. Managers need to alter their leadership behavior for each situation. A small set of employee characteristics (ability, experience, and need for independence) and environmental factors (task characteristics of autonomy, variety, and significance) are relevant contingency factors, and managers should modify their leadership style to fit them. The career readiness competencies of emotional and social intelligence are helpful tools for doing so. Provide what people and teams need to succeed. View your role as providing others with whatever they need to achieve their goals. For some it could be encouragement, and for others it could be direction and coaching.

defensive communication

Using evaluative or judgmental comments such as "Your work is terrible" or "You're always late for meetings" spurs defensiveness, which can lead to defensive communication—either aggressive, attacking, angry communication or passive, withdrawing communication.

Values + Attitude = Behavior

Values • Abstract ideals that guide one's thinking and behavior across all situations Attitude • Learned predisposition toward a given object Behavior• One's actions and judgments (influenced by values and attitude)

1. Vertical Communication: Up and Down the Chain of Command

Vertical communication is the flow of messages up and down the hierarchy within the organization: bosses communicating with subordinates, subordinates communicating with bosses. As you might expect, the more management levels through which a message passes, the more it is prone to some distortion. downward communication upward communication

virtual teams

Virtual teams work together over time and distance via electronic media to combine effort and achieve common goals. Given technological advances, they are growing in popularity. In a recent survey of nearly 1,400 respondents in 80 countries, 85 percent reported working on at least one virtual team, and most worked on more than one such team. Nearly half reported that their teams consisted of people from different countries or cultures.

The Need for a Positive Work Environment

Wanting to work in a positive environment begins with the idea of well-being. Well-being is the combined impact of five elements—positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and achievement (PERMA), according to renowned psychologist Martin Seligman.159 There is one essential consideration to remember about these elements: We must pursue them for their own sake, not as a means to obtain another outcome. In other words, well-being comes about by freely pursuing one or more of the five elements in PERMA. Flourishing represents the extent to which our lives contain PERMA

Step 1: Identify potentially bad attitudes.

We all have bad days or stressful moments. The purpose of this step is to identify the types of negative behaviors that tend to crop up when you have a bad day or a stressful moment. This awareness can help you replace potentially negative behaviors with positive ones. Answer the following questions - Are you an entangler? Entanglers want to involve others in their interests. They push their concerns and want to be heard, noticed, and listened to. - Are you a debater? Debaters like to argue even if there is no issue to debate. - Are you a complainer? Complainers point out the problems in a situation but rarely provide solutions of their own. - Are you a blamer? Blamers are like complainers but point out negatives aimed at a particular individual. - Are you a stink bomb thrower? Stink bomb throwers like to make sarcastic or cynical remarks, use nonverbal gestures of disgust or annoyance, and sometimes yell or slam things

3. Overemphasis on Means Instead of Ends

We said that control activities should be strategic and results oriented. They are not ends in themselves but the means to eliminating problems. Too much emphasis on accountability for weekly production quotas, for example, can lead production supervisors to push their workers and equipment too hard, resulting in absenteeism and machine breakdowns. Or it can lead to game playing—"beating the system"—as managers and employees manipulate data to seem to fulfill short-run goals instead of the organization's strategic plan.

Improve Your Face-to-Face Networking Skills

We're sure you've heard the phrase, "It's not what you know, it's who you know." A recent survey of 3,000 people supported this conclusion. Results showed that 85 percent of the respondents had found their jobs via networking.238 Unfortunately, many of us dislike networking and even view it as "insincere and manipulative, even slightly unethical," according to The Wall Street Journal.239 We suspect these negative feelings are partly driven by the fact that "many of us aren't sure where to start, what to say when we connect with someone or how to maintain that relationship."240 Even though there is some art and science to networking, we believe the following four tips can improve your networking competencies.

1. Personality Conflicts: Clashes Because of Personal Dislikes or Disagreements

We've all had confrontations, weak or strong, with people because we disagreed with them or disliked their personalities, such as their opinions, their behavior, their looks, whatever. Personality conflict is defined as interpersonal opposition based on personal dislike or disagreement. Such conflicts often begin with instances of workplace incivility, or employees' lack of regard for each other, which, if not curtailed, can diminish job satisfaction, health, and customer service. levels of Unfortunately, personality conflicts are quite common. A recent report found that 62 percent of employees reported experiencing rude treatment by a colleague at least once a month in 2016, compared to 49 percent in 1998 and 55 percent in 2011.106 A summary of research on stress found that 28 percent of workers cited "people issues" as a leading cause of stress at work

1. Eye Contact

Westerners use eye contact to signal the beginning and end of a conversation, to reflect interest and attention, and to convey both honesty and respect. Most people from Western cultures tend to avoid eye contact when conveying bad news or negative feedback. Asians, however, lower their eyes to show respect, while members of Latin cultures do so to show remorse.82 Interpreting these nonverbal communications as evasive behavior will lead to misunderstanding

Important Workplace Behaviors

Why, as a manager, do you need to learn how to manage individual differences? The answer, as you might expect, is so that you can influence employees' behavior. Among the types of behavior are (1) performance and productivity, (2) absenteeism and turnover, (3) organizational citizenship behaviors, and (4) counterproductive work behaviors.

3. Multicultural Conflicts: Clashes between Cultures

With cross-border mergers, joint ventures, and international alliances common features of the global economy, there are frequent opportunities for clashes between cultures. Often success or failure, when business is being conducted across cultures, arises from dealing with differing assumptions about how to think and act. One study of 409 expatriates (14 percent of them female) working for U.S. and Canadian multinational firms in 51 countries identified nine specific ways to facilitate interaction with host-country nationals, the results of which are shown at left. (See Table 13.3.) Note that "Be a good listener" tops the list—the very thing lacking in so many U.S. managers, who are criticized for being blunt to the point of insensitivity.109 Looking beyond your own cultural lens and resolving not to make assumptions are other suggestions.110 To avoid conflict through misunderstanding when you are speaking in public to a diverse or international audience, the need for sensitivity to your hearers suggests sticking to your native language, avoiding jokes that can misfire, and paring away slang and jargon

Stock options

With stock options, certain employees are given the right to buy stock at a future date for a discounted price. Among the largest U.S. companies granting stock options to their employees are Nordstrom, Whole Foods, Aflac, The Cheesecake Factory, and Genentech. The motivator here is that employees holding stock options will supposedly work hard to make the company's stock rise so that they can obtain it at a cheaper price.

Variations in Trustworthiness and Credibility

Without trust between you and the other person, communication is apt to be flawed. Instead of communicating, both of you will be concentrating on defensive tactics, not the meaning of the message being exchanged. In the end, low trust damages communication, which in turn reduces outcomes like job satisfaction, creativity, collaboration, and performance.52 The solution, says writer Martin Zwilling, is to work on relationships first. "When people are listening to someone with confidence and trust, there is a predisposition to hear the message and agree.

Fact versus Fiction: What Are the Basic Statistics?

Women make up more than half the workforce and more than half of all college students in the United States.48 There were 32 women CEOs leading Fortune 500 companies in 2017, a tiny number but more than ever before.49 The popular press has promoted the idea that companies have significantly higher financial performance when females are members of what is called the upper echelon, which includes the CEO and the top management team team (TMT).50 Research tells us, however, that this conclusion is somewhat overstated. A recent academic meta-analysis summarizing 146 studies from 33 different countries uncovered two positive conclusions about the percentage of females in a company's upper echelon: (1) "there is no cumulative . . . evidence of long-term performance declines for firms that have more females in their upper echelons" and (2) "there are small but dependably positive associations of female representation in CEO positions and TMTs with long-term value creation."51

Work-life benefits

Work-life benefits are employer-sponsored benefit programs or initiatives designed to help all employees balance work life with home life The purpose of such benefits is to remove barriers that make it hard for people to strike a balance between their work and personal lives, such as allowing parents time off to take care of sick children. The worst obstacles to work-life balance, according to one survey, are bad bosses—defined as "demanding, overbearing, and mean." Constant work beyond standard business hours and inflexible scheduling tied for second. Third were incompetent colleagues and long commutes Work-life benefits include helping employees with day care costs or even establishing onsite centers; offering domestic-partner benefits; giving job-protected leave for new parents; and providing technology, such as mobile phones and laptops, to enable parents to work at home.146 (Unfortunately, the workplace culture often tends to discourage paid leave for parents, particularly fathers. How good are U.S. employers at making work-life benefits available? The United States actually ranks fairly low on this feature—29th out of 36 on a list of countries with the best work-life balance.148 And although two-thirds (67 percent) of HR professionals think their employees have a balanced work life, according to one survey, among employees themselves nearly half (45 percent) still crave more time each week for personal activities

dashboard

Wouldn't you, as a top manager, like to have displayed in easy-to-read graphics all the information on sales, orders, and the like assembled from data pulled in real-time from corporate software? The technology exists and it has a name: a dashboard, like the instrument panel in a car. Bob Parsons, founder of GoDaddy, believed in dashboards. "Measure everything of significance. Anything that is measured and watched improves," he said.52 Throughout this book we have stressed the importance of evidence-based management—the use of real-world data rather than fads and hunches in making management decisions. When properly done, the dashboard is an example of the important tools that make this kind of management possible. The balanced scorecard is another.

Being an Effective Writer

Writing is an essential career readiness and management skill, all the more so because e-mail and texting have replaced the telephone in so much of business communication. Taking a business writing class can be a major advantage. (Indeed, as a manager, you may have to identify employees who need writing training.) - Start with your purpose Rather than building up to the point, if you are delivering routine or positive news you should start by telling your purpose and stating what you expect of the reader. Along the same lines, when e-mailing, make sure the subject line clearly expresses your reason for writing. For instance, "Who is available Thursday afternoon?" does not inform the reader of your topic as well as "Davis project meeting moved to Thursday 3 p.m." does. Don't Show Ignorance of the Basics Texting has made many people more relaxed about spelling and grammar rules. Although this is fine among friends, as a manager you'll need to create a more favorable impression in your writing. Besides using spelling and grammar checkers, proofread your writing before sending it on. Check people's names and titles in particular, and be especially aware that auto-correct features can make incorrect assumptions about what you meant to say.

Are There Social Forces Working against Women Leaders?

Yes, according to these data. There are more women leaders in health care, education, and retail industries than in consumer products, transportation, tech, energy, and automotive industries. But nowhere do their numbers approach their proportion in the overall population, and women managers are also less likely to get plum assignments or international experience.59 Why do these differences in leadership opportunities persist? A new Pew Research study of the gender attitudes of more than 4,500 U.S. adults suggests that social attitudes "shape how women are viewed in the workplace and whether or not women's ambition to reach leadership positions is supported." For instance, although most people actually don't see gender differences in workplace behavior and success, among those who do, 61 percent of men believe the differences are due to biology, while 65 percent of women say they come from society's differing expectations of men and women Another factor the Pew study identified is that U.S. adults value attractiveness (35 percent) and empathy/nurturing (30 percent) most in women, with only 9 percent valuing ambition and leadership. Highly valued in men are "honesty and morality" (33 percent), followed by professional and financial success (23 percent). Almost 3 in 10 respondents to the study actually said women should not have ambition, leadership, or assertive traits. More believed women face pressure to be involved parents than believed men do (77 percent versus 49 percent). More than half the women surveyed (52 percent) felt they were under pressure to be successful in their careers, while only 38 percent of men thought women faced this stress. Studies of more than 37,000 managers showed that the display of "ineffective interpersonal behaviors were slightly less frequent among female managers but slightly more damaging to women than men when present." Female CEOs receive more scrutiny than male CEOs, according to an 18-year dataset of activist investors. An activist investor is a shareholder who owns more than 5 percent of a public company's voting stock and desires to change management practices. Results showed that "female CEOs are more likely than male CEOs to come under threat from activist investors, and also are more likely to have simultaneous threats from multiple activist investors."63 Female CEOs clearly experience greater monitoring and pressure from activist investors than do male CEOs.

efficient communicator and effective communicator

You are an efficient communicator when you can transmit your message accurately in the least time. You are an effective communicator when your intended message is accurately understood by the other person. Thus, you may well be efficient in sending a group of people a reprimand by e-mail. But it may not be effective if it makes them angry so that they can't absorb its meaning.

improve communication skills

You can improve your communication skills by recognizing the need to also develop the following competencies: new media literacy, oral/written communication, teamwork/collaboration, leadership, social intelligence, networking, emotional intelligence, self-motivation, positive approach, career management, self-awareness, and generalized self-efficacy.

1. Identify Your "Wildly Important" Long-Term Goal

Your goal can be as long term as a personal vision statement, or as short term such as getting a job after graduation that fits your needs and values and pays a decent salary. The wildly important goal is your "north star" or guiding purpose. State your Wildly Important Goal in terms of the SMART framework: specific, measurable, attainable, results-oriented and contain target dates

managerial success

Your success as a manager is based on the performance of your employees If you don't really, really want to be a manager, don't become one If you really do want to be a manager, do all you can to be a good one Don't be a Jerk!

Incremental Budgeting

allocates increased or decreased funds to a department by using the last budget period as a reference point; only incremental changes in the budget request are reviewed. One difficulty is that incremental Page 651budgets tend to lock departments into stable spending arrangements; they are not flexible in meeting environmental demands. Another difficulty is that a department may engage in many activities—some more important than others—but it's not easy to sort out how well managers performed at the various activities. Thus, the department activities and the yearly budget increases take on lives of their own.

Conceptual skills to draft an organization's mission, vision, strategies, and implementation plans

also called strategic skills why leaders need it: Conceptual skills matter most for individuals in the top ranks in an organization. Entrepreneurs may have their conceptual skills tested on a regular basis. Sara Blakely's father regularly asked her, "What have you failed at this week?" After repeated setbacks, she eventually came up with the line of slimming intimate wear she called Spanx.

Content Perspectives

also known as need-based perspectives, are theories that emphasize the needs that motivate people. Content theorists ask, "What kind of needs motivate employees in the workplace?" Needs are defined as physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior. They can be strong or weak, and because they are influenced by environmental factors, they can vary over time and from place to place.

why do managers need to understand personality attributes?

because they affect how people perceive and act within the organization

chapter 11: managing individual differences and behavior

chapter 11: managing individual differences and behavior

chapter 12: achieving superior performance in the workplace

chapter 12: achieving superior performance in the workplace

chapter 13: groups and teams

chapter 13: groups and teams

chapter 14: power, influence and leadership

chapter 14: power, influence and leadership

chapter 15:

chapter 15:

chapter 16

chapter 16

" indra nooyi and coca cola " video

connect with people thinks strategically but operates in a personal way makes agendas and strategies had a global perspective on the world and looked outside of just india business has a broad role to play found meaning in her work "its not just about the money," she says.

personality

consists of the stable psychological traits and behavioral attributes that give a person his or her identity. combination of traits, which result from the interaction of your genes and your environment. ex: how would you describe yourself? outgoing? aggressive? sociable? tense? passive? lazy? quiet?

informal groups

created for friendship. a group formed by people whose overriding purpose is getting together for friendship or a common interest. An informal group may be simply a collection of friends who hang out with one another, such as those who take coffee breaks together, or it may be as organized as a prayer breakfast, a bowling team, a service club, a company "alumni group" (for example, former Apple employees), or a voluntary organization.

group

defined as: (1) two or more freely interacting individuals who (2) share norms, (3) share goals, and (4) have a common identity

brand recognition

effective social campaigns generate customers and brand recognition

Distress vs. eustress

distress is negative stress in which the result of the stressor can be anxiety and illness and eustress is positive stress, which can stimulate a person to better coping and adaptation, such as performing well on a test

Employee Engagement: How Connected Are You to Your Work?

employee engagement, defined as a "mental state in which a person performing a work activity is full immersed in the activity, feeling full of energy and enthusiasm for the work. potential for increasing individual, group, and organizational performance

" MOD modalis single extern a good company "

encouraged to take risks contribute to another area if they want to change things up all 8600 workers are not called employees, called associates higher ups are called leaders and not boss leads by consensus - leader because people follow associates help to decide how much everyone is played employee satisfaction is high on the priorities encourage employees to do volunteer work and spend time with families show that they care

self esteem

extent to which one likes or dislikes themselves

The weakening of behavior by ignoring it or making sure it is not reinforced is called _____.

extinction

work teams

have a clear purpose that all members share; usually permanent, and members must give their complete commitment to the team's purpose in order for the team to succeed

important leadership characteristics

honest 88% forward - looking 75% inspiring 68 % competent 63 %

types of medium richness from high to low

highest - face to face (best for nonroutine , ambiguous situations) - video conferencing - telephone - personal written media ( email, text, memos, letters) lowest: - impersonal written media (newsletters, fliers, general reports) - best for routine , clear situations

conscientiousness

how dependable, responsible, achievement-oriented, and persistent one is

openness to experience

how intellectual, imaginative, curious, and broad-minded one is

" rober cialdini on the importance of reciprocity " video

i am obligated to give back to you the form of behavior you first give to me if you do me a favor i do you a favor ** people say yes to those you owe every member of every culture lives by the rule you must not take if you haven't yet given if you want to be more influential, **** focus on not who can help you, who can i help and who's business outcomes can I (!!) elevate, because they will return the favor later.

trends in workforce diversity

internal Dimensions of Diversity at Work in the U.S. • Age: Median age of Americans is almost 38 years-the oldest on record • Gender: Many more women in the workplace versus past decades • Race and ethnicity: U.S. population is more racially and ethnically diverse than ever before • Sexual orientation: Workplace inclusivity is increasing rapidly •Disability: Nearly 20% of Americans have a physical or mental disability • Education: Underemployment continue

linguistic style

is a person's characteristic speaking patterns—pacing, pausing, directness, word choice, and use of questions, jokes, stories, apologies, and similar devices.

Narcissism

is defined as "a self-centered perspective, feelings of superiority, and a drive for personal power and glory."44 Narcissists have inflated views of themselves, seek to attract the admiration of others, and fantasize about being in control of everything. Although passionate and charismatic, narcissistic leaders may provoke counterproductive work behaviors in others, such as strong resentments and resistance.45 They also tend to act more narcissistically when they perceive that someone has treated them unfairly.46

decoding

is interpreting and trying to make sense of the message

age stereotypes

is the belief that older workers are less motivated, more resistant to change, less trusting, less healthy, and more likely to have problems with work-life balance. A recent study refuted all these negative beliefs about age.

the reciever

is the person for whom the message is intended

sender

is the person wanting to share information—called a message

Meaningfulness

is the sense of "belonging to and serving something that you believe is bigger than the self." 3 suggestions for building meaning into your life: (1) Identify activities you love doing. Try to do more of these activities or find ways to build them into your work role. Example: Employees at St. Jude Children's Research Hospital in Memphis embody this suggestion. They truly enjoy participating in the St. Jude Marathon weekend because it raises money for the children being treated at the hospital. One employee, a cancer survivor, commented, "Each year it provides me with another opportunity to give back so that we can help countless other children have anniversaries of their own." (2) Find a way to build your natural strengths into your personal and work life. Want to be more engaged with your school, work, and leisure activities? Take the time to list your highest strengths, your weaknesses, which strengths you use on a daily basis—and find what you can do to incorporate your strengths into your school, work, and leisure activities. (3) Go out and help someone. Research shows that people derive a sense of meaningfulness from helping others, that it creates an upward spiral of positivity.

encoding

is translating a message into understandable symbols or language.

" balanced scorecard " video

linking vision and strategy to business activities

Locus of Control: "I Am/Am Not the Captain of My Fate"

locus of control indicates how much people believe they control their fate through their own efforts. If you have an internal locus of control, you believe you control your own destiny. If you have an external locus of control, you believe external forces control you.

a simple model of motivation

motivation can also be expressed in a simple model—namely, that people have certain needs that motivate them to perform specific behaviors for which they receive rewards that feed back and satisfy the original need. a cycle: 1. unfulfilled need desire is created to fulfill a need-as for food, safety, recognition 2. motivation you search for ways to satisfy the need 3. behaviors you choose a type of behavior you think might satisfy the need 4. rewards two types of rewards satisfy needs - extrinsic reward or intrinsic 5. feedback reward informs you whether behavior worked and should be used again **cycle repeats**

"kip tindell - the container store " video

one of the best companies to work for hire great people 1 average person = 3 lousy people 1 good person = 3 average people 1 great person = 3 good people

learned helplessness

ow generalized self-efficacy can foster learned helplessness, the debilitating lack of faith in your ability to control your environment.

Fundamental attribution bias

people attribute another person's behavior to his or her personal characteristics rather than to situational factors. Example: A study of manufacturing employees found that top managers attributed the cause of industrial back pain to individuals, whereas workers attributed it to the environment.

Self-serving attribution bias

people tend to take more personal responsibility for success than for failure. Examples: You get an A on an exam and conclude that it's due to your level of studying. Had you received a poor grade, you would more likely conclude that the professor wrote a poor exam or didn't effectively teach the subject matter. Another example occurs in car accidents, when both parties tend to blame the other driver.

Employee Productivity and Social media

productivity is a driving force behind the use of all forms of technology at work, including social media. The key for employees, managers, and employers is to harness the speed and reach of social media to enhance individual performance. Results like reduced turnover, higher performance, increased job satisfaction, and greater creativity and collaboration are common findings in research about the effects of social media.126 Employees who work remotely are particular beneficiaries of social media's communications capabilities. Customized scheduling, organizing, networking, document sharing, messaging, and other digital communication options help relieve them of the need to commute, attend routine meetings, and be distracted by colleagues Digital productivity tools that control e-mail, organize links and contacts, prioritize tasks, and even edit prose can help remote workers stay focused and organized so they can meet deadlines and enjoy work-life balance At the same time, managers need to remember that employees don't have to be in touch all the time, no matter how easy it is. There is plenty of evidence that everyone should unplug from e-mail and social media on a regular basis, if not during every evening, weekend, and vacation

pros and cons of virtual teams

pros Advocates say virtual teams are very flexible and efficient because they are driven by information and skills, not by time and location. People with needed information and/or skills can be team members, regardless of where or when they actually do their work.26 Nevertheless, virtual teams have pros and cons like every other type of team. cons Virtual teams and distributed workers present many potential benefits: reduced real estate costs (limited or no office space); ability to leverage diverse knowledge, skills, and experience across geography and time (you don't have to have an SAP expert in every office); ability to share knowledge of diverse markets; and reduced commuting and travel expenses. The flexibility often afforded by virtual teams also can reduce work-life conflicts for employees, which some employers contend makes it easier for them to attract and retain talent Virtual teams have challenges, too. It is more difficult for them than for face-to-face teams to establish team cohesion, work satisfaction, trust, cooperative behavior, and commitment to team goals. Thus, virtual teams should be used with caution. It should be no surprise that building team relationships is more difficult when members are geographically distributed. This hurdle and time zone differences are challenges reported by nearly 50 percent of companies using virtual teams. Members of virtual teams also reported being unable to observe the nonverbal cues of other members and experiencing a lack of collegiality. These challenges apply to virtual teams more generally, as does the difficulty of leading such teams. When virtual teams cross country borders, cultural differences, holidays, time zones, and local laws and customs also can cause problems

what is involved in the communication process

sender message receiver encoding and decoding the medium feedback noise

Strategy Mapping: Visual Representation of the Path to Organizational Effectiveness

strategy Maps show relationships among a company's strategic goals. This helps employees understand how their work contributes to their employer's overall success.61 They also provide insight into how an organization creates value to its key constituents. For example, a map informs others about the knowledge, skills, and systems that employees should possess (innovation and learning perspective) to innovate and build internal capabilities (internal business perspective) that deliver value to customers (customer perspective), which eventually creates higher shareholder value (financial perspective).

negative reinforcement

strengthening a behavior by withdrawing something negative

popularity of teams

teams outperform individuals acting alone especially when performance requires multiple skills, judgements and experiences Findings Regarding Teams· A demanding performance challenge tends to create a team· Team performance opportunities exists in all parts of the organization Most organizations prefer individual to team accountability· Teams at the top are the most difficult High-performance teams are extremely rare The disciplined application of"team basics" is often neglected

hawthorne effect

the alteration of behavior by the subjects of a study due totheir awareness of being observed

Sex-role stereotypes

the belief that differing traits and abilities make males and females particularly well suited to different roles - sex-role - age - race/ethnicity

feedback

the receiver expresses his or her reaction to the sender's message. Flight 123, do you copy?" In the movies, that's what you hear the flight controller say when radioing the pilot of a troubled aircraft to see whether he or she received ("copied") the previous message. And the pilot may radio back, "Roger, Houston, I copy." This acknowledgment is an example of feedback, Feedback is essential in communication so that the person sending the message can know whether the receiver understood it in the same way the sender intended—and whether he or she agrees with it. It is an essential component of communication accuracy and can be facilitated by paraphrasing

"The Great Man" Theory-Early Trait Studies

trait approaches to leadership - attempt to identify distinctive characteristics that account for the effectiveness of leaders - Failed early research - focus on notable figures tall, white, wealthy, male, intelligent NOT SUPPORTED RESEARCH

positive reinforcement

using rewards or positive consequences to strengthen a particular behavior

social media

which use web-based and mobile technologies to generate interactive dialogue with members of a network, are woven into every aspect of our lives. We begin our exploration of these technologies by documenting their general use. We then examine the effects of social media on managerial and organizational effectiveness, review the downside of social media, discuss the key impacts of texting on management and organizational behavior, and discuss the need for organizations to develop social media policies.

Cognitive abilities to identify problems and their causes in rapidly changing situations

why leaders need it: Leaders must sometimes devise effective solutions in short time spans with limited information. One situation requiring quick action that many managers will likely face is a data breach. Says Ralph de la Vega, president & CEO, AT&T Mobile & Business Solutions, "There are only two kinds of companies today . . . those that have experienced a data breach and those that will be breached."69

Interpersonal skills to influence and persuade others

why leaders need it: Leaders need to work well with diverse people. Alan Colberg, president and CEO of Assurant, says civility is one of a handful of key interpersonal skills in every career. The others he cites are the abilities to build relationships, conscientiousness, and integrity.

To better ensure positive results from transformational leadership, top managers should follow the practices shown below.

• Employ a code of ethics. The company should create and enforce a clearly stated code of ethics. • Choose the right people. Recruit, select, and promote people who display ethical behavior. • Make performance expectations reflect employee treatment. Develop performance expectations around the treatment of employees; these expectations can be assessed in the performance-appraisal process. • Demonstrate commitment to diversity. Train employees to value diversity. • Reward high moral conduct. Identify, reward, and publicly praise employees who exemplify high moral conduct.

5 practical ways to reduce turnover

(1) Base hiring decisions on the extent to which an applicant's values fit the organization's values. (2) Provide post-hiring support, which is referred to as onboarding. As we mentioned in Chapter 9, onboarding programs help employees to integrate and transition to new jobs by making them familiar with corporate policies, procedures, culture, and politics by clarifying work-role expectations and responsibilities. (3) Focus on enhancing employee engagement. (4) Incorporate realistic job previews (RJPs, discussed in Chapter 9) into the hiring process. (5) Offer employees benefits, such as flexible work hours (discussed in Chapter 12), that meet their needs and values.

Race and Ethnicity: More People of Color in the Workforce

- The non-Hispanic white population is projected to peak in 2024, then to slowly decrease. - Whites are projected to change from 77.5 percent in 2014 to 68.5 percent in 2060, - African Americans from 13.2 percent to 14.3 percent, - Asians from 5.4 percent to 9.3 percent, - Hispanics or Latinos from 17.4 percent to 28.6 percent, - and American Indian/Alaskan Native from 1.2 percent to 1.5 percent ** People of color have hit the glass ceiling, with whites holding more of the managerial and professional jobs. In addition, two other trends show that U.S. businesses need to do a lot better by minority populations. ** First, minorities tend to earn less than whites. Median household income in 2016 was $39,490 for African Americans and $47,675 for Hispanics. It was $65,041 for non-Hispanic whites. (Asians had the highest median income, at $81,431.) Second, a number of studies have shown that minorities experienced more perceived discrimination, racism-related stress, and less psychological support than whites did.

The Sources of Job-Related Stress

1. demands created by individual differences 2. individual task demands 3. individual role demands 4. group demands 5. organizational demands 6. nonwork demands

The Big Five Personality Dimensions

1. extroversion 2. agreeableness 3. conscientiousness 4. emotional stability 5. openness to experience

The Four Steps in the Perceptual Process

1. selective attention -"did i notice something?" 2. interpretation and evaluation -"what was it i noticed & what does it mean?" 3. storing in memory -"remember it as an event, concept, person, o all three?" 4. retrieving from memory to make judgements and decisions -"what do i recall about that?"

Barriers to Diversity

1. stereotypes and prejudices 2. fear of discrimination against majority group members 3. resistance to diversity program priorities 4. unsupportive social atmosphere 5. lack of support for family demands 6. lack of support for career-building steps

Five Distortions in Perception

1. stereotyping 2. implicit bias 3. halo effect 4. recency effect 5. casual attribution

People with Differing Physical and Mental Abilities

About 5.67 million people, or 1.9 percent of the U.S. population, have a physical or mental disability, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.199 However, only about 30 percent of those between 16 and 64 are employed, and they earn far less than those without a disability (monthly median income of $1,961 compared to $2,724) Since 1992 the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), has prohibited discrimination against people with disabilities and requires organizations to reasonably accommodate an individual's disabilities. But in a recent survey of more than 3,000 supervisors by the nonprofit Kessler Foundation, only 28 percent of respondents said their organizations have disability hiring goals. One problem the supervisors reported was their perception that upper management was less committed to providing the training and accommodations that would be required for employees who required them.202 Yet, according to Helena Berger, president of American Association of People with Disabilities, "having a disability may make you a better problem solver. You may be more innovative.

2. Absenteeism and Turnover

Absenteeism may be a precursor to turnover, which, as we saw in Chapter 9, is when an employee abandons, resigns, retires, or is terminated from a job. Every organization experiences some turnover, as employees leave for reasons of family, better job prospects, or retirement. However, except in low-skill industries, a continual revolving door of new employees is usually not a good sign, since replacement and training are expensive. ** The Society for Human Resource Management recently estimated the average dollar cost of hiring a new employee to be $4,129 and put the time investment at 42 days. That dollar amount may be a conservative estimate; other studies, including a review of 11 research papers on the subject, have suggested the cost of replacing a highly skilled employee can be as high as two times the employee's annual salary.

The United States is becoming more diverse in its ethnic, racial, gender, and age makeup.

Among the trends the Pew Research Center anticipates will shape the United States (and even the world) in the next few decades are: (1) a reduction (already taking place) in immigration to the United States from Mexico, (2) an increase in immigration from Asian countries, (3) racially diverse Millennials maturing, (4) a growing share of women in "top leadership jobs" and a continued narrowing of the gender wage gap, (5) a decline in the number of two-parent households, (6) a drop in the share of middle-class households, and (7) a rise in the number of people who describe themselves as unaffiliated with any organized religion

Gender: More Women Working

As of 2015, U.S. women earned on average only 83 percent of what men earn, according to research by the Pew Center. Women aged 25 to 34 fared slightly better, earning 90 percent of what men in this age group were paid Factors contributing to the gap's persistence include the fact that more women than men interrupt their careers to care for children or other family members, women's underrepresentation in high-paying jobs, and gender discrimination. The pay gap is higher for women with children, and this "motherhood penalty" has either held steady over time or even grown ** Following the lead of Australia, Germany, and Iceland, the British government has taken a big step toward solving a similar problem, which research by PricewaterhouseCoopers indicates could otherwise take almost 100 years to fix if left alone. New legislation requires UK companies with more than 250 employees to publish annual reports of salary differences between men and women, publicly revealing the gender gap in order to force corrections to be made. "This is a game-changer," said the policy manager of a British women's rights organization

what can managers do to help with self-efficiacy

Assign jobs accordingly. Complex, challenging, and autonomous jobs tend to enhance people's perceptions of their self-efficacy. Boring, tedious jobs generally do the opposite. Develop employees' self-efficacy and generalized self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is a quality that can be nurtured. Employees with low self-efficacy need lots of constructive pointers and positive feedback. -Goal difficulty needs to match individuals' perceived self-efficacy, but goals can be made more challenging as performance improves -Small successes need to be rewarded. -Employees' expectations can be improved through guided experiences, mentoring, and role modeling. -related to your job satisfaction and task performance.

1. Personality

At the center of the diversity wheel is personality. It is at the center because, as we said in Section 11.1, personality is defined as the stable physical and mental characteristics responsible for a person's identity.

self efficacy

Belief in one's personal ability to do the task Learned helplessness: debilitating lack of faith in one's ownability to exercise control over one's environment

Attitudes: What Are Your Consistent Beliefs and Feelings about Specific Things?

By contrast, attitudes are beliefs and feelings that are directed toward specific objects, people, or events. an attitude is defined as a learned predisposition toward a given object ** Attitudes have three components—affective, cognitive, and behavioral.

5. Causal Attributions

Causal attribution is the activity of inferring causes for observed behavior. Rightly or wrongly, we constantly formulate cause-and-effect explanations for our own and others' behavior. Attributional statements such as the following are common: "Joe drinks too much because he has no willpower, but I need a few drinks after work because I'm under a lot of pressure."

race/ethnicity stereotypes

Consider the stereotypes Dr. Sutton-Ramsey encountered while tending to an emergency room patient at Bellevue Hospital in Manhattan. When the doctor, who is African American, entered the patient's room, the patient's mother demanded that a physician come in," according to The Wall Street Journal. "Well, you've got one, I'm here," said Dr. Sutton-Ramsey

What Outcomes Are Associated with Employee Engagement?

Consulting firms such as Gallup, Hewitt Associates, and Blessing White have been in the forefront of collecting proprietary data supporting the practical value of employee engagement. For example, Gallup estimates that an organization whose employees are highly engaged can achieve 12 percent higher customer satisfaction/loyalty, 18 percent more productivity, and 12 percent greater profitability Other recent academic studies similarly showed a positive relationship between employee engagement, performance, and physical and psychological well-being and corporate-level financial performance and customer satisfaction.

Organizational Behavior: Trying to Explain and Predict Workplace Behavior

Dedicated to better understanding and managing people at work • Strong influence from psychology (industrial/organizational psychology) • Helps managers explain and predict work behavior so they can better lead and motivate the organization's most valuable asset—theteam The informal aspects are the focus of the interdisciplinary field known as organizational behavior (OB), which is dedicated to better understanding and managing people at work. In particular, OB tries to help managers not only explain workplace behavior but also predict it, so that they can better lead and motivate their employees to perform productively.

4. A Negative Diversity Climate

Diversity climate is a subcomponent of an organization's overall climate and is defined as the employees' aggregate "perceptions about the organization's diversity-related formal structure characteristics and informal values. Diversity climate is positive when employees view the organization as being fair to all types of employees, which promotes employee loyalty and overall firm performance Psychological safety reflects the extent to which people feel free to express their ideas and beliefs without fear of negative consequences

How to Think about Diversity: Which Differences Are Important?

Diversity represents all the ways people are unlike and alike—the differences and similarities in age, gender, race, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, capabilities, and socioeconomic background Note here that diversity is not synonymous with differences. Rather, it encompasses both differences and similarities. This means that as a manager you need to manage both simultaneously

Emotional Intelligence: Understanding Your Emotions and the Emotions of Others

Emotional intelligence (EI or EQ) has been defined as "the ability to carry out accurate reasoning about emotions and the ability to use emotions and emotional knowledge to enhance thought. is the ability to monitor your and others' feelings and to use this information to guide your thinking and actions It is a career readiness competency desired by employers and was first introduced in 1909. Since that time some claim it to be the secret elixir to happiness and higher performance.

Emotional Stability: "I'm Fairly Secure/Insecure When Working under Pressure"

Emotional stability is the extent to which people feel secure and unworried and how likely they are to experience negative emotions under pressure. People with low levels of emotional stability are prone to anxiety and tend to view the world negatively, whereas people with high levels tend to show better job performance.

1. Stereotypes & Prejudices

Ethnocentrism is the belief that your native country, culture, language, abilities, or behavior is superior to those of another culture. When differences are viewed as being weaknesses—which is what many stereotypes and prejudices ultimately come down to—this may be expressed as a concern that diversity hiring will lead to a sacrifice in competence and quality

5. Group Demands: The Stress Created by Co-workers and Managers

Even if you don't particularly care for the work you do but like the people you work with, that feeling can be a great source of satisfaction and prevent stress. When people don't get along, that can be a great stressor. Even if you have stress under control, a co-worker's stress might bother you, diminishing productivity. In addition, managers can create stress for employees. A boss who consistently engages in workplace behaviors like overt self-promotion, unwillingness to listen, a tendency to make unreasonable demands, lying, unfair decision making, and a general lack of ethics can become a source of stress

1. Performance and Productivity

Every job has certain expectations, but in some jobs performance and productivity are easier to define than in others.

3. External Dimensions

External dimensions of diversity include an element of choice; they consist of the personal characteristics that people acquire, discard, or modify throughout their lives: educational background, marital status, parental status, religion, income, geographic location, work experience, recreational habits, appearance, and personal habits. They are referred to as the secondary dimensions of diversity because we have a greater ability to influence or control them than we do internal dimensions.

6. A Hostile Work Environment for Diverse Employees

Hostile work environments are characterized by sexual, racial, and age harassment and can be in violation of Equal Employment Opportunity law, such as Title VII of the Civil Rights Act. Whether perpetrated against women, men, older individuals, or LGBTQ people, hostile environments are demeaning, unethical, and appropriately called "work environment pollution.

Leon Festinger

In 1957, social psychologist Leon Festinger proposed the term cognitive dissonance to describe the psychological discomfort a person experiences between his or her cognitive attitude and incompatible behavior. - because people are uncomfortable with inconsistency, Festinger theorized, they will seek to reduce the "dissonance," or tension, of the inconsistency. How they deal with the discomfort, he suggested, depends on three factors: (1) Importance. How important are the elements creating the dissonance? (2) Control. How much control does one have over the matters that create dissonance? (3) Rewards. What rewards are at stake in the dissonance?

2. Internal Dimensions

Internal dimensions of diversity are those human differences that exert a powerful, sustained effect throughout every stage of our lives: gender, age, ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, and physical abilities. These are referred to as the primary dimensions of diversity because they are not within our control, for the most part. Yet they strongly influence our attitudes, expectations, and assumptions about other people, which in turn influence our own behavior.

barriers to diversity

Organizational Barriers to Diversity - Ethnocentrism • Belief that one's native country, culture, language, abilities, or behavior is superior to those of another culture - Fear of discrimination by majority group members - Resistance to diversity program priorities •Negative diversity climate - Subcomponent of the organization's overall climate - The employees' aggregate perceptions about the organization's diversity-related formal structure characteristics and informal value - Lack of support for family demands - Hostile work environment for diverse employee

3. Organizational Citizenship Behaviors

Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) are those employee behaviors that are not directly part of employees' job descriptions—that exceed their work-role requirements. Research demonstrates a significant and moderately positive correlation between organizational citizenship behaviors and job satisfaction, productivity, efficiency, and customer satisfaction Examples, according to one description, include "such gestures as constructive statements about the department, expression of personal interest in the work of others, suggestions for improvement, training new people, respect for the spirit as well as the letter of housekeeping rules, care for organizational property, and punctuality and attendance well beyond standard or enforceable levels.

Organizational Commitment: How Much Do You Identify with Your Organization?

Organizational commitment reflects the extent to which an employee identifies with an organization and is committed to its goals. "Pregnant women and mothers are assumed to be less committed to their careers, and every time they leave the office or ask for any flexibility, that commitment is further called into question," Research shows a significant positive relationship between organizational commitment and job satisfaction, performance, turnover, and organizational citizenship behavior—discussed in the next section.131 Thus, if managers are able to increase job satisfaction, employees may show higher levels of commitment, which in turn can elicit higher performance and lower employee turnover.

1. Demands Created by Individual Differences: The Stress Created by Genetic or Personality Characteristics

Others are impatient, hurried, deadline-ridden, competitive types with the personality characteristic known as Type A behavior pattern, meaning they are involved in a chronic, determined struggle to accomplish more in less time. Type A behavior has been associated with increased performance in the work of professors, students, and life insurance brokers. However, it also has been associated with greater cardiovascular activity and higher blood pressure, as well as to heart disease, especially for individuals who showed strong feelings of anger, hostility, and aggression.

effects of stress

Physiological Signs•Transient or chronic health issuesPsychological Signs•Counterproductive psychological issues such as burnout andanxietyBehavioral Signs•Substance abuse, reduced performance, reducedengagement, etc

signs of excess or negative stress:

Physiological signs. Lesser physiological signs are sweaty palms, restlessness, backaches, headaches, upset stomach, and nausea. More serious signs are hypertension and heart attacks. Psychological signs. Psychological symptoms include forgetfulness, boredom, irritability, nervousness, anger, anxiety, hostility, and depression. Behavioral signs. Behavioral symptoms include sleeplessness, changes in eating habits, and increased smoking/alcohol/drug abuse.241 Stress may be revealed through reduced performance and job satisfaction.

Pre-employment psychometric testing

Pre-employment psychometric testing, which includes personality testing, has grown into an industry estimated to be worth $2 billion a year, fueled by employers' increased desire to identify candidates in all fields with the career readiness skills they seek

3. Individual Role Demands: The Stress Created by Others' Expectations of You

Roles are sets of behaviors that people expect of occupants of a position. Stress may come about because of role overload, role conflict, and role ambiguity. (1) Role overload. Role overload occurs when others' expectations exceed your ability. Example: If you as a student are carrying a full course load plus working two-thirds time plus trying to have a social life, you know what role overload is—and what stress is. Similar things happen to managers and workers. (2) Role conflict. Role conflict occurs when someone feels torn by the different expectations of important people in one's life. Example: Your supervisor says the company needs you to stay late to meet an important deadline, but your family expects you to be present for your child's birthday party. (3) Role ambiguity. Role ambiguity occurs when others' expectations are unknown. Example: You find your job description and the criteria for promotion vague, a complaint often voiced by newcomers to an organization.

Stress

Stress is the tension people feel when they are facing or enduring extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities and are uncertain about their ability to handle them effectively

How Does Stress Work?

Stressors can be hassles, or simple irritants, such as misplacing or losing things, having concerns about one's physical appearance, and having too many things to do. For example, a frustrating morning commute was found to create stress and impair performance Stressors can also be crises, such as responding to a hurricane, tornado, or school shooting. Or they can be strong stressors, which can dramatically strain a person's ability to adapt—extreme physical discomfort, such as chronic severe back pain. Stressors can be both negative and positive. That is, being fired or getting divorced can be a great source of stress, but so can being promoted or getting married.

The Three Components of Attitudes: Affective, Cognitive, and Behavioral

The affective component—"I feel." - consists of the feelings or emotions one has about a situation. How do you feel about people who talk loudly on cell-phones in restaurants? If you feel annoyed or angry, you're expressing negative emotions, or affect. (If you're indifferent, your attitude is neutral.) The cognitive component—"I believe." - consists of the beliefs and knowledge one has about a situation. What do you think about people in restaurants talking on cell-phones? Is what they're doing inconsiderate, acceptable, even admirable (because it shows they're productive)? Your answer reflects your beliefs or ideas about the situation. The behavioral component—"I intend." - also known as the intentional component, is how one intends or expects to behave toward a situation. What would you intend to do if a person talked loudly on a cell-phone at the table next to you? Your action may reflect your negative or positive feelings (affective), your negative or positive beliefs (cognitive), and your intention or lack of intention to do anything (behavioral)

4. Counterproductive Work Behaviors

The flip side of organizational citizenship behaviors would seem to be what are called counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs), types of behavior that harm employees and the organization as a whole Such behaviors may include absenteeism and tardiness, drug and alcohol abuse, and disciplinary problems but also extend beyond them to more serious acts such as accidents, sabotage, sexual harassment, violence, theft, and white-collar crime

6. Organizational Demands: The Stress Created by the Environment and Culture

The physical environments of some jobs are great sources of stress: poultry processing, asbestos removal, coal mining, fire fighting, police work, ambulance driving, and so on. Even white-collar work can take place in a stressful environment, with poor lighting, too much noise, improper placement of furniture, and lack of privacy. An organizational culture that puts high-pressure work demands on employees will fuel the stress response. One stressor that companies are beginning to recognize as a two-edged sword is the way in which communication technologies make it possible for even corporate employees to be on call around the clock, able or even encouraged to answer emails and other messages at night, on the weekend, and even on vacation.

social awareness

This includes empathy, allowing you to show others that you care, and organizational intuition, so you keenly understand how your emotions and actions affect others.

relationship management

This is the ability to communicate clearly and convincingly, disarm conflicts, and build strong personal bonds

self management

This is the ability to control your emotions and act with honesty and integrity in reliable and adaptable ways. You can leave occasional bad moods outside the office

Diversity Wheel

To help distinguish the important ways in which people differ, diversity experts Lee Gardenswartz and Anita Rowe have identified a "diversity wheel" consisting of four layers of diversity: 1. personality 2. internal dimensions 3. external dimensions 4. organizational dimensions

Educational Levels: Mismatches between Education and Workforce Needs

Two important mismatches between education and workplace are these: (1) College graduates may be in jobs for which they are overqualified. According to one researcher, about a quarter of all college graduates are overqualified for their jobs. In other words, a great many college graduates are underemployed—working at jobs that require less education than they have. -This number is reassuringly lower than earlier estimates of nearly half of all college grads, and the situation will be temporary for many, who will earn more as they gain more experience in their fields. But the pay gap between those who are in poor-fit and good-fit jobs appears to have grown and is now nearly 50%, according to this research (2) High-school dropouts and others may not have the literacy skills needed for many jobs. A recent study found that 7 percent of all people in the United States between the ages of 16 and 24 had dropped out of high school in 2014. Men make up 55 percent of such dropouts. If, as has been alleged, more than two-thirds of the American workforce reads below ninth-grade level, that is a problem for employers, because about 70 percent of the on-the-job reading materials are written at or above that level

can you raise your EI?

Two suggestions for improvement are as follows: Develop awareness of your EI level. Becoming aware of your level of emotional intelligence is the first step. The self-assessment on the following page can be used for this purpose. Learn about areas needing improvement. The next step is to learn more about those EI aspects in which improvement is needed. For example, to improve your skills at using empathy, find articles on the topic and try to implement their recommendations. One such article suggests that empathy in communications is enhanced by trying to (1) understand how others feel about what they are communicating and (2) gaining appreciation of what people want from an exchange. The Practical Action box illustrates how apps are used to develop EI.

Do Personality Tests in the Workplace Work?

Use professionals. Rely on reputable,licensed psychologists for selecting and overseeing theadministration, scoring, and interpretation of personality and psychological tests. Not every psychologistis an expert at these kinds of tests. • Don't hire on the basis of personality test results alone.Supplement anypersonality test data withinformation from reference checks, personal interviews, ability tests, and job performance records. Alsoavoid hiring people on the basis of specified personality profiles. • Be alert for gender,racial, and ethnic bias.Regularly asses any possible adverse impact of personalitytests on the hiring of women and minorities. This is truly a matter of great importance, since you don'twant to find your company (or yourself) embroiled in a lawsuit at some point downstream. • Graphology tests don't work,but integrity tests do.Personality traits and aptitudes cannot be inferredfrom samples of people's penmanship, as proponents of graphology tests claim. However, dishonest jobapplicants can often be screened by integrity tests. Dishonest people are reportedly unable to fake conscientiousnes

Values: What Are Your Consistent Beliefs and Feelings about All Things?

Values are abstract ideals that guide one's thinking and behavior across all situations. Lifelong behavior patterns are dictated by values that are fairly well set by the time people are in their early teens. After that, however, one's values can be reshaped by significant life-altering events, such as having a child, undergoing a business failure, or surviving the death of a loved one, a war, or a serious health threat.

4. Work-Family Conflict

Work-life conflict occurs when the demands or pressures from work and family domains are mutually incompatible. Work and family can conflict in two ways: Work responsibilities can interfere with family life, and family demands can interfere with work responsibilities

Assumption: Young workers earn less than they used to.

Yes, evidently. The wages for young college graduates have recovered ground lost since the recession but have risen to only 1.4 percent above 2000 levels, which may reflect a wider problem of wage stagnation across all workers.

3. The Halo Effect: "One Trait Tells Me All I Need to Know"

halo effect, in which we form an impression of an individual based on a single trait. (The phenomenon is also called the horn-and-halo effect because not only can a single positive trait be generalized into an array of positive traits, but the reverse is also true.)

emotional stability

how relaxed, secure, and unworried one is

agreeableness

how trusting, good-natured, cooperative, and soft-hearted one is

2. Implicit Bias: "I Really Don't Think I'm Biased, but I Just Have a Feeling about Some People"

is the attitudes or beliefs that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner Implicit bias has come into the forefront of public discussion with the rise in the number of deaths of African Americans at the hands of the police in Ferguson, Missouri; Cleveland; New York; Baton Rouge; Chicago; Charlotte, North Carolina; Baltimore; Cincinnati; Falcon Heights, Minnesota; Tulsa; and Sacramento, among others. In some cases the shootings were filmed; in several, the police were not convicted or not charged.82 But implicit bias also appears to affect employment-related decisions. A recent study showed that racism led to discriminatory decisions in hiring and performance evaluations. Ageism also was found to impact discriminatory hiring decisions

Core Self-Evaluations

represents a broad personality trait comprising four positive individual traits: (1) self-efficacy, (2) self-esteem, (3) locus of control, and (4) emotional stability. Managers need to be aware of these personality traits as they are related to employees work attitudes, performance, and behavior.

glass ceiling

the metaphor for an invisible barrier preventing women and minorities from being promoted to top executive jobs

Can Managers Increase Employee Engagement?

yes, by: (1) personal resource building interventions, which "focus on increasing individuals' self-perceived positive attributes and strengths, often by developing self-efficacy, resilience or optimism." (2) Job resource building interventions, which "focus on increasing resources in the work environment such as autonomy, social support, and feedback." (3) Leadership training interventions, which "involve knowledge and skill building workshops for managers." (4) Health promotion interventions, which "encourage employees to adopt and sustain healthier lifestyles and reduce and manage stress.