Socio exam 3

G. William Domhoff and the Ruling Class corporate rich influence politics

"The rich" coalesce into a social upper class that has developed institutions by which the children of its members are socialized into an upper-class worldview and newly wealthy people are assimilated. Members of this upper class control corporations, which have been the primary mechanisms for generating and holding wealth in the United States for upwards of 150 years now. In a network of nonprofit organizations, members of the upper class and hired corporate leaders not yet in the upper class shape policy debates. Members of the upper class, with the help of their high-level employees in for-profit and nonprofit institutions, are able to dominate the federal government. The rich, and corporate leaders, nonetheless claim to be relatively powerless. Working people have less power than in many other democratic countries, so they have little chance to influence the political process.

Social Implications of Advanced Medical Technology

1. Advanced technologies create options for people and for society, but these options alter human relationships 2. Advanced technologies increase the cost of medical care 3. Advanced technologies such as cloning and stem cell research raise provocative questions about the very nature of life

Conditions for collective behavior

1.structural factors that increase the chances of people responding in a particular way 2.timing 3.a breakdown in social control mechanisms and a corresponding feeling of normlessness A collectivity is a number of people who act together and may mutually transcend, bypass, or subvert established institutional patterns and structures The collective behavior of neighborhood volunteers was not only successful in eventually bringing about social change but also inspired others to engage in collective behavior regarding environmental problems in their communities.

Two- parent households

1970-2014 houses with children under the age of 18= 20% the percentage of children living in two-parent households dropped from 85.2 percent to 64.4 percent, while the percentage living with a single parent increased The men benefit through increased access to children and greater opportunity to be nurturing parents Some parents share parenting responsibilities by choice; others share out of necessity because both hold full-time jobs.

How common is cohabitation among women?

40 percent of first premarital cohabitations among women transitioned to marriage within 3 years, about 33 percent of these cohabitating relationships continued, and 27 percent dissolved

Nicotine (Tobacco)

480,000 people in this country die each year as a result of cigarette smoking secondhand or environmental tobacco smoke—the smoke in the air inhaled by nonsmokers as a result of other people's tobacco smoking and the residue of smoke on such items as garments and furniture The highest rate of smoking among racial-ethnic categories is for American Indians/Alaska Natives (a prevalence rate of nearly 30 percent) and multiple races (non-Hispanic) at 28 percent

Chapter 14 Health, Health Care, Disability

AIDS #1 disease reduce life expectancy

Marxist Perspective

According to Marx and Engels, the food supply is not threatened by overpopulation; technologically, it is possible to produce the food and other goods needed to meet the demands of a growing population poverty is a consequence of the exploitation of workers by the owners of the means of production overpopulation occurs because capitalists desire to have a surplus of workers (an industrial reserve army) in order to suppress wages and force workers concerned about losing their livelihoods to be more productive Capital shortage refers to the lack of adequate money or property to maintain a business; it is a problem because the physical capital of the past no longer meets the needs of modern economic development

Technology and Change

Advances in communication and transportation have made instantaneous worldwide communication possible but have also brought old belief systems and the status quo into question as never before cultural lag follows in which the nonmaterial (ideological) culture has not yet caught up with material development

Paying for Medical Care in the US

Affordable Care Act of 2010 made it possible for individuals and families without coverage and small business owners to pool their resources to increase their buying power in order to make health insurance more affordable The latest challenge to the Affordable Care Act came in 2015, when the U.S. Supreme Court heard King v. Burwell, a case that involved a specific section of the law that makes federal subsidies (tax credits) available for people who purchase insurance through exchanges set up by the state

Social control/support for the government

All societies attempt to maintain social control through systems of rewards and punishments. if individuals consider themselves to be part of a larger order that holds the ultimate meaning in life, they will feel bound to one another

AIDS

Although AIDS almost inevitably ends in death, no one actually dies of AIDS The majority of new HIV infections are attributed to male-to-male sexual behavior, followed by heterosexual transmission and intravenous drug use HIV is transmitted through unprotected (or inadequately protected) sexual intercourse with an infected partner (either male or female), by sharing a contaminated hypodermic needle with someone who is infected, by exposure to blood or blood products

Mobilization for action

At this stage, leaders emerge to organize others and give them a sense of direction.

Chapter 15 Population/Urbanization

Births minus deaths equals the natural increase in population demography: a subfield of sociology that examines population size, composition, and distribution pop growth in developing nations

polytheism

By contrast, Shinto and a number of indigenous religions of Africa are forms of polytheism—a belief in more than one god

Paying for Medical Care in other nations

Canada-Each citizen receives a health card, and all patients receive the same level of care universal health care-a health care system in which all citizens receive medical services paid for by tax revenues Canada these revenues are supplemented by insurance premiums paid by all taxpaying citizens socialized medicine-a health care system in which the government owns the medical care facilities and employs the physicians Canada has maintained the private nature of the medical profession

Casual/ Conventional Crowds

Casual crowds are relatively large gatherings of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time; if they interact at all, it is only briefly. The casual crowd plays no active part in the event—such as the child's fall—which likely would have occurred whether or not the crowd was present; the crowd simply observes. Conventional crowds are made up of people who come together for a scheduled event and thus share a common focus. Examples include religious services, graduation ceremonies, concerts, and college lectures.

Population and Change

Changes in population size, distribution, and composition affect the culture and social structure of a society and change the relationships among nations shrinking tax base as middle-income and upper-middle-income residents and businesses have moved to suburban and outlying areas. In other areas, the largest metropolitan areas have become enclaves for the wealthiest transnational residents who can afford to own homes in many of the world's most expensive cities

Symbolic Interactionist perspectives

Charles Horton Cooley and George Herbert Mead the roles that we play as family members and how we modify or adapt our roles to meet the expectations of others—especially significant others such as parents, grandparents, siblings, and other relatives. Focuses on how interaction between marital partners contributes to a shared reality newlyweds construct shared reality. Divorce is the reverse of this process; couples may start with a shared reality and, in the process of uncoupling, gradually develop separate realities Explain family relationships in terms of the subjective meanings and everyday interpretations that people give to their lives. Jessie Bernard said men and women feel differently about marriage.

Multiple Nuclei Model

Chauncey Harris and Edward Ullman , cities do not have one center from which all growth radiates but rather have numerous centers of development based on specific urban needs or activities

Smart Growth principles

Concentrate on mixed land use Take advantage of compact building design Create a range of housing opportunities and choices Create walkable neighborhoods Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place Preserve open spaces, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas Strengthen and direct development toward existing communities Provide a variety of transportation choices Make development decisions predictable, fair, and cost effective Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions

Explanations of Crowd Behavior

Contagion Theory: social-psychological aspects of collective behavior; it attempts to explain how moods, attitudes, and behavior are communicated rapidly and why they are accepted by others;people are more likely to engage in antisocial behavior in a crowd because they are anonymous and feel invulnerable. Le Bon (1960/1895) suggested that a crowd takes on a life of its own that is larger than the beliefs or actions of any one person

conglomerates

Corporations with control both within and across industries are often formed by a series of mergers and acquisitions. combinations of businesses in different commercial areas, all of which are owned by one holding company. interlocking corporate directorates- competition reduced over long run members of the board of directors of one corporation who also sit on the board(s) of other corporations Interlocking directorates diminish competition by producing interdependence

pursuit of personal profit

Economic development is assumed to benefit both capitalists and workers, and the general public also benefits from public expenditures (such as for roads, schools, and parks) made possible through an increase in business tax revenues arly monopoly capitalism, some stockholders derived massive profits from companies that held near-monopolies on specific goods and services.

Continuing Fiscal Crisis of the Cities

Economic recoveries in cities take at least two years longer than a national recovery, decline in the U.S. housing market, which affects city tax revenues: Housing prices fell by 4 percent during 2011 budget crises have forced states to cut funding to already-cash-strapped cities

Industrial Cities

Emergent technology, including new forms of transportation and agricultural production New York City grew by 500 percent. In fact, New York City became the first U.S. metropolis—one or more central cities and their surrounding suburbs that dominate the economic and cultural life of a region Japan, Russia, industrialized after England and the United States

Functionlist perspectives on religion

Emile Durkheim religion is essential to the maintenance of society. , the central feature of all religions is the presence of sacred beliefs and rituals that bind people together in a collectivity. each clan had established its own sacred totem, which included kangaroos, trees, rivers, rock formations, and other animals or natural creations

Functionalist Perspectives: Pluralsit Model

Emile Durkheim, says the the purpose of government is to socialize people to be good citizens, to regulate the economy so that it operates effectively, and to provide necessary services for citizens. contemp functionalist say 4 functions: maintaining law and order; planning and directing society; meeting social needs, and handling international relations, including warfare

National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior

Enormous variability exists in the sexual behavior of U.S. adults, with more than 40 combinations of sexual activity reported by respondents in the study. Many older adults have active, pleasurable sex lives and engage in a range of behaviors and partner types. Although 85 percent of men in the study reported that their partner had an orgasm at their most recent sexual event, only 64 percent of women reported having an orgasm at their most recent sexual event. About 7 percent of adult women and 8 percent of men identified as gay, lesbian, or bisexual; however, the proportion of individuals in the United States who reported that they had had same-gender sexual interactions at some point in their lives was much higher. Despite popular media representations, most adolescents in the study did not report that they were engaged in partnered sexual behavior.

economic and psychological support

Families are responsible for providing economic and psychological support for members. In preindustrial societies, families are economic production units; in industrial societies, the economic security of families is tied to the workplace and to macrolevel economic systems.

Chapter 11 Families and Intimate Relationships

Family: Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality, or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the States. sociological definition of family: a group of people who are related to one another by bonds of blood, marriage, or adoption and who live together.

Sex

Females have lower mortality rates than males in the prenatal stage and the first month of life Boys are also about 18 percent more likely to die before their first birthday than girls males may be more likely than females to engage in risky behavior such as drinking alcohol, smoking cigarettes women are more likely to use the health care system, with the result that health problems are identified and treated earlier

Sector Model

Homer Hoyt emphasizes the significance of terrain and the importance of transportation routes in the layout of cities Middle-class residential zones exist on either side of the wealthier neighborhoods lower-class residential areas occupy the remaining space, bordering the central business area and the industrial areas seattle, minneapolis, San Fran, Charleston, SC, Richmond, VI

Social control factors

If there is a high level of social control on the part of law enforcement officials, political leaders, and others, it becomes more difficult to develop a social movement or engage in certain types of collective action.

Stages in Social Movements

In the preliminary (or incipiency) stage, widespread unrest is present as people begin to become aware of a problem. At this stage, leaders emerge to agitate others into taking action. In the coalescence stage, people begin to organize and to publicize the problem. At this stage, some movements become formally organized at local and regional levels. In the institutionalization(or bureaucratization) stage, an organizational structure develops, and a paid staff (rather than volunteers) begins to lead the group. When the movement reaches this stage, the initial zeal and idealism of members may diminish as administrators take over management of the organization. Sierra Club, the National Audubon Society, and the National Parks and Conservation Association—that started as grassroots conservation movements are currently viewed by many people as being unresponsive to local environmental problems

Postmodernist Perspectives

Jean-Francois Lyotard (1984), who described how knowledge has become a commodity that is exchanged between producers and consumers. higher education is on how to make colleges and universities more efficient and how to bring these institutions into the service of business and industry. To attract new students and enhance current students' opportunities for consumption, most campuses have amenities such as spacious food courts with many franchise choices, ATMs, video games on gigantic HDTV screens

Categories of Religion

Judaism Christianity Islam Confucianism Buddhism Hinduism

Political Participation and Voter Apathy

Key factors include individuals' political socialization, attitudes, and their overall views of how effective the government and their political leaders are at any given point in time political socialization- process by which people learn political attitudes, values, and behavior; also people socioeconomic status affects their political attitudes, values and beliefs people participate at 4 levels voting, attending/taking part in political meetings actively participating in political campaigns and running for and/ or holding political office 10% pop higher than just voting

Family Structure and Characteristics

Kinship: social network of people based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption. serves as a means by which property is transferred, goods are produced and distributed and power is allocated. in industrialized societies- families in industrialized societies serve fewer and more-specialized purposes than do families in preindustrial societies. political systems provide structures of social control and authority, and economic systems are responsible for the production and distribution of goods and services.

structural factors of teen pregnancy

Lack of education and employment opportunities may discourage young people's thoughts of upward mobility. teen moms less likely to finish high school children that grow up without a father are disadvantaged compared to those who are do have fathers.

The Physical Environment and Change

Major natural disasters—including tsunamis/hurricanes, floods, tornadoes, and earthquakes—can devastate an entire population. floods are viewed as natural disasters, but excessive development may contribute to a flood's severity human-made disaster resulting in part from decisions related to planning and budgetary priorities Infrastructure refers to a framework of systems, such as transportation and utilities, that makes it possible to have specific land uses (commercial, residential, and recreational, for example) and a built environment (buildings, houses, and highways) that support people's daily activities and the nation's economy

Decrease in divorce

Making over $50,000 annually (as compared with under $25,000) Having graduated from college (as opposed to not completing high school) Having a baby 7 months or more after marriage (as opposed to before marriage) Marrying when partners are over 25 years of age (as opposed to younger age categories) Coming from an intact family of origin (as opposed to having divorced parents) Having a religious affiliation (as opposed to having none) (National Marriage Project, 2010)

Public Health Insurance

Medicare and Medicaid Medicaid is jointly funded by federal-state-local monies, and various factors are taken into account when determining whether a person is eligible for Medicaid; medicaid has had more tarnished image, stigmatized by politicains

Alternative Movements

Movements that seek limited change in some aspect of people's behavior Women's Christian Temperance Union attempted to get people to abstain from drinking alcoholic beverages

new religious movements

NRMs usually have a leader who exhibits charismatic characteristics (personal magnetism or mystical leadership) and possesses a unique ability to communicate and form attachments with others.

Residential Patterns

Patrilocal residence: custom of a married couple living in the same household/ community as the husbands parents. Patrilocal residency can be found in countries where it is to the distinct advantage of young men to remain close to their parents' household. most common pattern

structural conduciveness

People must become aware of a significant problem and have the opportunity to engage in collective action. According to Smelser, movements are more likely to occur when a person, class, or agency can be singled out as the source of the problem; when channels for expressing grievances either are not available or fail; and when the aggrieved have a chance to communicate among themselves.

Dynamics of Collective Behavior

People's attitudes (as expressed in public opinion surveys, for instance) are not always reflected in their political and social behavior Collective behavior is not just the sum total of a large number of persons acting at the same time; rather, it reflects people's joint response to some common influence or stimulus.

Political Systems in Global Perspective

Political institutions first emerged in agrarian societies as they acquired surpluses and developed greater social inequality elites took control nation- state:unit of political organization that has recognizable national boundaries and whose citizens possess specific legal rights and obligations; emerge as countries develop specific geographic territories and acquire greater ability to defend their borders

Chapter 13 Politics and the Economy in Global Perspectives

Politics- social institution through which power acquired and exercised by some people and groups ex- the gov't Government- formal organization that has the legal and politcal authority to regulate the relationships among members of a society and between the society and those outside its borders. Governmnet can be known as a state-the political entity that possesses a legitimate monopoly over the use of force within its territory to achieve its goals

Power and Authority

Power is the ability of persons or groups to achieve their goals despite opposition from others Through the use of persuasion, authority, or force, some people are able to get others to acquiesce to their demands dimension in the structure of social stratification authority-power that people accept as legitimate rather than coercive

preindustrial, industrial, postindustrial economies

Preindustrial economies include hunting and gathering, horticultural and pastoral, and agrarian societies. Most workers engage in primary sector production—the extraction of raw materials and natural resources from the environment division of labor by gender, age In agrarian societies, production is related primarily to producing food. Industrial economies result from sweeping changes to the system of production and distribution of goods and services during industrialization

Cares/services

Preventive care seeks to reduce the rate of illness by proactive measures before a person becomes ill. An example is a wellness program that offers diet and exercise plans to help promote fitness Curative services involve treatment to alleviate illness or promote healing after an injury. Rehabilitative services seek to restore some or all of the patient's physical, sensory, and mental capabilities that were reduced or lost because of illness, disease, or injury. Palliative services are medical care that helps reduce pain, symptoms, and stress associated with very serious health conditions

Contemporary functionalist perspectives

Sexual regulation: Families regulate sexual activity, control reproduction. incest taboos prohibit sexual contact/ marriage between certain relatives. for example-all societies prohibit sexual relations between parents and their children and between brothers and sisters.

Social unrest and circular reaction

Sociologist Robert E. Park was the first U.S. sociologist to investigate crowd behavior. the interactive communication between persons such that the discontent of one person is communicated to another, who, in turn, reflects the discontent back to the first person

Unequal Funding of Public Schools

Some legislatures provide far fewer funds for schools in their state because they have fewer resources or because they have other political priorities Some cities have properties that are much more expensive than others. Other cities have large amounts of land that is under the control of various levels of the government and thus not subject to school taxation.

Employment Opportunities for Persons with a Disability

The economic recession and the slow recovery thereafter also hit workers with disabilities hard, particularly those individuals who have mobility impairments or difficulty performing routine daily activities disability as an individual with at least one of the following conditions: He or she is deaf or has serious difficulty hearing; is blind or has serious difficulty seeing even when wearing glasses;

Preindustrial Cities

The largest preindustrial city was Rome; by 100 c.e crowded housing conditions and a lack of adequate sewage facilities increased the hazards from plagues and fires, and death rates were high. For another, food supplies were limited. Gemeinschaft—a society in which social relationships are based on personal bonds of friendship and kinship and on intergenerational stability, such that people have a commitment to the entire group and feel a sense of togetherness Gesellschaft—societies exhibiting impersonal and specialized relationships, Gesellschaft societies, even neighbors are "strangers" who perceive that they have little in common with one another

Sociological Perspectives on Disability

Those using the functionalist framework often apply Parsons's sick-role model, which is referred to as the medical model of disability The deviance framework is also apparent in some symbolic interactionist perspectives people with a disability experience role ambiguity because many people equate disability with deviance According to the sociologist Eliot Freidson (1965), how people are labeled results from three factors: their degree of responsibility for their impairment; the apparent seriousness of their condition; the perceived legitimacy of the condition. conflict perspective-persons with a disability are members of a subordinate group in conflict with persons in positions of power in the government, in the health care industry, and in the rehabilitation business, all of whom are trying to control their destinies in a capitalist economy, disabilities are big business.

Labor Unions/ Worker Activism

Unions have been credited with gaining an eight-hour workday, a five-day workweek, health and retirement benefits, sick leave and unemployment insurance, and workplace health and safety standards for many employees collective bargaining—negotiations between employers and labor union leaders on behalf of workers In the past, more union leaders called for strikes to force employers to accept the union's position on wages and benefits Union membership has not been growing over the past three decades , African American workers are more likely to be union members than white Americans, Asian Americans, or Hispanics. The highest rates of union membership are among workers between the ages of 45 and 64

same-sex marriage

United States v. Windsor, challenged Section 3 of the 1996 Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which explicitly defined marriage for all purposes under federal law as the legal union of one man and one woman as husband and wife. DOMA is unconstitutional because it amounts to a deprivation of the equal liberty of persons that is protected by the Fifth Amendment. Hollingsworth v. Perry, the Supreme Court examined the issue of whether the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment prohibited the state of California from enforcing Proposition 8, a voter-approved measure defining marriage as the union of a man and woman and banning same-sex marriage. The most frequently cited reason for changing attitudes on same-sex marriage is having friends, family members, or acquaintances who are lesbian or gay. support for same-sex marriage among LGBTQ adults differs slightly along political party lines

Structural strain

When a society or community is unable to meet people's expectations that something should be done about a problem, strain occurs in the system. The ensuing tension and conflict contribute to the development of a social movement based on people's belief that the problem would not exist if authorities had done what they were supposed to do.

High Cost of college education

a college education is a bargain and a means of upward mobility university graduates with four-year degrees are more likely to find initial employment with firms where they stand a chance of being promoted to high-level management and executive positions. The legislation was designed to "cut out the middle person" by ending the bank-based system of distributing federally subsidized student loans and instead have the Department of Education give loan money directly to colleges and their students

Concentric Zone Model

a description of the process of urban growth that views the city as a series of circular areas or zones, each characterized by a different type of land use, which developed from a central core Zone 1 is the central business district and cultural center. In Zone 2, houses formerly occupied by wealthy families are divided into rooms and rented to recent immigrants and poor persons; this zone also contains light manufacturing and marginal businesses Zone 3 contains working-class residences and shops and ethnic enclaves. Zone 4 comprises homes for affluent families, single-family residences of white-collar workers, and shopping centers. Zone 5 is a ring of small cities and towns populated by persons who commute to the central city to work and by wealthy people living on estates

matriarchal family

a family structure in which authority is held by the eldest female (usually the mother) scholars have found no historical evidence to indicate that true matriarchies ever existed.

Egalitarian family

a family structure in which both partners share power and authority equally a trend toward more-egalitarian relationships has been evident in a number of countries as women have sought changes in their legal status and also increased educational and employment opportunities

Medicine Today

a fee-for-service basis: Patients have been billed individually for each service they receive, including treatment by doctors, laboratory work, hospital visits, prescriptions, and other health-related expenses The good side is that in the "true spirit" of capitalism, coupled with the hard work and scholarship of many people, this approach has resulted in remarkable advances in medicine. The bad side of fee-for-service medicine is its inequality of distribution

Mass Hysteria/ Panic

a form of dispersed collective behavior that occurs when a large number of people react with strong emotions and self-destructive behavior to a real or perceived threat A classic example of mass hysteria or a panic with a widely dispersed audience was actor Orson Welles's 1938 Halloween eve radio dramatization of H. G. Wells's science fiction classic The War of the Worlds. A CBS radio dance-music program was interrupted suddenly by a news bulletin informing the audience that Martians had landed in New Jersey and were in the process of conquering Earth some gun enthusiasts became concerned that there was going to be a shortage of ammunition and started purchasing all the bullets they could find

Church

a large, bureaucratically organized religious organization that tends to seek accommodation with the larger society in order to maintain some degree of control over it

denomination

a large, organized religion characterized by accomodation to society but lack in the ability/ interaction to dominate society Denominations tend to be more tolerant and less likely than churches to expel or excommunicate members. religious pluralism—a situation in which many religious groups exist because they have a special appeal to specific segments of the population.

Adoption

a legal process through which the rights and duties of parenting are transferred from a child's biological and/or legal parents to a new legal parent or parents

Democracy

a political system in which the people hold the ruling power either directly/elected representatives Direct participatory democracy requires that citizens be able to meet together regularly to debate and decide the issues of the day

credentialism

a process of social selection in which class advantage and social status are linked to the possession of academic qualifications

Ecclesia

a religious organization that is so integrated into the dominant culture that it claims as its membership all members of a society does not exist the anglican church (england) are close

Religion

a social institution composed of a unified system of beliefs, symbols, and rituals - based on some sacred or supernatural realm - that guides human behavior, gives meaning to life, and unites believers into a community

welfare state

a state in which there is extensive government action to provide support and services to the citizens attends to basic needs of young children and unemployed

serial monogamy

a succession of marriages in which a person has several spouses over a lifetime but is legally married to only one person at a time.

bilateral descent

a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side and father's side are considered equally important This pattern is used in the United States for the purpose of determining kinship and inheritance rights; however, children typically take the father's last name.

matrilineal descent

a system of tracing descent through the mother's side of the family inheritance of property and position is usually traced from the maternal uncle (mother's brother) to his nephew (mother's son). In some cases, mothers may pass on their property to daughters.

Fundamentalism

a traditional religious doctrine that is conservative, is typically opposed to modernity, and rejects "worldly pleasures" in favor of otherworldly spirituality traditional fundamentalism primarily appealed to people from lower-income, rural, and/or southern backgrounds; One reason for the rise of fundamentalism has been a reaction against modernization and secularization.

sacred

according to emile durkheim those aspects of life that are extraordinary or supernatural sacred beliefs are rooted in the holy or supernatural, secular beliefs have their foundation in scientific knowledge or everyday explanations

Fertility

actual level of childbearing for an individual or a population based on biological/social factors, number of women of childbearing age, gen health and level of nutrition Fecundity is the potential number of children who could be born if every woman reproduced at her maximum biological capacity not as high as fertility rates changes in number of partners crude birth rate—the number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year based on the entire population and is not "refined" to incorporate significant variables affecting fertility, such as age, marital status, religion, and race/ethnicity

Remarriage

age important factor People who are older have had more time to see a marriage conclude and to remarry. 13 percent of men and 14 percent of women reported that they had been married twice, and 4 percent reported that they had been married three or more times education levels- 64% married w/degree lower rates of divorce among those with more years of formal education may be related to a tendency to delay marriage and later ages at first marriage employment status and income: Persons who are employed are more likely to be married once and to stay married to the same partner than those who are not in the labor force Adults with incomes of $100,000 and above are more likely to have married only once. receiving public assistance means never being married.

Deciding to have children

age is a factor in deciding to have children Birth rates rose for women in their thirties and late forties but remained relatively unchanged for women in their early forties. So this means that birth rates declined for all women under age thirty and rose for women ages 30-39 and 45-49. average age 26 years old pronatalist bias-which assumes that having children is the norm and can be taken for granted, whereas those who choose not to have children believe that they must justify their decision to others

Types of Crowd behavior

aggregates, previously defined as a collection of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time but who share little else in common. think of thousands of people stranded in an airport when harsh weather or other conditions make it impossible for them to board flights and head for their destinations

subcontracting

an agreement in which a corporation contracts with other (usually smaller) firms to provide specialized components, products, or services to the larger corporation

democratic socialism

an economic and political system that combines private ownership of some of the means of production, governmental distribution of some essential goods and services, free elections government ownership in Sweden is limited primarily to railroads, mineral resources, a public bank, and liquor and tobacco operations

Socialism

an economic system characterized by public ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of collective goals, and centralized decision making Karl Max said temporary stage en route to an ideal communist society communism as an economic system characterized by common ownership of all economic resources "ideal" socialism has 3 features public ownership of the means of production; pursuit of collective goals, and; centralized decision making.

Managed care

any system of cost containment that closely monitors and controls health care providers' decisions about medical procedures, diagnostic tests, and other services that should be provided to patients preferred provider organization (PPO), which is an organization of medical doctors, hospitals, and other health care providers that enter into a contract with an insurer or a third-party administrator to provide health care at a reduced rate to patients who are covered under specific insurance plans 52% workers in employer sponsored health programs participate in PPO plans

Protest crowds

Protest crowds engage in activities intended to achieve specific political goals. Examples include sit-ins, marches, boycotts, blockades, civil disobedience—nonviolent action that seeks to change a policy or law by refusing to comply with it.

sociological perspectives on religion

Religion as a social institution is a powerful, deeply felt, and influential force in human society. Sociologists study the social institution of religion because of the importance that religion holds for many people some people believe that the introduction of prayer or religious instruction in public schools would have a positive effect on the teaching of values such as honesty, compassion, courage, and tolerance because these values could be given a moral foundation.

social cohesion and a sense of belonging

Religious teachings and practices, by emphasizing shared symbolism, help promote social cohesion ex-Christian ritual of communion, which not only commemorates a historical event but also allows followers to participate in the unity

Underground (informal) economy

legitimate economy: Taxes on income are paid by employers and employees, and individuals who hold jobs requiring a specialized license (such as craftspeople or taxi drivers) possess the appropriate credentials for their work. By contrast, the underground economy is made up of a wide variety of activities through which people make money that they do not report to the government, and in some cases, their endeavors may involve criminal behavior

secondary labor market

low-paying jobs with few benefits and very little job security or possibility for future advancement

Four year colleges and universities

many challenges are faced by four-year institutions, ranging from the cost of higher education to racial and ethnic differences in enrollment and lack of faculty diversity

gans urban villagers

many residents develop strong loyalties and a sense of community in central-city areas that outsiders may view negatively Cosmopolites are students, artists, writers, musicians, entertainers, and professionals who choose to live in the city because they want to be close to its cultural facilities Unmarried people and childless couples live in the city because they want to be close to work and entertainment. Ethnic villagers live in ethnically segregated neighborhoods; some are recent immigrants who feel most comfortable within their own group. The deprived are poor individuals with dim future prospects; they have very limited education and few, if any, other resources. The trapped are urban dwellers who can find no escape from the city; this group includes persons left behind by the process of invasion and succession

Mental Disorders

mental disorder and substance use disorder to describe how certain kinds of illnesses can affect people from all walks of life and all age groups mental disorder—a condition that makes it difficult or impossible for a person to cope with everyday life—and mental illness—a condition in which a person has a severe mental disorder requiring extensive treatment with medication, psychotherapy, and sometimes hospitalization

Dysfunctions of Education

not promoting the high-level skills in reading, writing, science, and mathematics that are needed in the workplace and the global economy lagging test scores are a sign that dysfunctions exist in the nation's educational system.

infant mortality rate

number of deaths of infants under 1 year of age per 1,000 live births in a year infant mortality rate ranged from a low of 1.8 in high-income nations such as Japan to a high of 117 in low-income nations such as Afghanistan reasons:low-income countries have insufficient or contaminated food; lack access to pure, safe water A key issue in health care is the cost and availability of advanced diagnostic and surgical technologies and lifesaving drugs around the world

competition

oligopoly- an industry dominated by few companies shared monopoly-a situation that occurs when four or fewer companies supply 50 percent or more of a particular market

functionalist perspectives on education

one of the most important components of society Emile Durkhiem said moral values are the foundation of a cohesive social order and that schools have the responsibility to teach a commitment to the common morality. student taught to put group's needs ahead of individual desires contemp functionalist- education is responsible for teaching U.S. values

Manifest function

open, stated, and intended goals or consequences of activities within an organization or institution in education -socialization -transmission of culture -social control -social placement -change and innovation

political party

organization whose purpose is to gain and hold legit control over the government composes of similar attitudes, interest develops and articulates policy positions; educates voters about issues and simplifies the choices for them; recruits candidates who agree with those policies, helps those candidates win office, and holds the candidates responsible for implementing the party's policy positions. platform-a formal statement of the party's political positions on various social and economic issues

Political action committees

organizations of special interest groups that solicit contributions from donors and fund campaigns to help elect (or defeat) candidates based on their stances on specific issues ex- advertising, staff and telephone banks represent public interest PACs came into existence from In SpeechNow.org v. Federal Election Commission and Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission PACs have restrictions on who may contribute and how much they can give, whereas super PACs are unrestricted in who can give and how much they may donate Based on a functionalist approach, some special interest groups and political action committees continue to represent the broader needs and interests of many individuals, groups, and organizations in society

Social movement

organized group that acts consciously to promote or resist change through collective action. more likely to develop in industrialized societies than in preindustrial societies spring up when people come to see their personal troubles as public issues that cannot be solved without a collective response

Socialization

parents and other relatives teach children knowledge/skills to survive. smallness and intimacy of families make them suited for providing children with initial learning experiences they need.

Contingent work

part-time work, temporary work, or subcontracted work that offers advantages to employers but that can be detrimental to the welfare of workers found in every segment of the workforce

Occupations

categories of jobs that involve similar activities at different work sites Blue-collar workers were primarily factory and craft workers who did manual labor; white-collar workers were office workers and professionals d pink-collar workers, primarily women, who are employed in occupations such as preschool teacher, dental assistant, secretary, and clerk.

Age

chronic diseases- illnesses that are long term and develop gradually or are present from birth acute diseases- illnesses that strike suddenly and cause dramatic incapacitation and sometimes death two of the most common sources of chronic disease and premature death are tobacco use chronic diseases increase as people grow older

Neo-Malthusian Perspective

dangers of overpopulation. To neo-Malthusians, Earth is "a dying planet" with too many people and too little food, compounded by environmental degradation and overconsumptionoverpopulation and rapid population growth result in global environmental problems, ranging from global warming and rain-forest destruction to famine and vulnerability to epidemics zero population growth- the point at which no population increase occurs from year to year because the number of deaths plus immigrants is equal to the number of death plus emigrants

Racial Segregation and Resegregation

desegregation—the abolition of legally sanctioned racial-ethnic segregation—or integration—the implementation of specific action to change the racial-ethnic and/or class composition of the student body—have failed in many districts. Resegregation is also an issue because some school districts have abandoned programs that had produced greater racial integration in local schools The typical African American or Latina/o student attends a school with almost twice as many low-income students as a school attended by the typical white American or Asian American student

The Flexner Report

develop a model of how medical education should take place medical school should be a full-time, research-oriented, laboratory facility that devoted all of its energies to teaching and research, not to the practice of medicine It should employ "laboratory men" to train students in the "science" of medicine, and the students should then apply the principles they had learned in the sciences to the illnesses of patients

Competition for public schools

discussion about school choice focuses on school voucher programs in which public funds (tax dollars) are provided to parents so that they can pay their child's tuition at a private school of their choice, parents like it because it provides them with options for schooling their children public school students outperformed voucher students in both reading and math on state proficiency tests; however, neither group reached state proficiency requirements

Urbanism as a way of life

distinctive social and psychological patterns of life typically found in the city According to Wirth, the size, density, and heterogeneity of urban populations typically result in an elaborate division of labor and in spatial segregation of people by race/ethnicity, social class, religion, and/or lifestyle people who live in urban areas are alienated, powerless, and lonely

New Social Movement Theory

diverse array of collective actions and the manner in which those actions are based on politics, ideology, and culture ecofeminism and environmental justice movements. Ecofeminism is based on the belief that patriarchy is a root cause of environmental problems. Sociologist Stella M. Capek (1993) investigated a contaminated landfill in the Carver Terrace neighborhood of Texarkana, Texas, and found that residents were able to mobilize for change and win a federal buyout and relocation by symbolically linking their issue to a larger environmental justice framework environmental racism—the belief that a disproportionate number of hazardous facilities (including industries such as waste disposal/treatment and chemical plants) are placed in low-income areas populated primarily by people of color

Marriage

do so because they are "in love," desire companionship and sex, want to have children, feel social pressure, are attempting to escape from a bad situation in their parents' home, or believe that they will have more money or other resources if they get married. homogamy- pattern of individual marrying those who have similar characteristics such as race/ethnicity, age, education, social class. people want partners whose personalities match their own in significant ways.

lifestyle factors

drug-any substance—other than food and water—that, when taken into the body, alters its functioning in some way. alcohol- 32% say 1-7 drinks in a week age, gender and race affect drinking behavior binge drinking problematic alcoholic cirrhosis—a progressive development of scar tissue that chokes off blood vessels in the liver and destroys liver cells by interfering with their use of oxygen

Housework and Child-Care Responsibilities

dual earner marriages- marriages in which both spouses are in the labor force. 57% mothers employed second shift- domestic work that employed women perform at home after they complete their workday on the job. ex-cooking, cleaning, shopping, taking care of children, and managing household routines. According to Hochschild, the unpaid housework that women do on the second shift amounts to an extra month of work each year. married and cohabiting couples with more-egalitarian ideas about women's and men's roles have tended to share more equally in food preparation, housework, and child-care responsibilities 25% of children with full-time employed mothers spend most of their time away from home in a center-based arrangement, such as day care 25% school-age children stay alone after the school day ends until a parent returns home from work

Provision of social status

families confer social status and reputation on their members these are ascribed statuses at birth: race/ethnicity, nationality, social class and religious affiliation

Classical conflict theorists

families in capitalist economies are similar to the work environment of a factory: Men in the home dominate women in the same manner that capitalists and managers in factories dominate their workers. The exploitation of the lower classes by the upper classes contributes to family problems such as high rates of divorce and overall family instability.

extended family

family unit composed of relatives in addition to parents and children who live in the same household. These families often include grandparents, uncles, aunts, or other relatives who live close to the parents and children, making it possible for family members to share resources. . In horticultural and agricultural societies, extended families are extremely important; having a large number of family members participate in food production may be essential for survival. Today, extended-family patterns are found in Latin America, Africa, Asia, and some parts of eastern and southern Europe.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives of Education

focus on classroom communication patterns and educational practices, such as labeling, that affect students' self-concept and aspirations.

Symbolic Interactionist perspectives on religion

focus their attention on a microlevel analysis which examines the meanings that people give to religion in their everyday life religious symbols have meaning for large bodies of people a symbol given to a child may have special meaning when he or she grows up and faces war or other crises Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1976/1923) believed that "men's religion" taught people to submit and obey rather than to think about and realistically confront situations. Religious symbolism and language typically create a social definition of the roles of men and women; religious symbolism may depict the higher deities as male and the lower deities as female. , females are depicted as spiritual forces that are negative or evil

Other perspectives on population change

focused on the process of secularization—the decline in the significance of the sacred in daily life—and how a change from believing that otherworldly powers are responsible for one's life to a sense of responsibility for one's own well-being is linked to a decline in fertility education and social psychological factors also play into the decisions that individuals make about how many children to have rational choice theory, which is based on the assumption that people make decisions based on a calculated cost-benefit analysis epidemiological transition—the shift from deaths at younger ages because of acute, communicable diseases fertility transition—the shift from natural fertility to controlled fertility, resulting in a decrease in the fertility rate

resource mobilization theory

focuses on the ability of members of a social movement to acquire resources and mobilize people in order to advance their cause based on the assumption that participants in social movements are rational people.

Transitions and Problems in Families

for good or ill, families are central to our existence; the reality of family life is far more complicated than the idealized image of families found in the media and in many political discussions.

4 distinvt frame alignment processes occur in social movements

frame bridging is the process by which movement organizations reach individuals who already share the same worldview as the organization; frame amplification occurs when movements appeal to deeply held values and beliefs in the general population and link those to movement issues so that people's preexisting value commitments serve as a "hook" that can be used to recruit them; frame extension occurs when movements enlarge the boundaries of an initial frame to incorporate other issues that appear to be of importance to potential participants; frame transformation refers to the process whereby the creation and maintenance of new values, beliefs, and meanings induce movement participation by redefining activities and events in such a manner that people believe they must become involved in collective action.

Syphillis

genital ulcerative disease that can be acquired not only by sexual intercourse but also by kissing or coming into intimate bodily contact with an infected person syphilis is a major health problem in the South and in urban areas in other regions. High-risk populations include young African American men, all men who have sex with other men, and men who have sex with both men and women like gonorrhea

Holistic Medicine and Alternative Medicine

health care that focuses on prevention of illness and disease and is aimed at treating the whole person—body and mind—rather than just the part or parts in which symptoms occur alternative medicine—healing practices inconsistent with dominant medical practice—take a holistic approach, and today many people are turning to alternative medicine, such as the use of herbal therapies, to supplement or replace traditional medicine self-interest is also involved in mainstream medicine's reaction to alternative medicine: If the public can be persuaded that scientific medicine is the only legitimate healing practice, fewer health care dollars will be spent on a form of medical treatment that is (at least to some extent) in competition with the medical establishment

Latent funtions

hidden, unstated, sometimes unintended consequences of activities within an organization include -matchmaking and production of social networks -restricting some activities -creating a generation gap

Teenage Childbearing

high in the U.S., decline across all racial/ethnic categories reasons: many sexually active teenagers do not use contraceptives; teenagers—especially those from low-income families and/or subordinate racial and ethnic groups—may receive little accurate information about the use of, and problems associated with, contraception; some teenage males (because of a double standard based on the myth that sexual promiscuity is acceptable among males but not females) believe that females should be responsible for contraception; and some teenagers view pregnancy as a sign of male prowess or as a way to gain adult status

primary labor market

high-paying jobs with good benefits that have some degree of security and the possibility of future advancement

proganda

information provided by individuals or groups that have a vested interest in furthering their own cause or damaging an opposing one.

Power and Authority in Families

patriarchal family- a family structure in which authority is held by the eldest male (usually the father).The male authority figure acts as head of the household and holds power and authority over the women and children, as well as over other males. The most prevalent pattern of power and authority in families is patriarchy. Across cultures, men are the primary (and often sole) decision makers regarding domestic, economic, and social concerns facing the family.

Feminist perspectives

patriarchy over class mens domination over women existed before capitalism and private ownership of property. Women's subordination is rooted in patriarchy and men's control over women's labor power.

Racial/Ethnic differences in enrollment

people of color are underrepresented the proportionately low number of people of color enrolled in colleges and universities is reflected in the educational achievement of people ages 25 and over Underrepresentation is not the only problem faced by students of color: Problems of prejudice and discrimination continue on some college campuses.

Relative Deprivation Theory

people who are satisfied with their present condition are less likely to seek social change. social movements arise as a response to people's perception that they have been deprived of what they consider to be their fair share Relative deprivation refers to the discontent that people may feel when they compare their achievements with those of similarly situated persons and find that they have less than they think they deserve unfulfilled rising expectations—newly raised hopes of a better lifestyle that are not fulfilled as rapidly as the people expected or are not realized at all.

Governmental Bureaucracy

permanent government, made up of top-tier civil service bureaucrats who have a major power base, has remained more constant iron triangle of power—a three-way arrangement in which a private interest group (usually a corporation), a congressional committee or subcommittee, and a bureaucratic agency make the final decision on a political issue that is to be decided by that agency military- industrial complex- the mutual interdependence of the military establishment and private military contractors According to the sociologist C. Wright Mills (1976), this alliance of economic, military, and political power amounts to a "permanent war economy" or "military economy." However, the economist John Kenneth Galbraith (1985) has argued that the threat of war is good for the economy because government money spent on military preparedness stimulates the private sector of the economy, creates jobs, and encourages consumer spending. Issues r

School violence

physical attack or fight without a weapon (about 70 percent) distribution, possession, or use of illegal drugs (about 25 percent) young people are more likely to be victims of violent crime at or near their home, on the streets, at commercial establishments, or at parks than they are at school

Gender Regimes in Cities

prevailing ideologies of how women and men should think, feel, and act; how access to social positions and control of resources should be managed; and how relationships between men and women should be conducted Private patriarchy is based on a strongly gendered division of labor in the home, gender-segregated paid employment, and women's dependence on men's income public patriarchy in the form of women's increasing dependence on paid work and the government for income and their decreasing emotional interdependence with men gender often intersects with class and race as a form of oppression because lower-income women of color often reside in central cities.

Resistance Movements

prevent change or to undo change that has already occurred. groups organized to oppose same-sex marriage, abortion, and gun-control legislation.

Preventive Health Care Services

preventive services covered at no cost are screening for hypertension (high blood pressure), diabetes, high cholesterol, and cancer.

self-fulfilling prophecy

previously defined as an unsubstantiated belief or prediction resulting in behavior that makes the originally false belief come true classic form of labeling and the self-fulfilling prophecy may occur through the use of IQ (intelligence quotient) tests, which claim to measure a person's inherent intelligence, apart from any family or school influences on the individual.

Marginal jobs

private household workers—such as launderers, cooks, maids, housekeepers, gardeners, babysitters, and nannies—and personal service employees in eating and drinking places, hotels, laundries, and beauty and nail salon excluded from govt work regulations

Invasion

process by which a new category of people or type of land use arrives in an area previously occupied by another group or type of land use recent immigrants and low-income individuals "invaded" Zone 2, formerly occupied by wealthy families

Succession

process by which a new category of people or type of land use gradually predominates in an area formerly dominated by another group or type of land use zone 2 when some of the single-family residences were sold and subsequently divided into multiple housing units, the remaining single-family owners moved out because the "old" neighborhood had changed

Gentrification

process by which members of the middle and upper-middle classes, especially whites, move into a central-city area and renovate existing properties demonstrates how economic and political forces play an important part in the location of groups and activities, and it shows how a large urban area can have internal differentiation

Secularization Debate

process by which religious beliefs, practices, and institutions lose their significance in society and nonreligious values, principles, and institutions take their place two components: a decline in religious values and institutions in everyday life and a corresponding increase in nonreligious values or principles and greater significance given to secular institutions.

labeling

process whereby a person is identified by others as possessing a specific characteristic or exhibiting a certain pattern of behavior In schools, teachers and administrators are empowered to label children in various ways, including grades, written comments on deportment

demedicalization

process whereby a problem ceases to be defined as an illness or a disorder. Examples include the removal of certain behaviors (such as homosexuality) from the list of mental disorders compiled by the American Psychiatric Association and the deinstitutionalization of mental health patients

Postmodernist perspective: clinical gaze

questioned existing assumptions about medical knowledge and the power that doctors have gained over other medical personnel and everyday people Doctors develop the clinical gaze through their observation of patients; as the doctors begin to diagnose and treat medical conditions, they also start to speak "wisely" about everything Foucault: the prestige of the medical establishment was further enhanced when it became possible to categorize all illnesses within a definitive network of disease classification under which physicians can claim that they know why patients are sick Foucault's work provides new insights on medical dominance, but it has been criticized for its lack of attention to alternative viewpoints.

Remaining Single

reasons: career availability of sexual partners w/o marriage single=fun self-sufficiency and freedom to change and experiment economic necessity for those who cannot afford to get married African Americans 43.9%

Charter schools

receive public money but are free from some of the day-to-day bureaucracy of a larger school district that may limit classroom performance. enroll a greater percentage of low-income students than traditional public schools, as well as a larger proportion of African American and Hispanic/Latino/a students

Families

relationships in which people live together with commitment, form an economic unit and care for any young, and consider their identity to be significantly attached to the group

sect

relatively small religious group that has broken away from another religious organization to renew what it views as the original version of the faith. sects offer members a more personal religion and an intimate relationship with a supreme being, depicted as taking an active interest in the individual's everyday life. their religious organization is also likely to focus more on this world and less on the next

Max Weber on Religion

religion could be a catalyst to produce social change Calvin emphasized the doctrine of predestination—the belief that even before they are born, all people are divided into two groups, the saved and the damned, and only God knows who will go to heaven (the elect) and who will go to hell wealth was an unintended consequence of religious piety and hard work. leaves an exist

Meaning and purpose

religion offers meaning for the human experience. Some events create a profound sense of loss on both an individual basis (such as injustice, suffering, and the death of a loved one) and a group basis (such as famine, earthquake, economic depression, or subjugation by an enemy)

From a conflict perspective

religion tends to promote conflict between groups and societies. According to conflict theorists, conflict may be between religious groups (for example, anti-Semitism), within a religious group (for example, when a splinter group leaves an existing denomination), or between a religious group and the larger society (for example, the conflict over religion in the classroom). Conflict theorists assert that in attempting to provide meaning and purpose in life while at the same time promoting the status quo, religion is used by the dominant classes to impose their own control over society and its resources.

Postindustrial cities

rely on an economic structure that is based on scientific knowledge rather than industrial production, and, as a result, a class of professionals and technicians grows in size and influence. Postindustrial cities are dominated by "light" industry, such as software manufacturing; information-processing services, such as airline and hotel reservation services; New York, London, and Tokyo John D. Kasarda, who coined the term aerotropolis to describe a new urban pattern in which cities are built around airports rather than airports being built around cities combination of giant airport, planned city, shipping facility, and business hub found in Seoul, Amsterdam, Dallas, Memphis, Washington, D.C

conflict perspective on education

schools often perpetuate class, racial-ethnic, and gender inequalities as some groups seek to maintain their privileged position at the expense of others education is a vehicle for reproducing existing class relationships. According to the French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, the school legitimates and reinforces the social elites by engaging in specific practices that uphold the patterns of behavior and the attitudes of the dominant class

polyandry

second type of polygamy concurrent marriage of one woman with two or more men. rare. found in societies where men outnumber women because high rate of female infanticide

The Gated Community in the Capitalist Economy

secured entrance—is an example to many people of how developers, builders, and municipalities have encouraged an increasing division between public and private property in capitalist societies

STDs

sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including HIV/AIDS, chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis. Chlamydia is the most common STD in terms of the number of cases can also contribute to the transmission of HIV. Women are at higher risk of chlamydia gonorrhea the second most commonly reported STD in the United States, is caused by a bacterium that can grow and multiply easily in the warm, moist areas of the reproductive tract African Americans, rates are nearly fifteen times higher than rates among white Americans

cultural capital

social assets that include values, beliefs, attitudes, and competencies in language and culture Cultural capital involves "proper" attitudes toward education, socially approved dress and manners, and knowledge about books, art, music, and other forms of high and popular culture cultural capital is essential for acquiring an education, children with less cultural capital have fewer opportunities to succeed in school standardized tests that are used to group students by ability and to assign them to classes often measure students' cultural capital rather than their "natural" intelligence or aptitude

Value Added Theory

sociologist Neil Smelser (1963) is based on the assumption that certain conditions are necessary for the development of a social movement. Smelser called his theory the "value-added" approach based on the concept (borrowed from the field of economics) that each step in the production process adds something to the finished product. takes into account the complexity of social movements and makes it possible to test Smelser's assertions regarding the necessary and sufficient conditions that produce such movements.

Chapter 12 Education and Religion

sociology of education, which primarily examines formal education or schooling in industrial societies sociology of religion, which focuses on religious groups and organizations, on the behavior of individuals within those groups, and on ways in which religion is intertwined with other social institutions.

Theoretical Perspectives on Family

sociology of family: subdiscipline of sociology that attempts to describe and explain patterns of family life and variation in family structure Functionalist perspectives emphasize the functions that families perform at the macrolevel of society, whereas conflict and feminist perspectives focus on families as a primary source of social inequality. Symbolic interactionists examine microlevel interactions that are integral to the roles of different family members. Postmodern analysts view families as being permeable, capable of being diffused or invaded so that their original purpose is modified.

political sociology

sociology that examines politics and the government focuses on the social circumstances of politics and explores how the political arena and its actors are intertwined with social institutions such as the economy, religion, education, and the media

Homeschooling

some parents who hope to avoid the problems of public schools while providing a quality education for their children reasons: the ability to have a curriculum that is based on the students' individual needs, concern about school environments and a desire to have a positive learning environment for each child, the desire to provide religious or moral instruction, dissatisfaction with the academic instruction available at traditional schools, and the ability to enhance family relationships among siblings as well as among and parents and children homeschooled students typically have high academic achievements and high rates of employment

social epidemiology

study of the causes and distribution of health, disease and impairment throughout a population

Urban sociology

subfield of sociology that examines social relationships and political and economic structures in the city

Rational Choice perspectives on religion

the assumption that religion is essentially a rational response to human needs The rational choice perspective views religion as a competitive marketplace in which religious organizations (suppliers) offer a variety of religions and religious products to potential followers (consumers), who shop around for the religious theologies, practices, and communities that best suit them. process by which actors—individuals, groups, and communities—settle on one optimal outcome out of a range of possible choices religious followers have been attracted to churches that preach the so-called prosperity gospel, which is based on the assumption that if you give your money to God, He will bless you with more money and other material possessions

secular humanism

the belief that human beings can become better through their own efforts rather than through belief in God and a religious conversion. According to some Christian fundamentalists, elementary schoolchildren do not receive a fair and balanced picture of the Christian religion, but instead are taught that their parents' religion is inferior and perhaps irrational

simple supernaturalism

the belief that supernatural forces affect people's lives either positively or negatively does not acknowledge specific gods or supernatural spirits but focuses instead on impersonal forces that may exist in people or natural objects

population composition

the biological and social characteristics of a population, including age, sex, race, marital status, education, occupation, income, and size of household measured by sex ratio: the number of males for every hundred females in a given population. A sex ratio of 100 indicates an equal number of males and females in the population. If the number is greater than 100, there are more males than females; if it is less than 100, there are more females than males population pyramid: graphic representation of the distribution of a population by sex and age

Urbanity

the boundary between workplace and home are more flexible and family life may be negatively affected. ex- he boss who in the past would not call at 11:30 p.m. may send a text or e-mail asking for an immediate response to some question that has arisen while the person is away from the workplace.

G. William Domhoff and the Ruling Class

the corporate rich, who make up less than 1 percent of the U.S. population who governs is less important than who rules.Domhoff emphasizes that people in the United States do have options because of their rights to free speech and to vote Power elite models call our attention to a central concern in contemporary U.S. society: the ability of democracy and its ideals to survive in the context of the increasingly concentrated power held by capitalist oligarchies such as the media giants

matrilocal

the custom of a married couple living in the same household/ community as the wife's parents

neolocal

the custom of a married couple living in their own residence apart from both husbands and wife's parents

profane

the everyday, secular or wordly aspects of life

Discontent with the current political systems/parties

the fact that American families have not had a real increase in earnings over the past twenty years, particularly when their current income is adjusted for inflation during that time period. A second factor is that individuals without college degrees are faring less well in the economy than they have in the past. Third, white men have left or been pushed out of the job market to the extent that their overall participation rate has gone down for six decades. Fourth, national income inequality has continued to grow worse with each passing year.

Family orientation

the family into which a person is born and in which early socialization takes place. people are related to members of their family of orientation by blood ties, those who are adopted have a legal tie that is patterned after a blood relationship

mortality

the incidence of death in a population. The simplest measure of mortality is the crude death rate—the number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population in a given year In high-income, developed nations, such as the United States, mortality rates have declined dramatically as diseases such as malaria The leading causes of deaths in most regions of the world are noncommunicable diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer infant mortality rate, which is the number of deaths of infants under 1 year of age per 1,000 live births in a given year Life expectancy is an estimate of the average lifetime in years of people born in a specific year.

Means of production

the means of production are owned and controlled by a collectivity or the state, not by private individuals or corporations. For example, prior to the early 1990s the state owned all the natural resources and almost all the capital in the Soviet Union China—previously the world's other major communist economy—has privatized many state industries. In privatization, resources are converted from state ownership to private ownership; the government takes an active role in developing, recognizing, and protecting private property rights Socialism is based on the pursuit of collective goals, rather than on personal profits. economic decisions are based on the needs of society; the government is responsible for aiding the production and distribution of goods and services

polygamy

the most concurrent marriage of a person of one sex with two or more members of the opposite sex.

Polygyny

the most concurrent marriage of one man with two or more women practiced in a number of societies, including parts of Europe until the Middle Ages. More recently, some marriages in Islamic societies in Africa and Asia have been polygynous

Migration

the movement of people from one geographic area to another for the purpose of changing residency Distribution refers to the physical location of people throughout a geographic area Density is the number of people living in a specific geographic area. In urbanized areas, density may be measured by the number of people who live per room, per block, or per square mile

School Dropouts

the percentage of people in a specific age range who are not currently enrolled in high school and who do not have a high school degree or its equivalent event dropout rates- which estimates the percentage of both public and private high school students who left high school between the beginning of one school year and the beginning of the next without earning a high school diploma or an alternative credential such as a GED Some students believe that their classes are boring; others are skeptical about the value of schooling and think that completing high school will not increase their job opportunities.

Malthusian Perspective

the population, if left unchecked, would exceed the available food supply. He argued that the population would increase in a geometric (exponential) progression (2, 4, 8, 16 ...) while the food supply would increase only by an arithmetic progression doubling effect occurs: Two parents can have four children, sixteen grandchildren, and so on, but food production increases by only one acre at a time. Thus, population growth inevitably surpasses the food supply, and the lack of food ultimately ends population growth and perhaps eliminates the existing population Positive checks are mortality risks, such as famine, disease, and war; preventive checks are limits to fertility; moral restraint; people should practice sexual abstinence before marriage and postpone marriage as long as possible in order to have only a few children

Tracking

the practice of assigning students in specific curriculum groups on the basis of their test scores and other criteria also known as ability grouping make it possible for students to work together based on their perceived abilities and at their own pace race, class, language, gender, and many other social categories may determine the placement of children in elementary tracking systems as much or more than their actual academic abilities and interests.

Endogamy

the practice of marrying within one's own group In the United States, for example, most people practice endogamy: They marry people who come from the same social class, racial-ethnic group, religious affiliation, and other categories considered important within their own social group.

Monogamy

the practice or state of being married to one person at a time. For some people, marriage is a lifelong commitment that ends only with the death of a partner. For others, marriage is a commitment of indefinite duration.

Secularization

the process by which religious beliefs, practices, and institutions lose their significance in sectors of society and culture decline of religion in everyday life and a corresponding increase in organizations that are highly bureaucratized, fragmented, and impersonal.

medicanlization

the process whereby nonmedical problems become defined and treated as illnesses or disordersthe conceptual level (e.g., the use of medical terminology to define the problem); the institutional level (e.g., physicians are supervisors of treatment and gatekeepers to applying for benefits); the interactional level (e.g., when physicians treat patients' conditions as medical problems).

secondary sector production

the processing of raw materials (from the primary sector) into finished goods. For example, steel workers process metal ore; auto workers then convert the ore into automobiles, trucks, and buses. in industrial economies- work is specialized and repetitive characteristics in industrial economies New forms of energy, mechanization, and the growth of the factory system. Increased division of labor and specialization among workers. Universal application of scientific methods to problem solving and profit making. Introduction of wage labor, time discipline, and workers' deferred gratification, which means that employees should be diligent at work and pursue personal activities on their own time only. Strengthening of bureaucratic organizational structure and the enforcement of rules, policies, and procedures to make the workplace more efficient and profitable.

civil religion

the set of beliefs, rituals, and symbols that makes sacred the values of the society and places the nation in the context of the ultimate system of meaning civil ceremonies in the United States have a marked religious quality. National values are celebrated on "high holy days" such as Memorial Day and the Fourth of July

Functionalist perspective: the sick role

the set of patterned expectations that defines the norms and values appropriate for individuals who are sick and for those who interact with them 4 characteristics: People who are sick are not responsible for their condition People who assume the sick role are temporarily exempt from their normal roles and obligations People who are sick must want to get well People who are sick must seek competent help from a medical professional to hasten their recovery According to Parsons, it is important for the society to maintain social control over people who enter the sick role this model does not take into account the fact that many individuals in the working class may choose not to accept the sick role unless they are seriously ill—because they cannot afford to miss time from work

religiosity

the way that people are influenced by religious beliefs and shape their social reality accordingly. referred to as religiousness a person does the following believes in and "feels" or experiences certain aspects of religion; becomes involved in religious activities such as attending church or reading sacred texts; believes in the teachings of the church; lives in accordance with those teachings and beliefs. One of the reasons that many unaffiliated persons indicate that they are not looking for a church or other religious institution to join is that they believe these organizations are too concerned with money

involuntary infertility

they want to have a child but find that they are physically unable to do so. Infertility is defined as an inability to conceive after a year of unprotected sexual relations. The most common causes of female infertility include fallopian tube damage or blockage, endometriosis, ovulation disorders, early menopause, and other health-related disorders

Ideal Types of Authority

traditional authority-power that is legitimized on the basis of long-standing custom ex- kings, queens societies industrialize, traditional authority is challenged by a more complex division of labor and by the wider diversity of people who now inhabit the area as a result of high immigration rates gender, race and class intertwinned with traditional authority societies industrialize, traditional authority is challenged by a more complex division of labor and by the wider diversity of people who now inhabit the area as a result of high immigration rates

Post modernist family

traditional gender roles are much more flexible. Younger people are much less constrained by the hierarchy and power relations of more-traditional families, sometimes to the displeasure of parents and other adult caregivers. the nuclear family is now only one of many family forms agree to have sexual relations with others whom they have no intention of marrying or, if they marry, do not necessarily see the marriage as having permanence maternal love is also mothers, fathers and caregivers who may not be relatives.

Hidden curriculum

transmission of cultural values and attitudes, such as conformity and obedience to authority, through implied demands found in the rules, routines, and regulations of schools. the hidden curriculum determines in advance that the most valued credentials will primarily stay in the hands of the middle and upper classes, related to gender bias The conflict theorists' focus on the hidden curriculum calls our attention to the fact that students learn far more—both positively and negatively—than just the subject matter that is being taught in classrooms.

Symbolic Interactionist perspective: social construction of illness

understand the specific meanings and causes that we attribute to particular events focus on the meanings that social actors give their illness or disease and how these affect people's self-concept and relationships with others Symbolic interactionist perspectives on health and health care provide us with new insights on the social construction of illness and how health and illness cannot be strictly determined by medical criteria. Symbolic interactionists also make us aware of the importance of communication between physicians and patients, including factors that may reduce effective medical treatment for some individuals

Factors of domestic violence

unequal power relations in families include economic inequality, legal and political sanctions that deny girls and women equal rights, and cultural sanctions that dictate appropriate sex roles and reinforce the belief that males are inherently superior to females Economic factors include poverty or limited financial resources within families that contribute to tension and sometimes to violence. Economic factors are intertwined with women's limited access to education, employment, and income sufficient to take care of themselves and their children. belief that such violence is a private or personal matter, fear of retaliation, view of the violence as a "minor" crime, desire to protect the offender, and belief that the police will not help or will be ineffective.

Rumprs/ gossip

unsubstantiated reports on an issue or a subject. Whereas a rumor may spread through an assembled collectivity, rumors may also be transmitted among people who are dispersed geographically, including people spreading rumors on Twitter gossip refers to rumors about the personal lives of individuals. Charles Horton Cooley (1963/1909) viewed gossip as something that spread among a small group of individuals who personally knew the person who was the object of the rumor

Cities and Persons w/ disability

urban and rural areas have a long way to go before many persons with disabilities will have the access to the things they need to become productive members of the community: educational and employment opportunities historical patterns in the dynamics of industrial capitalism contributed to discrimination against persons with disabilities, and this legacy remains evident in contemporary cities

Capitalism and Urban Growth in the US

urban growth is influenced by capital investment decisions, power and resource inequality, class and class conflict uneven development—the tendency of some neighborhoods, cities, or regions to grow and prosper whereas others stagnate and decline. uneven development reflects inequalities of wealth and power in society

Family Violence

various forms of abuse that take place among family members, including child abuse, spousal abuse, and elder abuse. domestic abuse/spousal abuse: any intentional act or series of acts—whether physical, emotional, or sexual—by one or both partners in an intimate relationship that causes injury to either person individuals seek to establish power and control over others through the use of fear and intimidation.

Collective behavior

voluntary, often spontaneous activity that is engaged in by a large number of people and typically violates dominant-group norms and values lacks an official division of labor, hierarchy of authority, and established rules and procedures institutional behavior lacks institutionalized norms to govern behavior

Postmodernist Perspectives

we have experienced a significant decline in the influence of the family and other social institutions. As people have pursued individual freedom, they have been less inclined to accept the structural constraints imposed on them by institutions postmodern family is permeable- more fluid form of nuclear family characterized by larger variations in family structures. variations are divorce, remarriage, cohabitation, single-parent family structures, and families in which one or more grandchildren live with their grandparents

unemployed

without a job Cyclical unemployment occurs as a result of lower rates of production during recessions in the business cycle; a recession is a decline in an economy's total production that lasts at least six months Seasonal unemployment results from shifts in the demand for workers based on conditions such as the weather Structural unemployment arises because the skills demanded by employers do not match the skills of the unemployed or because the unemployed do not live where the jobs are located unemployment rate-percentage of unemployed persons in the labor force actively seeking jobs

Disability

physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major activities that a person would normally do at a given stage of life and that may result in stigmatization or discrimination against the person with a disability An example of a disabling environment is a school or office building in which elevator buttons and faucets on public restroom sinks are located beyond the reach of a person using a wheelchair African Americans have higher rates of disability than whites as age increases so does rates of disability the social significance of their disability can be seen in how they initially respond to their symptoms and diagnosis, how they view the immediate situation and their future, and how the illness and disability affect their lives. some individuals refuse to participate in rehabilitation following a traumatic injury because they want to pretend that the disability does not exist

Health Effects on Disasters

physical/mental effects The stress and trauma of survivors and those who are seriously injured may linger for extended periods compare the psychological effects of being a survivor of a deadly disaster such as an earthquake, tornado, hurricane, or terrorist attack to the anxiety or posttraumatic stress disorders exhibited by some wartime combat survivors

Special interest groups

political coalitions made up of individuals or groups that share a specific interest they wish to protect or advance with the help of the political system ex-AFL-CIO (representing the majority of labor unions) and public interest or citizens' groups such as the Population Connection (formerly Zero Population Growth) and the American Conservative Union groups advocate own interest and further causes such as banking, education and health also known as pressure groups bc they pressure political leaders aka lobbies

Authorirarianism

political system controlled by rulers who deny popular participation in government few have absolute monarchies where rulers claim a hereditary right to their position and where the final decision on issues rests with the monarch ex- saudi arabia, qatar dictatorship-power is gained and held by a single individual military juntas-military officers seize power from the government, as has happened in recent decades in Argentina, Chile, and Haiti authoritarian regimes exist in Cuba and in the People's Republic of China. Authoritarian regimes seek to control the media and to suppress coverage of any topics or information that does not reflect upon the regime in a favorable light

Monarchy

political system in which power resides in one person or family and is passed from generation to generation through lines of inheritance most common agrarian societies, associated with traditional authority patterns Absolute monarchs claim a hereditary right to rule, a divine right to rule limited monarchies- rulers depend on powerful members of the nobility to retain their thrones constitutional monarchies- he royalty serve as symbolic rulers or heads of state while actual authority is held by elected officials in national parliaments

Totalitarianism

political system in which the state seeks to regulate all aspects of people's public and private lives relies on modern technology to monitor and control people; mass propaganda and electronic surveillance are widely used to influence people's thinking and control their actions ex- world war II- nazi party, soviet union enforce conformity ex- afghanistan

Conflict Perspective: Inequalities in Health and Health Care

political, economic, and social forces that affect health and the health care delivery system problems in U.S. health care delivery are rooted in the capitalist economy, which views medicine as a commodity that is produced and sold by the medical-industrial complex medical-industrial complex encompasses local physicians, local hospitals, and global health-related industries such as insurance companies and pharmaceutical and medical supply companies increase our awareness of inequalities of race, class, and gender as these statuses influence people's access to health care

tertiary sector production

postindustrial economy the provision of services rather than goods—as a primary source of livelihood for workers and profit for owners and corporate shareholders 5 characteristics to postindustrial economy Service industries dominate over manufacturing. Information and technological innovation displace property as the central preoccupations in the economy. Professional and technical classes grow more predominant, and workplace culture shifts from factories to diversified work settings. Traditional boundaries between work and home (public and private life) no longer exist because digital technologies such as cell phones and computers make global communication possible. High levels of urbanization and a decline in population occur in many rural areas

C. Wright Mills and Power Elite

power elite comprises leaders at the top of business, the executive branch of the federal government, and the military corporate rich the most powerful middle-legislative branch, special interest groups, local opinion leaders bottom( widest)- unorganized masses, who are relatively powerless and are vulnerable to economic and political exploitation.

rational-legal authority

power legitimized by law/written rules and regulations. also known as bureaucratic authority-organizational structure that includes a clearly defined division of labor, hierarchy of authority, formal rules, and impersonality power if legitimized by procedures held by elected/ appointed government officials and officers in a formal organization

charismatic authority

power legitimized on the basis of a leader's exceptional personal qualities or the demonstration of extraordinary insight and accomplishment that inspire loyalty and obedience from followers ex- politicians, soldiers, entertainers temp role

mass behavior

collective behavior that takes place when people (who are often geographically separated from one another) respond to the same event in much the same way. ex- rumors, gossip, mass hysteria, public opinion, fashions, and fads

mixed economy

combines elements of a market economy (capitalism) with elements of a command economy (socialism) ex- sweden, great britian and france

religious movements

concerned with reforming or renewing people through "inner change." Some religious movements are millenarian—that is, they forecast that "the end is near" and assert that an immediate change in behavior is imperative.; Examples include Hare Krishnas, the Unification church, Scientology, and the Divine Light Mission,

Distinctions regarding collective behavior

crowd- relatively large number of people who are in one another's immediate vicinity ex- audience in a movie theater mass- number of people who share an interest in a specific idea or issue but who are not in one another's immediate vicinity. An example is the popularity of Facebook and Twitter dominant emotion refers to the "publicly expressed feeling perceived by participants and observers as the most prominent in an episode of collective behavior"

People's Republic of China

"Chinese medicine," they are referring to treatments such as acupuncture, herbal remedies, or massage street doctors in urban areas and village doctors (formerly "barefoot doctors") in the countryside, these individuals had little formal training and worked under the supervision of trained physicians All doctors receive training in both Western and traditional Chinese medicine 60 percent of the population of mainland China lives in rural areas, where large numbers of migrant farmworkers must provide for their own health care

The Rise of Scientific Medicine and Professionalism

"Flexner report" that resulted from this study has been described as the catalyst of modern medical education but has also been criticized for its lack of objectivity

Blended families

A husband and a wife, at least one of whom has at least one child from a previous relationship.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspectives: experience of city life

experience of urban life Georg Simmel urban life is highly stimulating, and it shapes people's thoughts and actions attributes such as punctuality and exactness are rewarded but that friendliness and warmth in interpersonal relations are viewed as personal weaknesses urban living could have a liberating effect on people because they have opportunities for individualism and autonomy

Fads and Fashions

fad is a temporary but widely copied activity enthusiastically followed by large numbers of people. Fads can be embraced by widely dispersed collectivities: TV, the Internet fashion is defined as a currently valued style of behavior, thinking, or appearance. Fashion also applies to art, music, drama, literature, architecture, interior design, and automobiles, among other things. In preindustrial societies, clothing styles remained relatively unchanged. With the advent of industrialization, items of apparel became readily available at low prices because of mass production Herbert Blumer (1969) disagreed with the trickle-down approach, arguing that "collective selection" best explains fashion. Blumer suggested that people in the middle and lower classes follow fashion because it is fashion

conflict and feminist perspectives

families are sources of social inequality and conflict over values, goals, and access to resources and power.

nuclear family

family composed of one or two parents and their dependent children, all who live apart from other relatives nuclear family is made up of a "couple" and their dependent children

family of procreation

family that a person forms by having, adopting and creating children. Both legal and blood ties found here The relationship between a husband and wife is based on legal ties; however, the relationship between a parent and child may be based on either blood ties or legal ties, depending on whether the child has been adopted.

Community Colleges

fastest- growing areas of U.S. higher education Community colleges educate about half (46 percent) of the nation's undergraduates Women make up a slight majority (57 percent) of community college students, and for working women and mothers of young children first gen=36% greatest challenges=money

collective representations

group-held meanings that express something important about the group itself

exogamy

marrying outside one's own group The three most important sources of positive or negative sanctions for intermarriage are the family, the church, and the state. Participants in these social institutions may look unfavorably on the marriage of an in-group member to an "outsider" because of the belief that it diminishes social cohesion in the group

Cults

loosely organized religious group with practices and teachings outside the dominant cultural and religious traditions of a society. negative and sometimes offensive meaning because of the beliefs and actions of a few highly publicized cults

Reform Movements

which seek to improve society by changing some specific aspect of the social structure. include labor movements, animal rights movements, antinuclear movements, Mothers Against Drunk Driving, and the disability rights movement.

3 major facts contribute to dramatic change in family structure

1. a decline in marriage rates, 2. a rise in the number of women who are employed in the paid workforce, and 3. a shift from the majority living in a nuclear family to a wider variety of living arrangements, such as blended families, cohabitation, and more-extensive patterns of remarriage

categories based on fertility levels:

1. low fertility countries 2. intermediate- fertility countries 3. high fertility countries

Talcott Parsons

According to Parsons (1955), the husband/father fulfills the instrumental role (meeting the family's economic needs, making important decisions, and providing leadership), whereas the wife/mother fulfills the expressive role (running the household, caring for children, and meeting the emotional needs of family members).

Contemp Urban Ecology

Amos Hawley, urban areas are complex and expanding social systems in which growth patterns are based on advances in transportation and communication commuter railways and automobiles led to the decentralization of city life and the movement of industry from the central city to the suburbs Social area analysis examines urban populations in terms of economic status, family status, and ethnic classification

Capitalism

An economic system based on private ownership of means of production, 4 features private ownership of the means of production; pursuit of personal profit; competition; lack of government intervention. corporations-organizations that have legal powers, such as the ability to enter into contracts and buy and sell property, separate from their individual owners transnational corporations-large corporations that are headquartered in one country but sell and produce goods and services in many countries

Social Institutions and Change

Changes in families produced changes in the socialization of children, many of whom spend large amounts of time playing video games, texting friends, posting their daily activities on Facebook or Twitter, or spending time in child-care facilities outside their own home;

Cohabitation and Domestic Partnership

Cohabitation: two people who live together, and think of themselves as a couple, without being legally married. unmarried partner, cohabiting partner, and cohabiter interchangeably when referring to individuals who cohabit. cohabiting couples with children are typically younger, have fewer years of formal education, hold lower-income positions, and have less secure sources of employment

Demograhic Transition Theory

Demographic transition is the process by which some societies have moved from high birth and death rates to relatively low birth and death rates as a result of technological development stage 1: Preindustrial soceities stage 2: early industrialization stage 3: advanced industrialization and urbanization stage 4: postindustrialization demographic transition theory highlights the relationship between technological development and population growth

Children in Foster Care

Foster care refers to institutional settings or residences where adults other than a child's own parents or biological relatives serve as caregivers. 45% all children in foster care in 1/4 states and district columbia are African American

Great Britian

Great Britain has a centralized, single-payer health care system that is funded by general revenues. constitutes socialized medicine supplemental payments for each low-income or elderly patient in their practice to compensate for the extra time such patients may require

Patterns of Descent and Inheritance

In preindustrial societies, kinship is usually traced through one parent (unilineally) the most common pattern of unilineal descent is patrilineal descent- a system of tracing descent through the father's side of the family. son inherits his father's property and sometimes his position upon the father's death in India, where boys are seen as permanent patrilineal family members but girls are seen as only temporary family members, girls tend to be considered more expendable than boys.

Precipitating factors

To reinforce the existing generalized belief, an inciting incident or dramatic event must occur. With regard to technological disasters, some (including Love Canal) gradually emerge from a long-standing environmental threat, whereas others (including the meltdown of a nuclear power plant) involve a suddenly imposed problem.

Public opinion

attitudes and beliefs communicated by ordinary citizens to decision makers

theism

beliefs in god or gods

routinization of charisma

charismatic authority is succeeded by a bureaucracy controlled by a rationally established authority or by a combination of traditional and bureaucratic authority

nontheistic

does not focus on worship of a god or gods

Functionalist Perspectives: Ecological Models

emphasize life cycle of urban growth Park (1936), economic competition produces certain regularities in land-use patterns and population distributions.

Health Maintenance Organization (HMO)

for a set monthly fee, total care with an emphasis on prevention to avoid costly treatment later 14% workers in employer-sponsored insurance plans are enrolled in HMOs

domestic partnerships

household partnerships in which an unmarried couple lives together in a committed, sexually intimate relationship and is granted some of the same rights and benefits as those accorded to married heterosexual couples civil unions-provide legal recognition of the couple's relationship and give legal rights to the partners similar to those accorded to spouses in marriage. varies from state to state.

fictive kin

persons who are not related by blood but accepted as family members

Pluralist model

power in political systems is widely dispersed throughout many competing interest groups men and women of diverse backgrounds and all economic socio backgrounds power is widely dispersed, and leadership groups that wield influence on some decisions are not the same groups that may be influential in other decisions

Convergence Theory

shared emotions, goals, and beliefs that many people may bring to crowd behavior. people with similar attributes find a collectivity of like-minded persons with whom they can express their underlying personal tendencies Convergence theory adds to our understanding of certain types of collective behavior by pointing out how individuals may have certain attributes—such as racial hatred or fear of environmental problems that directly threaten them—that initially bring them together.

Education

social institution responsible for systematic transmission of knowledge, skills and cultural values.

life expectancy

statistical estimate of the average number of years that a person born in specific year will live

Economy

the social institution that ensures the maintenance of society through the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services goods- tangible objects ie- food services- intangible activities you pay for such as dry cleaning, a movie

The Uninsured

working families but do not have access to or cannot afford employer-sponsored health insurance coverage race and ethnicity are important factors in health insurance coverage african american=11.8%

Expressive and acting crowds

Expressive crowds provide opportunities for the expression of some strong emotion ex- worshippers at religious revival services; mourners lining the streets when a celebrity, a public official Acting crowds are collectivities so intensely focused on a specific purpose or object that they may erupt into violent or destructive behavior Mobs, riots, and panics are examples of acting crowds, but casual and conventional crowds may become acting crowds under some circumstances. A mob is a highly emotional crowd whose members engage in, or are ready to engage in, violence against a specific target—a person, a category of people, or physical property. Mob behavior in this country has included lynchings, fire bombings, effigy hangings, and hate crimes riot-violent crowd behavior that is fueled by deep-seated emotions but not directed at one specific target. Riots are often triggered by fear, anger, and hostility; however, not all riots are caused by deep-seated hostility and hatred—people may be expressing joy and exuberance when rioting occurs panic-when a large number of people react to a real or perceived threat with strong emotions and self-destructive behavior. The most common type of panic occurs when people seek to escape from a perceived danger, fearing that few (if any) of them will be able to get away from that danger. Examples include passengers on a sinking cruise ship or persons in a burning nightclub.

Race/ Ethnicity and Social Class

For African American females, life expectancy is 77.8 years as compared to 83.7 for Hispanic females and 81.1 for white females people that live in lower income less likely to receive health care lower income more exposure to danger although Latinas/os are more likely than non-Latino/a whites to live below the poverty line, they have lower death rates from heart disease, cancer, accidents, and suicide, and they have a higher life expectancy

Conflict perspectives on religion

For Karl Marx, ideologies—systematic views of the way the world ought to be—are embodied in religious doctrines and political values capitalist classes uses religious ideologies as tool of domination People become complacent because they have been taught to believe in an afterlife in which they will be rewarded for their suffering and misery in this life

spread of a generalized belief

For a movement to develop, there must be a clear statement of the problem and a shared view of its cause, effects, and possible solution.

Emergence and Evolution of the City

Gideon Sjobereg 3 conditions to develop a city A favorable physical environment, including climate and soil favorable to the development of plant and animal life and an adequate water supply to sustain both. An advanced technology (for that era) that could produce a social surplus of both agricultural and nonagricultural goods. A well-developed social organization, including a power structure, in order to provide social stability to the economic system.

Immigration and emigration

Immigration is the movement of people into a geographic area to take up residency. Each year, more than one million people obtain legal permanent residence (LPR) in the United States emigration—the movement of people out of a geographic area to take up residency elsewhere People migrate either voluntarily or involuntarily. Voluntary migration is often related to pull factors. Pull factors at the international level, such as a democratic government, religious freedom, employment opportunities, or a more temperate climate, may draw voluntary immigrants into a nation greater economic opportunities at their destination and are pushed by factors such as low wages and few employment opportunities in their previous place of residence Push factors at the international level, such as political unrest, violence, war Push factors in regional U.S. migration include unemployment, harsh weather conditions occurs as a result of political oppression 1. secure border 2. path to citizenship 3. interior enforcement 4. immigration overhaul

Treatment of Mental Illness

In Madness and Civilization, Michel Foucault many youths and adults with mental disorders do not receive professional treatment today Many people seeking psychiatric assistance are treated with medications or psychotherapy—which is believed to help patients understand the underlying reasons for their problem Deinstitutionalization refers to the practice of rapidly discharging patients from mental hospitals into the community some professionals believed that the patients' mental disorders could be controlled with proper medications and treatment from community-based mental health services

illegal drugs

Marijuana refers to the dried leaves, flowers, stems, and seeds from the hemp plant known as Cannabis sativa short-term effects, such as altered senses such as how colors look, a distorted sense of time, changes in mood, impaired body movement, difficulty in thinking and problem solving, and impaired memory. . Long-term effects of marijuana use are particularly harmful for persons who begin using the drug as teenagers, when it may affect brain development and contribute to problems such as reduced thinking cocaine inhaled, injected or smoked

Marriage Patterns

Marriage: legally recognized and/or socially approved arrangement between two or more individuals that carries certain rights and obligations and involves sexually activity ex- marriage involves a mutual commitment by each partner, and linkages between two individuals and families are publicly demonstrate

Divided Interests: Cities and Suburbs

Suburbanization created a territorial division of interests between cities and suburban areas wealthy and the poor have lived in different spheres, even when they reside in close proximity in urban areas Thomas J. Sugrue (2011), many African Americans are moving into so-called secondhand suburbs in that city and others. Sugrue defines secondhand suburbs as "established communities with deteriorating housing stock that are falling out of favor with younger white homebuyers." urban fringes (referred to as edge cities) developed beyond central cities and suburbs edge cities initially develop as residential areas; then retail establishments and office parks move into the area, creating the unincorporated edge city commuter towns or exurban areas with more structure Kentucky, Georgia, Virginia, Missouri, Tennessee, Texas, North Carolina, Alabama, Oklahoma, and Pennsylvania remained white

Social Constructionist Theory: Frame Analysis

based on the assumption that a social movement is an interactive, symbolically defined, and negotiated process that involves participants, opponents, and bystanders how problems are framed and what names they are given the purpose of frame analysis is "to try to isolate some of the basic frameworks of understanding available in our society for making sense out of events and to analyze the special vulnerabilities to which these frames of reference are subject diagnostic framing identifies a problem and attributes blame or causality to some group or entity so that the social movement has a target for its actions. Second, prognostic framing pinpoints possible solutions or remedies, based on the target previously identified. Third, motivational framing provides a vocabulary of motives that compel people to take action Frame alignment is the linking together of interpretive orientations of individuals and social movement organizations so that there is congruence between individuals' interests, beliefs, and values and the movement's ideologies, goals, and activities

Political Opportunity theory

based on the assumption that social protests that take place outside of mainstream political institutions are deeply intertwined with more-conventional political activities that take place inside these institutions people will choose those options for collective action that are most readily available to them and those options that will produce the most favorable outcome for their cause. certain limitations, including the fact that social movement organizations may not always be completely distinct from, or external to, the existing political system

transcendent idealism

belief in sacred principles of thought and conduct. Principles such as truth, justice, affirmation of life, and tolerance for others are central tenets of transcendent idealists, who seek an elevated state of consciousness in which they can fulfill their true potential

monotheism

belief in single, supreme being or god who is responsible for significant events as the creation of the earth. Three of the major world religions—Christianity, Judaism, and Islam—are monotheistic horticultural societies

Animism

belief that plants, animals, or other elements of the natural world are endowed with spirits or life forces having an effect on events in society. Animism is identified with early hunting and gathering societies and with many Native American societies, in which everyday life was not separated from the elements of the natural world

Revolutionary Movements

bring about a total change in society aim to remake the system by replacing existing institutions with new ones utopian groups seeking to establish an ideal society to radical terrorists who use fear tactics to intimidate those with whom they disagree ideologically Movements based on terrorism often use tactics such as bombings, kidnappings, hostage taking, hijackings, and assassinations

characteristics of professsions

bstract, specialized knowledge. Physicians undergo a rigorous education that results in a theoretical understanding of health, illness, and medicine. This education provides them with the credentials, skills, and training associated with being a professional. Autonomy. Physicians are autonomous and (except as discussed subsequently in this chapter) rely on their own judgment in selecting the appropriate technique for dealing with a problem. They expect patients to respect that autonomy. Self-regulation. Theoretically, physicians are self-regulating. They have licensing, accreditation, and regulatory boards and associations that set professional standards and require members to adhere to a code of ethics as a form of public accountability. Authority. Because of their authority, physicians expect compliance with their directions and advice. They do not expect clients to argue about the advice rendered (or the price to be charged). Altruism. Physicians perform a valuable service for society rather than acting solely in their own selfinterest. Many physicians go beyond their self-interest or personal comfort so that they can help a patient.

Conflict Perspectives: Political Economy Models

cities are the arenas in which the intertwined processes of class conflict and capital accumulation take place; class consciousness and worker revolt are more likely to develop when workers are concentrated in urban areas Joe R. Feagin and Robery Parker economic and political factors affect patterns of urban growth and decline urban space has both an exchange value and a use value. Exchange value refers to the profits that industrialists, developers, bankers, and others make from buying, selling, and developing land and buildings. By contrast, use value is the utility of space, land, and buildings for everyday life, family life, and neighborhood life both structure and agency are important in understanding how urban development takes place. Structure refers to institutions such as state bureaucracies and capital investment circuits that are involved in the urban development process. Agency refers to human actors, including developers, business elites, and activists protesting development, who are involved in decisions about land use

Conflict perspectives: elite models

elite model: power in political systems in concentrated in the hands of a small group of elites and masses are powerless Contemporary elite models are based on the assumption that decisions are made by the elites, who agree on the basic values and goals of society. power is highly concentrated at the top of a pyramid-shaped social hierarchy, and public policy reflects the values and preferences of the elite, not the preferences of the people

detracking movement

emphasizes that students should be deliberately placed in classes of mixed ability to improve their academic performance and test scores—has influenced a growing number of educators. a growing proportion of U.S. students are being enrolled in higher-level academic math courses than in the past so that they will be exposed to more-complex course content and be influenced by students who perform at a higher level in such courses Detracking is a major concern for parents of high-achieving students: They often believe their children are losing out because lower-achieving students are in their courses. Maureen Hallinan (2005), who has extensively studied detracking, tracking is not the answer: Schools should provide more-engaging lessons for all students, alter teachers' assumptions about students, and raise students' performance requirement

emergent norm theory

emphasizes the importance of social norms in shaping crowd behavior. Drawing on the symbolic interactionist perspective, the sociologists Ralph Turner and Lewis Killian (1993: 12) asserted that crowds develop their own definition of a situation and establish norms for behavior that fit the occasion people define a new situation as highly unusual or see a long-standing situation in a new light. determine how individuals in a given collectivity develop an understanding of what is going on, how they construe these activities, and what type of norms are involved Steven E. Clayman (1993) found that members of an audience listening to a speech applaud promptly and independently but wait to coordinate their booing with other people; they do not wish to "boo" alone;

Professions

high-status, knowledge-based occupations that have five major characteristics Abstract, specialized knowledge. Professionals have abstract, specialized knowledge of their field based on formal education and interaction with colleagues. Autonomy. Professionals are autonomous in that they can rely on their own judgment in selecting the relevant knowledge or the appropriate technique for dealing with a problem. Self-regulation. In exchange for autonomy, professionals are theoretically self-regulating. All professions have licensing, accreditation, and regulatory associations that set professional standards and that require members to adhere to a code of ethics as a form of public accountability. Authority. Because of their authority, professionals expect compliance with their directions and advice. Their authority is based on mastery of the body of specialized knowledge and on their profession's autonomy. Altruism. Ideally, professionals have concern for others, not just their own self-interest. The word altruism implies some degree of self-sacrifice whereby professionals go beyond their self-interest or personal comfort so that they can help a patient or client

Alfred C. Kinsey

human sexuality. Based on interviews with more than 3,400 men and women ages 18 to 59, this random survey tended to reaffirm the significance of the dominant sexual ideologies. persons who engaged in extramarital sex found their activities to be more thrilling than those with a marital partner, but they also felt more guilt.

Functionalist Perspective

importance of family maintaining stability of society and well being of individuals. Emile Durkheim says marriage is a microcosmic replica of the larger society; both marriage and society involve a mental and moral fusion of physically distinct individuals. Durkheim also believed that a division of labor contributes to greater efficiency in all areas of life—including marriages and families—even though he acknowledged that this division imposes significant limitations on some people.

Representative Democracy

in U.S., Canada, Australia and UK citizens elect representatives to serve as bridges between themselves and the government elected representatives are supposed to convey the concerns and interests of those they represent, and the government is expected to be responsive to the wishes of the people

consequences of divorce

in families where one or more children are present, the children remain with their mothers and live in a single-parent household for a period of time. divorce may be an opportunity to terminate destructive relationships some children experience more than one divorce during their childhood because one or both of their parents may remarry and subsequently divorce again

Single- Parent Households

increase in single parent household w/ children under the age of 18 because of divorce. 24% mothers only home 28% single parent household lower incomes than 2 parent families kids experience lower standard of living

Voter Turnout and Political Preferences

increases in the numbers of African American voters in the 2012 election are attributed by political analysts to higher voter turnout among African Americans rather than demographic shifts in the population The presidential election in 2012 was the third election in a row in which about half of the eligible younger voting population actually voted Latinos/as (across age categories) constituted one in ten voters in swing states: no single candidate or political party appears to have overwhelming support in securing the state's electoral college votes red/blue states: red- republican blue- democratic

lack of government intervention

laissez-faire adam smith said people pursue their own selfish interests, they are guided "as if by an invisible hand" to promote the best interests of society Government intervention in the twenty-first century has included the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act, which created the $700 billion Troubled Assets Relief Program (TARP)

Private Health Insurance

largely paid for by businesses and households premiums that continue to increase the more services they provide, the more fees they charge, and the more money they make

Love and Intimacy

late 19th century, during industrial revolution love and emotions became the domain of women, and work and rationality became the domain of men women express feelings verbal men express nonverbal Intimacy- the sharing of minds, sexual or both. perceptions about sexual activity differs from each culture. kissing in western culture good african and asian cultures=bad

Divorce

legal proceess of dissolving a marriage that allows former spouses to remarry irreconcilable differences, meaning that there has been a breakdown of the marital relationship for which neither partner is specifically blamed The divorce rate for first marriages is between 40 and 50 percent, the rate for second marriages is from 60 to 67 percent, and the rate for third marriages is from 73 to 75 percent.

Problems in Global Cities

middle-income and low-income regions of the world, Latin America is becoming the most urbanized: Four megacities—Mexico City, Buenos Aires, Lima, and Santiago—already contain more than half of the region's population and continue to grow rapidly. urban agglomeration is defined as comprising the city or town proper and also the suburban fringe or thickly settled territory lying outside of, but adjacent to, the city boundaries world systems theory describes as core nations are referred to as global cities—interconnected urban areas that are centers of political, economic, and cultural activity. New York City, London, Paris, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Los Angeles, Seoul, and Singapore are among the largest global cities today. South America and the Caribbean are peripheral nations, previously defined as nations that depend on core nations for capital, have little or no industrialization the new system will be either hierarchical and exploitative or relatively democratic and relatively egalitarian

Neoclassical economic approach

migration patterns occur based on geographic differences in the supply of and demand for labor new households economics of migration approach Mexican workers' temporary migration to the United States would be examined not only from the perspective of the individual worker but also in terms of what the entire family gains from the process of having one or more migrant family members work in another country Split-labor-market theory suggests that immigrants from low-income countries are often recruited for secondary labor market positions: dead-end jobs with low wages, unstable employment, and sometimes hazardous working conditions world systems theory: migration as linked to problems causes by capitalist development around the world network theory, this approach suggests that once migration has begun, it takes on a life of its own and that the migration pattern which ensues may be different from the original push or pull factors that produced the earlier migration institutional theory, suggests that migration may be fostered by groups—such as humanitarian aid organizations relocating refugees or smugglers bringing people into a country illegally—and that the actions of these groups may produce a larger stream of migrants than would otherwise be the case