Migration

Global variations in International Migration: Japan

•Japan's population is falling and 27% are 65+. •Its median age is 46.5 and its working age population is predicted to fall to 44m by 2037, 1/2 the size it was in 2007. •Only 1.7% of the pop is immigrant, while IMF says developed economies have 5%. •UN suggests Japan needs 17m migrants by 2050 to maintain its population. •Japan has a closed door policy to migration, and despite ageing population there's little change in mindset.

London: the face of multinational Britain

●2016: Sadiq Khan elected as London's 3rd mayor, the first from an ethnic minority group. ●At the time, 3.1m/8.6m residents were born overseas. ●44% of London's pop was made up of black and ethnic minorities. ●In 2016, the Mayor of London's Office published 'A City for All Londoners' with the objective to celebrate diversity and unite through our unique culture.

Taking unilateral action: the USA

●Sometimes UN members take part in unilateral action, where one country/group of countries acts against another without formal UN approval. ●Can have big impact on geopolitical relations. ●After 9/11, a coalition of forces led by USA and UK, Aus and Poland invaded Iraq in 2003, deposing Hussein's govt. ●UN initially supported the invasion based on existence of Iraqi weapons of mass destruction; but this was proved wrong. ●2004: UN SG Kofi Annan declared intervention against UN Charter.

Migration and political tension: Mexico-US

*Overview* •In 2015, the US Census Bureau estimated the US population to be 323 million, of which 45m were born abroad (14% of the total). Hispanic migrants make up 47% of them. •Most migrants are young men doing manual work in the USA, often in agriculture as crop pickers, and would send remittances to their families. •Despite border controls to stem the flow of illegal migration, between 2000-10, the US' Hispanic population increased by 43%, while the non-Hispanic population grew by 4.9%. •California currently houses 11,423,000 immigrants with Texas holding 7,951,000. *Push factors* •Homicide rates come in at around 10-14 per 100,000 people (world average 10.9 per 100,000) and drug related crimes are a major concern. It is thought that in the past five years, 47,500 people have been killed in crimes relating to drugs. Many Mexicans will move out of fear for their lives and hope that America is a more stable place to live, with lower crime rates. •Unemployment and poverty is a major problem in Mexico and has risen exponentially in recent years. In 2000, unemployment rates in Mexico were at 2.2, however, in 2009, they rose by 34.43%, leaving them standing at 5.37 in 2010. •18% of Mexico lives on less than 60p per day •A large portion of the Mexican population are farmers, living in rural areas where extreme temperatures and poor-quality land make it difficult to farm. This is causing many Mexican families to struggle, with 47% of the population living under the poverty line. •The climate and natural hazards in Mexico could force people to move to America. Mexico is a very arid area which suffers from water shortages even in the more developed areas of Mexico. The country also suffers from natural disasters including volcanoes, earthquakes, hurricanes and tsunamis. *Pull factors* •There is a noticeable difference in the quality of life between America & Mexico. Poverty is a major issue in Mexico, with 6% of the population lacking access to "improved" drinking water. Mexico's infrastructure is severely undeveloped when compared to America's. •Despite being the 11th richest country in the World, Mexico also has the 10th highest poverty. With America offering significantly better living standards and services, such as health care, people are enticed to move to America for a better life. •86.1% of the Mexican population can read & write versus 99% of the population in America. In addition, the majority of students in Mexico finish school at the age of 14, versus 16 in America. *Impact of the migration* •Local businesses have benefitted as they now have a source of cheap labour. •Mexicans are prepared to do many of the jobs that Americans do not want such as fruit picking or factory work. •Large numbers of Mexicans have brought their culture and food with them making Mexican food very popular in California. •Some migrants come across legally but as many as 3 million per year are coming across illegally. oIn 2012, the Obama administration deported record 409,849 undocumented immigrants, arriving at a rate of about 34,000 a month.

Economic migration: Poland to UK migration

*Overview* •On the 1st April 2004, Poland was one of 10 nations joining the EU, one of the 8 A8 countries. oTherefore, the UK government predicted 15,000 A8 migrants would come to the UK. •Under the Home Office's Worker Registration Scheme, by July 2006 447,000 people had come from Eastern Europe, of which 62% were from Poland. o150,000 self employed labourers came between July-December 2006; by this time the Polish Embassy estimated that there was 500,000-600,000 Polish migrants in the UK. •In 2016, there were 908,000 people born in Poland, and 984,000 Polish nationals living in the UK. oIn August 2016, Poland overtook India as the most common country of origin in the UK. *Pull factors* •In Poland, the unemployment rate averaged 18.2% in 2005, the highest unemployment rate in the 27 nations on the OECD, with some rural areas having unemployment rates of 40%. oYouth unemployment rate was 40%. •The Uk's unemployment rate is only 5.1% and the country had skill shortages and a high demand for semi-skilled and unskilled labour. •There were 607,900 job vacancies between November 2006-December 2007. •In Poland, average GDP per head in 2006 was about $12,700 which was compared to $30,900 in the UK. •Also, the UK was one of the three countries not to restrict immigration from the A8 countries. *Push factors* •As Poland's economic growth slows down - it halved to 2 per cent in 2012 - still more skilled workers are lured to the UK. In 2011, 45,000 Poles settled here, marking the biggest rise in migrants since the financial crash. •Average monthly earnings in Poland were £150. •They are assisted by low cost airlines: UK-Poland flights operate between 18 UK and 9 Polish airports. *The impact of the migration* •£2.54bn is contributed to the economy annually by Eastern European migrants in the UK. •Migrants have contributed 1% of the UK's economic growth in 2005-6. •80% of the new migrants are working people between 18-35, which offsets the tendency for the UK's population to age. oNational Insurance contributions would have to be higher if immigration is lower. •There is however, some issues for concern, including that Polish migrants have been exploited by employers in the UK. oAlthough paid the minimum wage, some workers had large deductions made for transport, accomodation etc. •There have been isolated incidents of abuse and attacks on migrant workers. oIn Northern Island, migrant workers had bricks thrown through the windows of their homes, and in two cases homes were petrol bombed.

Voluntary migration: UK-Spain

*Overview* •60% of emigrants from the UK tend to be 45 or older. •Many emigrants live in purpose built villa developments: E.g. Urbanisacion La Marina, near Alicante, which was built in 1985. •8000 of the 10,000 residents are foreign. Half of these are from the UK. •600,000 British national's own homes in the UK; although some are holiday homes, many are occupied by retired people. •In 2010, 441,074 British people were living in Spain. *Push factors* •Even for many graduates, job prospects in the UK aren't as promising as they are abroad and therefore many seek alternative paths into the job sector. •The large British community, and facilities catering to tourists, mean that migrants don't need to learn the language in order to move there. •After Brexit, many people investigated moving into continental Europe, to enjoy free movement. *Pull factors* •Now, over one million UK pensioners live abroad. In 1981, the figure was just 250,000. It is estimated that by 2050, more than three million British pensioners will be living abroad. This trend has been called silver flight. oThe biggest reason for this type of migration is the sunshine, but many migrants also mentioned the idea of retirement providing them with a new start in life. The cheaper cost of living is another draw. •In La Cala de Mijas, a town on the Costa del Sol in Spain, one third of the residents are British. British people may choose to emigrate to Spain if they know someone in an existing community. •The most popular industry for those who were working was education, with 13,660, or 20% of all British workers in Spain. •The climate is 10 degrees warmer than in the UK, and the coast receives less rain. •74,000 elderly still receive their British pensions. *Impacts of the migration* •Ethnic enclaves in places like Valencia can lead to tensions between locals and migrants and sometimes even racism. •Through the Grey Pound, Spain's economy gets a boost, and this helps with job creation etc. •It also makes Spain's resources more valuable e.g. large unproductive scrubland become valuable land to be built on. •It helps to balance Britain's top-heavy population structure oIt is a way of exporting issues such as more healthcare for the retired.

Contested borders: Taiwan

China doesn't recognise Taiwan •Taiwan has been independent since 1950 but China claims sovereignty and sees it as a 'rebel' province, thus, contesting the border. •China insists other nations shouldn't have formal relations with both China and Taiwan so it has few formal international ties, meaning it is politically isolated. •Tsai Ing-Wen (first female president) recognises importance of Taiwanese identity, but risks antagonising China. •The PRC has threatened to use military force against any formal declaration by Taiwan of national independence. *Overall...* •China contests the border as they still see Taiwan as their 23rd province, rather than a sovereign state. As the population is ethnically, linguistically and culturally similar, China wants to maintain ties with them, yet the Taiwanese wish to be independent and run a capitalist government, thus leading to conflict.

Syria

Civil war in Syria has contributed to its failure: ●Has raged since 2011, claiming 500k lives and displacing millions of Syrians as refugees. ●Aleppo, Syria's financial centre and a world heritage site has been reduced to ruins. ●The ongoing conflict involves up to 1000 armed opposition groups including ISIS and Jihadist groups, together with direct involvement of other countries. ●Country is ethnically divided: Sunni Arabs = 65% of pop, with 10% Christians, 9% Kurds and 3% Druze as well as some other ethnic groups. ●But the failure of Syria isn't new. Much has been caused by nepotism and corruption. ●Economic liberalisation occurred without legal rules by which economic normally functions. ●Since 2000, economy has been run by a group of entrepreneurs closely associated with ruling family. ●During privatisation, public services were transferred into hands of political supporters of the govt. ●Agricultural sector became neglected. ●Many politicians established large fortunes by illegal means and corruption. A cousin of the President gained a monopoly over mobile phone services, property and banking.

*The social consequences of migration*

Every migration has social consequences: •High inward migration can lead to rising house prices if housing supply fails to meet demand. •Can be strained healthcare and falling local wages. •Large outmigration can leave those areas with brain drain and ageing pop. Globally, labour movement is restricted, but it doesn't stop migration: •Poverty in Mexico has motivated millions of people to head for USA, legally and illegally. •Political upheaval and religious repression in Myanmar, causes Muslim minority to leave the country.

Causes of migration

Five main theories show regions for migration in the global context: *Neoclassical economic theory* •Most significant push/pull factors are wage differences which cause migration flows from low-wage to high-wage areas. *Dual labour market theory* •Pull factors in developed countries bring migrants to fill the lowest skilled jobs as home pop doesn't want this work. *The new economics of labour migration* •Migration flows and patterns can't be explained solely at level of individual workers and push and pull factors. •It's more complex e.g. household in source country may improve their living conditions by using remittances sent by family members working abroad. *Relative deprivation theory* •Awareness of income differences between neighbours in a source community is important factor in migration. •Successful migrants can afford better schooling and homes, so may encourage others to move. •*World systems theory* •Trade between countries may cause economic decline in some, encouraging people to move to a more successful country. •Even after decolonisation, former colonies may be dependent on the former colonial superpower, encouraging migration along trading routes. •However, free trade may encourage people to stay in their home country if they can earn higher wages from new production processes.

Changing internationmal migration

Most migrants fall into 3 categories: •Voluntary economic migrants: moving for work. •Refugees: forced to leave their country because of war, natural disaster, persecution. •Asylum seekers: fleeing to another country to apply for the right to international protection. *UK* UK's main source areas for intl migrants: •The Commonwealth: In 1945, labour shortages in factories, transport and NHS meant govt advertised jobs overseas. •Afro-Caribbeans arrived from 1948, followed by Indians and Pakistanis. •EU: Grew after Maastricht Agreement in 1992. As the EU's 2nd largest economy, economic migration to UK is high, helping to fill labour shortages. •By 2014-5: 9/10 top ten source countries for UK immigrants were EU countries e.g. Poland. •Questions over this occur because of 2016 Brexit. *Elsewhere* •Europe: 2014-7 = huge increases in immigration from N. Africa and ME e.g. 1.3m migrants arrived in Germany in 2015-6 due to its temporary open door policy. •In ME: Many labourers from Pakistan/India moved to Qatar to build infrastructure for its 2022 Fifa World Cup. •Globally, natural hazards forced people to move e.g. Haiti 2010 EQ displaced 300k Haitians.

Migration: Abilities and oppotunities

Route to a new life in another country can depend on people's skills: •E.g. in Aus, people can enter as skilled workers if they got 65 points on their points based system e.g. accountant earns 60 and a youth worker earns 40. •Extra points are given to people with existing job offers. •Singapore's migration policy divides immigrant workers into foreign workers and foreign talents. •Former = unskilled mainly in manufacturing, from china or SE Asia. •Latter = People with qualifications to work in knowledge economy e.g. from Europe, Aus, USA. In other cases, it can depend on people's existing wealth: •For Mexicans, crossing the border into USA is risky and expensive. Illegal migrants pay $4-10k to cross. •Migrants from N Africa or Syria are victims of organised crime. gangs in Africa or Central Europe organise movement of people for large payments. Can depend on practical opportunities e.g.: •Presence or absence of border control e.g. within Schengen area migrants can move unimpeded. •Presence of family members in destination country.

Personal influences and national disputes

The UN's role in global governance is influenced by the UN Secretary General's vision: ●In 1974, SG Kurt Waldheim placed hunger on the agenda and introduced the Year of Women in 1975. ●1992: SG Boutros Boutros Ghali introduced agenda for sustainable development. ●1996: SG Kofi Annan incorporated UN programmes on gender, health, HIV/AIDS. Established MDGs in 2000. ●2006: SG Ban Ki-Moon made CC a UN priority. ●Conflict can challenge UN's peacekeeper role by showing ideological differences. ●E.g. Syrian conflict has shown differences between geopolitical visions of two permanent members of the Security Council; Russia supports Assad and USA supports rebels.

Advantages and disadvantages of N. African migration to UK

yt*Advantages of migration* •Some are well educated, could help to fulfill skills shortages. •Europe faces a demographic challenge: EU birth rate = 1.5/woman. If it wasn't for migration, EU's working pop would be shrinking in Germany and Greece. •European Commission has forecast immigration wave will boost economy by 0.2%. *Disadvantages of migration* •Influx has led to growth in popularity of extremist parties e.g. National Front. •European countries have to tighten border controls, meaning they're stranded in Greece. •Ethnic tensions due to lack of integration. •Laws meaning migrants must register in first country where they land fuels illegal migration. •Italian govt data shows 85% of 2016 intake was economic migrants, not refugees. •Refugees receive only £36/week to live on, its not enough.

Mediterranean-Europe CS

•2015: 1m migrants left N.A and ME for Europe. 340k arrived in 2016. •Many were refugees, and wanted to claim asylum in Europe. •In 2015, half of the arrivals were Syrian, leaving because of civil war. •2015-6: 2.5m people applied for asylum in UK. •At the end of 2015, there were 65.3m forcibly displaced people. *Causes of Mediterranean migration* *Afghanistan* •Since 2014, there has been political uncertainty caused by Taliban, lack of human rights laws. •22% rise in conflict related casualties in 2015, compared to 2014. •Insurgent groups kidnap civilians for ransom/exchange with prisoners. •Women and girls allowed little freedom of movement/education. •In 2013, child casualties rose by 30%. •Taliban has executed children for supporting the govt. *Somalia* •The long running armed conflict means civilians are killed and wounded. •Al-Shabab maintains control of large areas of S Central Somalia, where it denies basic rights. •2011-11: abducted children for marriage. •2014: 819 cases of recruitment of children by Al-Shabab. •2011 famine. *Eritrea* •Eritrea has a dismal human rights situation which has been exacerbated by military conflict. •By 2014, 5% of the pop. has fled. •Of the 13k unaccompanied children arriving in Italy, 4k were from Eritrea. •Are arbitrary arrests, torture, repression of freedom of movement. •No independent media in Eritrea. *Syria* •Govt forces arrest and torture opponents. Armed groups commit war crimes. •ISIS targets civilians. •Humanitarian aid agencies challenged by the govt and armed groups when they try and get supplies to those that need it. •13k children killed since start of conflict. •Before conflict began in 2011, 93% enrolled in school, but by 2014 it was just 6%.

Post-colonial immigration: the changing face of the UK

•After 1945, the UK received 500k migrants from the caribbean as workers were needed to help rebuild industry/services. •Was no obstacles as visa restrictions didn't apply to members of the British commonwealth and some of their passages were paid for by the govt. •Push factors inc. poverty after the transition to independence. •During the 60s, Britain's textile industries in the Midland s and NW were booming; 750k Pakistanis and 1m Indians were attracted by this work. •Fewer visa restrictions and cheaper air travel helped this migration. •Conflicts in former British colonies led to refugee immigration e.g. 30k Ugandan Asians (1972) and 20k Vietnamese Boat people (1975) settled in cities around the UK.

Forced migration and refugees: North-Africa to France

•Algerians continued to arrive in France, reaching the 100,000 mark in 1924 and never again going below that figure except during World War II. •The region with the largest proportion of immigrants is the Île-de-France (Greater Paris), where 40% of immigrants live. •Among the 802,000 newborns in metropolitan France in 2010, 27.3% had one or both parents foreign-born, and about one quarter (23.9%) had one parent or both born outside of Europe. •7% of the migrants arriving in France were from Algeria, 7% were from Morocco and 3% from Tunisia. 67% of the migrants were between 15-64. *Push factors* •The 1954 Algerian war, and in 1962 the government was not economically or politically stable after the war. •The average salary is $4,110 per year in Algeria, while it is $25,507 in France. •There is less youth employment opportunities. *Pull factors* •There are employment opportunities for migrants, which is a useful asset for France. Building and engineering firms employed them as unskilled labour. •The presence of Algerians in French factories and the army during World War I meant male labour migration became an established component of the colonial economy from the early 1920s •After the Algerian war, Algerian was independent from France which allowed easy circulation between the two countries. •Access to education and healthcare is easy, and the overall quality of life is better. •There is a maximum 35-hour work week, with retirement at 65. •France has taken a stricter approach. In May 2007, new Immigration Minister Brice Hortefeux announced a plan to offer monetary incentives for legal immigrants to go to back to Africa. •The ability to send remittances; annually $2.5bn of remittances is sent to Algeria from France. •France has announced that it will not legalise illegal immigrants within its borders, and it recently set higher goals for the expulsion.

Alsace-Lorraine

•Alsace-Lorraine is on the borders of France and Germany. Because of its location, both countries have sought after it since 17th C. •Its influenced by France and Germany in its laws, languages and customs. •1648: After France's victory in Thirty Years' War, Peace of Westphalia ceded Alsace to France. •In 1766, Lorraine officially become spart of France, as France claimed they could take it beause of their natural borders. •During World wars, ownership was uncertain. During WW1, Germany controlled A&L. •Due to their proximity to the front, Germans would contribute homes in A&L. •During WW1, Germany banned the speaking of french in the area to limit France's claim to the land and limited sympathy for the French army. •After WW1, A&L becomes part of France under TOV. •In 1940, Germany took control of A&L under Hitler, but it was ceded back to France post-WW2. •Issue of WW2 can be seen here because during WW2, the 15k soldiers from A&L were unwilling to fight against their home country. •Germans isolated the residents by banning French language and culture. •Was clear despite being under German control with german roots, the people of A&L respected their French influence. •Today, influence can be seen as the territory has different laws from the rest of france: the local law preserves a lot of German law with some French influence. •The laws were meant to be temporary, but still remain today.

Colonial legacies

•British, French, Portuguese and German place names, architecture and customs survive in many African countries. •Strong correlation between former territories of past colonial rulers and languages still spoken. •E.g. in Uganda although there's 40 ethnic groups, English is the national language, helping with trade and development.

The costs of disintegrating Empires Vietnam: North or South

•By 1850, most of SE Asia had been colonised by European powers. •Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos were French colonies in 'French Indochina' •Much of SE Asia's agricultural land = plantations for rubber, tea and rice. •Society was divided between landed people and landless classes who worked on plantations, lacking food, healthcare and education. •After 1945, nationalists challenged French rule. •French military defeat at 1954 siege of Dien Bien Phu paved way for Ho Chi Minh to reclaim Vietnam from france. •Other colonised Asian states had gained independence. •USA was worried about spread of communism. •To reach agreement, Vietnam was divided along 17th Parallel: Vietnamese nationalists supported by China controlled the N. •In the S were the independent non-Communists, supported by US troops, esp. after 1961. •War ensued, during which N Vietnamese nationalists fought to reunify whole country under their control. •1-4m Vietnamese were killed, and 300k Cambodians. •South was defeated in 1975 and independent Vietnam energed.

Nationalism in the modern world

•By the end of the 19thC, most European states had emerged in one form or another, and created closer economic and political ties in late 20th C and early 21st C. •These ties have diluted importance of national borders. •For example, in 2016 28 EU member states share formal political, legal and economic ties, and populations can move freely. People consider themselves to be European first and national identity 2nd.

A new international economic order

•Cold War made identity and sovereignty in new nations more complicated. •1961: the Non-Aligned movement was created in Belgrade to give new nations a common forum for resisting US and Soviet influence. •1964: UN Conference on trade and Development promoted a New International Economic Order. •It was opposed to the 1944 Bretton Woods system as emerging economies needed fairer intl policies to allow their development. Main tenets were that developing countries must be: •Free to regulate and control activities of TNCs in their territory. •Free to set up associations of primary commodities similar to OPEC. All states must recognise this right, and not take economic/political measures to restrict freedom. •Must be able to benefit from equitable prices for rew materials and non-discriminatory tariffs. Economic assistance should be provided without conditions. •UNCTAD failed to implement the NIEO which was opposed by several superpowers. •Socioeconomic inequalities continued to exist e.g. during the Latin American debt crisis, states e.g. Brazil found they couldn't pay interest. •Developed countries were worried world economy could be destabilised and the Washington Consensus reposnode was structural adjustment, which further widened development gap. •Debts have gradually been written off to preserve economic stability, but perhaps affects economic sovereignty.

Rural-urban migration in the DRC

•DRC is the 2nd largest nation in Africa with 70m people, growing by 3% annually. •It has been decimated by 3 decades of conflict and poor governance. •176th/188 countries in HDI. •Is significant RUM since 1990s as quality of life in rural areas is so bad. •Kinshasa (capital) has doubled in size every 5 years since 1950 and has 11-14m pop. •Absence of a reliable census shows low development. •African Development Bank says 72% of rural households in DRC are poor. •40% <5 suffer chronic malnutrition. •Country received loans from the West during its independence from Belgium, but President Mobutu Sese Seko squandered it, and revenue from mining wealth disappeared in tax havens abroad. •Country couldn't repay the debts, and were forced into austerity by IMF structural adjustment programmes. •Domestic economy collapsed, and civil war ensued. •RUM driven almost exclusively by push factors. •Is little formal employment in the cities, and the majority of migrants are in formal employment. •Researchers created idea of 'the wage puzzle' as its unclear how the pop maintains itself with such low wages..

Reasons for migration

•Economic motives for voluntary migration will always be the strongest factor but environmental and political factors are increasing in importance. *Environmental factors* •Impacts of climate change, making some areas drier so food and water supplies will be affected. •Low lying coastal areas will be flooded. •Environmental refugee movements are already taking place from Kiribati to NZ; will increase by 2100. *Political factors* •World is experiencing much regional conflict, which has caused an increase in the no. of internally displaced people. •By the end of 2014, Syria had 7.6m IDPs, Colombia had 6m, Sudan 3.1m etc. •Some refugees are escaping persecution, so seek asylum. •Many make risky journeys e.g. 10k deaths of people crossing the Med. •In 1960, developed countries had 44.4% of migrants, but this had increased to 58.6% in 2013. •May slow as more countries emerge economically, as pull/push factors won't be as strong. •During recessions, developed countries are reluctant to accept more migrants, but due to ageing pop more will have to be accepted in the future.

*Globalisation and increasing migration*

•Emigrant = migrant from the POV of country they're leaving, and an immigrant from the POV of the country to which they're moving. •*Economic migrant* = someone emigrating for better employment opportunities. *Refugee* = Person who leaves their home country as they've suffered persecution because of their race, religion etc. They may become an *asylum seeker* if host country grants this status. •*Irregular migrant* = person who enters a country illegally w/o a valid visa, or who has overstayed their visa. •Globalisation has changed global economic system, creating push and pull factors. •The two main trends are rural-urban migration within developing and emerging economies, and international migration between developed economies. •Global migration rate has been constant since ~1995. •Developing countries don't send most to developed countries, its emerging economies with relatively poor people but social mobility. •Largest regional migration is SE Asia to Middle East, driven by oil wealth and construction booms. However, it may be slowing due to economic recession. •Biggest flow between countries is Mexico-USA. •Migration within Africa (esp. SSA) is bigger than the number leaving Africa, although Western media creates the opposite idea.

Global Variations in International Migration: Australia

•For 40 years, Aus' migration policy = skills based. •70% of immigrants are accepted based on skilled shortages e.g. medicine or engineering. •Most live in big cities e.g. Melbourne. •Australia's immigrants contribute 10% more per capita to Aus' GDP/year than natives. •2015-2050, skilled immigrants are expected to add $1.2 to GDP. •Aus' median age is 37, but 88% of migrants are <40 and 50% are 20-34 (compared to 20% of Australians). •Australia has an ageing population and migration offset the numbers due to retire, which would otherwise place pressure on costs of healthcare e.g. in Japan.

Changing patterns of labour: RUM in China

•Global shift began in 1970-80s. Rapid industrialisation has been accompanied by rapid urbanisation, fuelled by RUM near the coast. •One of the migration flows is within the rural interior to small cities. •A second flow is from smaller cities to major E Coast cities and SEZ e.g. Beijing and Guangzhou. •In 1980, 80% of pop was rural, and by 2012 51% of pop. was urban. •Estimates suggest by 2025, another 350m people will have moved to cities. •However, the hukou system is a barrier to migration. •After the Communist Revolution, the govt. introduced restrictions on internal migration to keep people in rural areas, called the Hukou system. •Its hard for rural migrants to change their addresses; they must be registered and buy an expensive permit. •Without a permit, they earn less and have no entitlement to schooling/healthcare. •As China depends on manufacturing and service industries, hukou system is too restrictive and acts as a barrier to urban integration.

Changing patterns of labour

•Global shift to Asia has affected the demand for labour on a national and intl scale. •*National*: People migrate to work in cities in industry. •*Intl*: Easier movement of people, the EU allows free movement, while other countries offer work visas to those with skills and a sponsor.

Migration, national identity and sovereignty

•Globalisation is based on economic liberalism; recent form focusing on freer flows of people, capital and trade = neoliberalism. It involves: •Trade liberalisation e.g. removing subsidies, tariffs and quotas. •Freedom to invest or transfer capital, known as deregulation of financial markets. Don;t need govt. approval for investment or trading. •Open borders. But the freedoms mean national borders become unimportant, which raises questions about maintenance of sovereignty and national identity. *National identity* •'A sense of a nation as a cohesive whole, represented by trends, culture and language' •Term is complex, referring to flexible beliefs and experiences. •Migration affects it as new people bring food, customs and beliefs. *Open borders and immigration* •It can cause resentment within host pops as they feel their national identity is threatened. Some migrants may be harassed or exploited. •Extreme political parties are more significant in Europe e.g. France's National Front. *Sovereignty* •Means the authority of th state to govern, but globalisation can reduce the term's impact. •UK voted to leave EU in 2016, as there was a loss of sovereignty due to EU membership. •Few laws are directly from EU, but intl agreements e.g. WTO rules and European convention on human rights.

*CS* Rural-urban migration in China

•ILO: since 1979 China has experienced largest internal migration ever recorded. •China has 229m rural migrant workers. •70% are employed in E China, with 2/3 working in large cities. •2/3 of the migrants work in manufacturing and construction. •The global shift to SE Asia has created the demand for this labour. •362m Chinese live on <$2/day, the income drives them to areas with a promise of new income. •High wages in secondary industries and better quality of life are the pull factors. •Transfer of improved agricultural techniques made possible by China's openness, which reduced the need for rural labour, depressing incomes acting as a push factor for migration. •This section of pop = 'floating population' as Chinese citizens have to register in their place of birth by the Hukou system, but rural citizens don't have an urban Hukou and can't regularise their location to city. •Their denied housing, healthcare and education. •Despite the barrier, pressures to migrate mean that by 2025, another 250m Chinese will have migrated, taking urban pop to 1bn+

Nation states and borders: Iceland

•Iceland is hundreds of km from its nearest neighbour, Greenland. •Its national characteristics result from its dependence on the sea and isolation. •Got independence from Denmark in 1944, and its laws and society protect its cultural heritage and identity: •All children;'s names come from approved list to preserve language of Icelandic sagas. •National phonebook lists subscribers by first name as most surnames are suffixed with -son for boys or dottir for girls. •The Icelandic language hasn't changed since 870s AD although German and English are widely spoken. •74% of Icelanders are Lutherans. *Icelandic sagas* •Icelandic sagas are key part of national identity, tracing legends of Viking Ancestors, and events from 950-1050 AD. •Contain significant historical events e.g. Leif Ericsson's discovery of N. america. •Inspire work of bands e.g. Sigur Ros.

Internal movements within the uK

•In a year, 10% of people in UK move, some locally or regionally. •Regional movement is unrestricted and linked to changing labour market. *Reasons for internal migration* •Since 1980s, deindustrialisation in N Britain e.g. steel, has driven many workers S for Employment. •Growth of footloose industries in SE encouraged this, as has London's knowledge economy. •Regeneration of large cities e.g. Manchester has led to immigration of younger people for work and urban lifestyle. Older adults move into rural areas, for lifestyle reasons and work.

Migration and colonial ties

•Post-war years led to massive increase in labour migration due to shortages in W Europe's economies b/c of martial plan. •In 1948, British Nationality Act gave all Commonwealth citizens the right to British citizenship, meaning they could legally settle in the UK. •Allowed workers to recruit from Commonwealth e.g. Jamaica, to fill job vacancies in transport and NHS. •Empire Windrush arrived 1948 carrying 490 migrant men and 2 women; symbol of UK ties with caribbean. They were well qualified and spoke English. Were first post-war Caribbean migrants in UK. *Changing ethnic composition and cultural heterogeneity* •Migrants from India and Pakistan followed those from Caribbean, includign doctors and nurses. •Less qualfiied migrants were attracted to work in textile mills e.g. in Yorkshire and Pakistan. •London and major conurbations attracted most migrants because of availaibltiy of work an housing. •Migrants tend to settle in the same area due to chain migrations e.g. Sikh migration to Southall in W London. •As level of intl migration increased a cultural mosaic of people evolved across the country.

Impacts of colonialism in India

•India's political system owes much to the institutions put in place by the British over two hundred years ago. •As a result, the great mass of the population had no access to education and, at independence in 1947, 88 per cent were illiterate. Progress was accelerated from the 1930s onwards, but at independence only a fifth of children were receiving any primary schooling. •However, agricultural yields and nutritional levels at independence were amongst the lowest in the world due to mercantilism. •At independence exports were less than 5 per cent of national income as they were exported to British with no payment due to colonial ties. •By the time of independence, large-scale factory industry in India employed less than 3 million people as compared with 12 1/4 million in small-scale industry and handicrafts, and a labour force of 160 million; debt and reliance on trade with British prevented industrialisation and development. •Transportation methods and communication were introduced to India by industrialized countries such as Great Britain. •Modern technology and education were also benefits for India. More advanced machines for manufacturing goods, vaccines, cars, electricity, guns, steel, and steam engines were all brought to India to help industrialize the new colony. •Britain controlled the government and didn't allow the native people to have a say or be a part of politics or run for positions of power. •India accounted for 27% of global GDP in 1700 and 23% in 1800. After colonialism, it accounted to an impoverished nation, and 3.5% of global GDP in 1950. •Deindustrialisation of India e.g. textiles and steel etc were ruined by import of European cloths. Ruined a profitable Indian industry, prevented them from coming back after independence = cycle of poverty. •In 2011, the World Bank stated that 32.7 per cent of Indians live below the international poverty line of $1.25 per day, while 68.7 per cent - about eight hundred and thirty million people - live on less than $2 per day

Japan: Non-immigration policy

•Japan is 54th most globalised country (KOF Index) •Has stricter immigration limits, and laws to stop Japan's farms and factories employing foreign labour. •In 2008, Japan's Liberal Democratic Party called for Japan to accept 10m immigrants, but opinion polls showed popular opposition. •Survey by newspapers Asahi Shimbun showed 65% of respondents opposed open immigration policy. •Japan has an ageing pop and shrinking workforce, which is likely to lead to lower standard of living and reduced economies of scale. •Suggested country needs 200k immigrants a year as well as fertility rate >replacement level. •But, the Japanese culture is based on a homogeneous pop, which is reflected by the govt policies. •Politicians and citizens think the restrictions have brought harmony, and introduction of foreigners would disrupt society and increase crime. •Answers to a 2014 opinion poll to solve the future labour shortage were to increase the no. working women and OAPs. •Restrictions on immigration are widely supported. •In 2015, there were 790k foreign workers in Japan, with 40% from China. •The foreign trainee programme had been expanded, to help with construction for the 2020 Tokyo Olympics. It's been criticised for exploiting cheap workforce rather than giving skills to people from developing countries.

*Patterns of international migration*

•Lee Model of migration explains migration in terms of push and pull factors, and obstacles. •Patterns may change in response to SEEP change in home and host areas. •Environmental factors = natural hazards, pollution. •Economic = unemployment in rural areas due to mechanisation, or increased demand for labour due to industrialisation. •Political = can reduce or impose more barriers e.g. tiered entry to UK. •Model suggests decision to migrate is based on a balance of push and pull factors. When the balance is strong enough to overcome obstacles, individuals will migrate. •Voluntary and forced migration follow this pattern.

South Sudan: A new African country (2011)

•Major European nations agreed Africa's borders at Berlin conference in 1884-5. •Sudan was divided into N and S, based on ethnic characterised. •Britain and Egypt modernised Arab north, leaving black African S to tribal communities. •Britain's divide and rule policy pitted them against each other. •N prospered more than the S, and people in the S felt marginalised. •By 2017 there had been 4 years of civil war. •In the N is unity state, which had seen some of the fiercest fighting. •Tens of thousands of people had to leave after a govt offensive against opposition. •Food supplies had been cut off, and WFP and UN declared a famine affecting 1m+ people.

Measuring cultural diversity

•Maps of cultural fractionization use an index to measure how diverse countries are. •Measures people's attitudes towards religion, democracy and the law. •Varies between 1 (total diversity) and 0 (no diversity). •Global avg. = 0.53.

Ethnic diversity and assimilation as a result of immigration

•Migration can change the cultural and ethnic composition of countries. The degree of change depends on the rate of assimilation. •Rates of segregation vary e.g. 30 years after end of apartheid in S africa, residential areas are segregated. However, in London ethnic groups are segregated but usually due to socio-cultural regions e.g.: •Cheaper rental properties in inner cities have attracted migrants, and over time ethnic enclaves have formed e.g. Hindu community in Southall W London. •Many W Indian immigrants in 1950s were recruited to drive London buses so mans ettle near London transport bus garages. •Once established, cultural factors e.g. growth of specialist shops and places of worship maintain ethnic enclaves.

National borders

•National borers are the result of colonial history or political intervention: •*Natural borders*: Consist of physical features creating natural obstacles. For example Niagara River between Canada and USA, or mountains e.g. Pyrenees between France and Spain. •Colonial history and political intervention e.g. 14 countries met at a conference in Berlin in 1884-5 to discuss and divide up continent of Africa. •At the time, 80% of Africa was under indigenous control. •It was divided into 50 countries by geometric boundaries, and turned into colonies. •Borders superimposed on indigenous regions, with no account taken of tribal/linguistic boundaries.

19th Century Nationalism

•Nationalism is based on the view that people in a country share a common identity, connected by language, history and customs. •The French Rev helped to establish nationalism as a force by removing absolute power of monarchy, placing it in hands of ordinary citizens. •A new national govt. made laws that were applied equally and a standardised form of French was taught to replace local dialects. •As loyalty grew, a new nation emerged. *Growing tensions across Europe* •Many saw French nationalism as a threat. In 1804, Napoleon made himself Emperor of France,a iming to extend French control across Europe. •His military victories extended patriotism but his expansionist beliefs provoked anger across Europe, leading to nationalism in countries e.g. Russia. •In 1800, prussia was Germany's most powerful state. •Its economy was strong, and growing german industrial wealth and infrastructure, created a sense of being German. A new combined Germany was created by Bismarck in 1871. •In the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1, Prussia took land from France (Alsace-Lorraine) which reduced french influence in Europe and led to the northern and southern German states joining as a united Germany.

The EU-Schengen Agreement

•Schengen Agreement Was signed in 1995 and abolished most internal border controls in the EU, enabling passport free travel. •Is 26 Schengen countries: 22 EU and Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein. •UK is outside the Schengen Area. •Has helped to fill job vacancies in other eU countries. •14m EU citizens live outside their home country: 2.8% of EU pop. •Has been criticised as giving easy access to cheap labour, undercutting wages. •Criticised for allowing free movement to terrorists; terrorist attacks e.g. Paris 2015 have prompted a rethink about free movement. •In 2016, 6 Schengen countries: Austria, Germany, France, Sweden, Denmark and Norway reintroduced internal border countries.

Nation states and borders: Singapore

•Singapore had a 5.47m pop in 2014, and was first established in 1819 as a British colonial trading post. •Growth was due to immigration, mainly from China, India and Malaysia. •Raffles (who established it as trading post) divided it into ethnic areas: •European Town •Chinatown •Chulia Kampon: For Indian Hindus and Sikhs. •Kampong Glam: for Muslim Malays and Arabs •Singapore became independent in 1965. •Its population reflects its multicultural past: 74% are Chinese, 13% Malay and 9% Indian. •Possesses a mix of language, culture, religion, food. •Singaporean govt. has tried to generate a national identity largely based on asian values but it can contradict the govt ideals, being problematic.

*Migration between countries:* Singapore and international migration

•Singapore was established as a British trading colony in 1819 and grew quickly, attracting labour from China and India etc. •In the 1950s and 60s as they got more self-governance. In 1965 when they became independent from Malaysia. •The migrant pop fell to 3% of total. •Since 1980s, Malaysia was industrialised as part of the global shift, becoming one of the four East Asian Tiger economies, causing increased migration. •5th most globalised country according to KOF index. Pop of Singapore can be divided into: •Citizens and permanent residents. •Temporary immigrants e.g. students, considered non-residents. •Non-resident pop accounted for 25% of the total in 2000, up from 18.7% in the 1990s. •386k were from Malaysia, China and Hong Kong (175k) and other Asian countries (90k) •2/3 of Singapore's non-resident workforce are low skilled migrants. •Since 2008, some have been admitted to work specifically in bras, hotels and restaurants. •The remaining third are skilled/entrepreneurs. The size of this group has increased due to intensive recruitment criteria, while low skilled migrants are maintained by visa regime. *Low skilled* •Termination of employment means that the immigrant must leave Singapore within 7 days. •They're subject to regular medical tests e.g. HIV/AIDS check. •Can't marry Singaporeans without approval of controller of work permits. •Female work permit holders who are pregnant are repatried without exception. *Highly skilled* •Encouraged to migrate to Singapore. •In 2015, skilled workers and professionals accounted for 22% of non-residents, due to 1990s policy of recruiting from the non-traditional source countries e.g. US, UK, France. •Majority of skilled workers are from China and India. •They can apply for permanent residency after two years. •An estimated 192k Singaporeans live overseas, mainly in Australia (50k), UK (40k) and China (20k). •Many are highly skilled and employed in banking, medicine or are students.

UK internal migration to London from the North

•The brain drain meant that every major city outside the south-east is losing young people to London. One in three 22-30 year olds leaving their hometowns moved to London. •London's major pull factors - including higher salaries, increased employment and business opportunities - can be offset by higher rents and living costs. •In the three years from 2010 to 2012 -a period marked by weak growth and austerity - London accounted for 10 times as many private sector jobs as any other city and also bucked the national trend by seeing an increase in public sector employment. •London's population is still increasing as a whole - due to birth rates in the capital and external migration - and many of those migrating to the Home Counties still commute to London for work. On current trends, its population will reach 10m by 2035. •But every other age group saw a net reduction in population. If it weren't for those 20-somethings, London's population would have fallen by 78,000 (0.9 per cent)

Empires and their consequences: British colonisation of India

•Trade with and political influence over India by the British East India company led to direct British rule over the continent. •Wealth and power from its growing Empire, meant Britain overlook France and Spain as the superpower, creating intl rivalries. •Tensions in India caused a rebellion against EI Co in 1857, led to British govt taking direct political control. •1857-1914, British Parliament set rules and sent a Viceroy to govern India. •After WW1, they were rewarded by some self-govt. •Demands for independence grew louder and protests by Indian nationalists became more frequent, e.g. Amritsar Massacre. of 1919, when British troops opened fire on unarmed protesters, killing hundreds, increasing strength of Indian nationalism. *Post 1954: Independence and the wind of change* •India was offered complete independence in 1946. •1947: to avoid religious conflict it was agreed territory would be partitioned to create Muslim E and W Pakistan (E would later become Bangladesh) and Hindu majority India. •Colonial rulers of SSA gave up control to independent governors. •When British PM Harold Macmillan gave his 'wind of change' speech in 1960, it was clear new states would emerge.

Contested borders: Conflict in Ukraine and Crimea

•Ukraine gained independence in 1991 when the Soviet Union collapsed. •The Ukraine has its own Slavic culture, language and Orthodox Church; yet it has been contested for years. •There has been many empires which have ruled Ukraine e.g. the Ottoman, Austria-Hungary and Russia, meaning its borders have always been contested. •But, a reason contemporary Russia is contesting its border is because there is people there with strong cultural, ethnic and linguistic connections to Russians e.g. 29% speak Russian. oPartly explains why Ukraine is currently in conflict with Russia over Crimea and E Ukraine which Russia annexed in 2014, but Ukraine and most countries recognise as part of the Ukraine. •After independence Ukraine = neutral but had a limited military partnership with Russian Federation and NATO. •In the 2000s they leant towards NATO, signing a NATO-Ukraine Action Plan in 2002. •In 2013, protests broke out in Kiev after President Yanukovych's govt. suspended the Ukraine EU Association Agreement and sought closer economic ties with Russia. oEscalated into 2014 Ukrainian Revolution, resulting in the overthrow of govt. and establishment of EU friendly administration. oFeb 2014: Russia invaded Crimea and a snap referendum that the West considered illegal said Crimea voted to join Russia. *Overall... * •There is tension because Russia has tried to make a land grab under the assertion that it is protecting the cultural interests of ethnic Russians. However, this has led to conflict, as the Russians have vested interests after the loss of the Soviet Empire in 1991. The border is still contested today.

National borders: Post colonial conflict in Rwanda

•Was already divisions in Rwanda but they were made worse by colonisation. •19th C: Tutsi king established borders and controlled the Hutu through cattle ownership. •When Europeans arrived in 1894, there was conflict between the Europeans over who'd own it. In 1910, it was agreed Germany would control Rwanda. •Germany agreed to let the existing structure continue. •After WW1, Belgium was given ownership from 1923. •The Belgians favoured the Tutsis, giving them special privileges over the 85% Hutu majority. E.g. in 1926, they gave them ethnic ID cards differentiating Hutus from Tutsis. •After the formation of the UN they restricted Tutsi power but a 1952 development plan left the Tutsi in control. •Unrest between Hutus and Tutsis increased and a state of emergency was declared and Belgians used military control to restore order. •In 1963, the UN terminated Belgium's trusteeship over Rwanda. •Government was contested and not seen as legitimate. •Rwanda was independent, and the Hutus gained control. Tutsis fled for fear of persecution. •1973: Coup d'état led by Habyarimana who became President and made a one party state. •Civil war began in 1990. 1992 peace talks failed. •When the President's plane was shot in 1994, a genocide began with 1m killed, accounting for 70% of the Tutsi population. •The Rwandan Patriotic Front ended the genocide by taking over the country. •However, human rights abuses continue and there is many refugees and asylum seekers. •UN Security Council established an intl tribunal to oversee the prosecution of suspects involved. *Overall...* •National borders are contested because the power vacuum left after the exit of Belgium was exploited by the Hutus, leading to conflict. •However, the presence of colonial rulers disrupted the natural power balance within Rwanda, leading to conflict as the Hutus had felt mistreated under their colonial rulers because of the unfairness of the situation.

Uganda and debt

●1992: Debts = $1.9bn. ●Like many LICs, it couldn't repay them. But in 2000, it was one of the first countries to benefit from debt write offs from WB and IMF under HIPC initiatives. Impacts were immediate: ●Govt spending rose by 20%, with 40% more spent on education and 70% more on healthcare, ●Free primary schooling introduced, meaning 5m extra children attended school. ●Before debt relief, school enrollment rate = 62%. Now its 93%. ●Before debt relief, 20% more boys went to school than girls. By 2015, the difference = 2%. ●Impact on Uganda's GDP has been substantial now money is used for investment not repaying debts. It was $4.3bn before debt cancellation, and $27.5bn in 2015. ●In 2016, only 1.8% of income is spent on debt repayment, compared to 81.4% in 1990.

Bosnia: Direct military involvement

●1993: UN acted following allegations of ethnic cleansing by Bosnian Serbs against Bosnian Muslims. ●To protect the Muslims, the UN designated a safe zone in Srebrenica, a small town in NE Bosnia, protected by Dutch UN peacekeepers. ●But, the town was put under siege by Bosnian Serb forces. ●Food supplies ran low and Muslims died because of starvation. ●1995: Bosnian Serbs captured Srebrenica massacring 8k Muslim men and boys, and deporting 23k women and children. ●Peacekeepers were outnumbered and taken hostage. Threatened with execution if Dutch interfered.

*Actions by IGOs to protect the environment*: UNCLOS

●1994: 157 countries signed UNCLOs, an agreement defining rights of responsibilities of nations in using the world's oceans. ●By 2016, 166 countries and EU had ratified it. ●Provided guidelines for managing marine resources, creating EEZs by extending territorial water zones to 200 nautical miles from the coast. ●Within these, coastal nations have sole exploitation rights of resources including fishing and minerals. ●Includes the International Seabed Authority and Marine Protection Areas ●ISA controls mineral exploitation in deep seabed areas beyond national jurisdiction. ●Landlocked states are given a right of access to and from the sea, without taxation traffic through transit states. ●Key achievement is that 90% of intl trade takes place through the sea as well as 95% of global internet traffic through submarine cables. ●Imposes responsibility on all countries to ensure sustainability of fish and marine resources.

The Highly Indebted Poor Countries Initiative

●1996: IMF and WB introduced the HIPC Initiative, which aimed to reduce national debts by partially writing them off in return for SAPs. ●Affected 36 of the world's least developed countries with greatest debts, 30 of which were in SSA. ●By 2000, NGOs e.g. Oxfam were demanding more concerted action to reduce debt burden, and campaigned for total write off of debt. ●2005: when UK held presidency of the G8, Chancellor Gordon Brown steered the G8 towards decision to cancel all debts owed to WB and IMF by 18 HIPC, a decision worth $40bn. ●It saved those countries $1.5bn/year in debt repayments. There were conditions: ●Each country had to show good financial management and lack of corruption. ●The national govts had to spend savings gained though the cancelled debt repayments on poverty reduction, education and healthcare programmes.

Politics and values

●1997: newly elected PM Tony Blair had a vision of a New Britain: 'Cool Britannia'. ●It attempted to persuade young Britons to revamp Britain as young and creative. Didn't work as it was short lived and didn't focus on Britain's core values. ●Politicians combine national duty with political agenda. ●2005: Protests across China and S orea in response to Japanese govt's decision to approve textbooks promoting nationalist views of Japanese history. ●Writers were accused of ignoring events e.g. Nanking Massacre of 1937, in which 400k Chinese were killed by Japanese. ●In the UK, UKIP membership has grown rapidly since 1991. ●Wanting to reclaim UK borders, their first 2 MPs were elected in 2014. ●Secured the highest votes (27.9%) in the 2014 European Parliament Elections. ●Collaborated in successful campaign to leave the EU in 2016. ●Support citizenship tests for migrants seeking permanent residency, as they're supposedly indicator of willingness to adopt values of host country, by knowing about its history and culture.

Property and land: ownership and identity

●2013: Russians were top foreign buyers of London homes. ●Non-national investors buy into some of London's most recognisable locations e.g. Qatari investors own stakes in Canary Wharf. ●1980: just 8% of the City of London was owned by non-national investors. In 2011 = 50%. ●2008-2015: £100bn+ of property in London was bought by foreign companies. ●2/3 of the property bought was registered to British tax havens e.g. Jersey and British Virgin Islands. ●Many properties are unoccupied. ●Owners change identity of places e.g. London's Belgrave Square has so many Russian owners its nicknamed Red Square. 27/30 of its properties are owned by foreign nationals. ●Trend makes London v. expensive for local people.

Proposed unilateral action: UK

●2013: UK sought resolution of the UN Security Council to condemn use of chemical weapons by Syrian govt forces. ●Required backing of the 5 permanent members. ●China and Russia have historically vetoed action against Syria. ●UK govt argued it had a basis for humanitarian intervention to relieve suffering. ●In the event, UK Parliament voted against intervention in Syria.

The impact of tax havens on the poorest countries in Africa

●2014 report by Christian aid identified Africa has the highest proportion of assets held abroad of any world region. ●African Development Bank and Global Finance Integrity in 2013 found illicit financial flows were draining $1.2-3tn/year from Africa. ●2000-8: annual outflows were $50bn. In comparison, FDI flows into Africa were $38bn in 2008 and $52.3bn in 2011. These financial flows undermine development and poverty reduction because: ●They reduce amount of money available to invets in Africa. Studies show if all capital flight over 2000-8 had been invested in Africa, rate of poverty reduction would have been 6% higher/year. ●Money is often kept offshore in secret, it avoids being taxed so reduces money for govt spending on public spending. Raising tax is nearly impossible, contributes to increasing inequality.

Unilateral action against Russia

●2014: Russian backed forces seized control of Crimea, attempting to regain political influence over the country. ●2014: EU, USA, Aus, Canada and Norway imposed sanctions on 23 leading Russian politicians; their assets were frozen and they were prevented from travelling to the 5 areas. ●USA led moved towards sectoral sanctions, targeting key areas of Russian economy e.g. energy and banking, for further sanctions. ●At the 2014 UN GA, 100 member states supported a UN commitment to the territorial integrity of the Ukraine, but took no action when Russia used its veto. ●Sanctions wee strengthened but EU member states were reluctant to go too far because of dependence on Russian gas and oil. ●$70-90bn left Russia as wealthy investors sought overseas banks. ●Russian currency was devalued and its overseas credit rating reduced. ●But, Russia retaliated, banning imported food from EU and USA. Results of these tit for tat sanctions included: ●Russia became less dependent on oil and gas exports, diversifying its economy. ●Russian farmers gained larger home markets. ●EU kept importing Russian energy despite sanctions. ●Food exports from EU and USA were hit e.g. Dutch tomato and cucumber sales to Russia fell by 80% and Czech fruit sales to Russia fell by 70%

Facebook: Challenging National Identities

●2015: Facebook had market capitalisation of >$300bn with 1.59bn registered users. ●Facebook allows anyone with the internet to stay in touch with people, wherever they are in the world. ●Their revenue comes from selling information about its users to advertisers and other companies. ●It's a US company selling a global service, but as users generate their own content, they don't always think of Facebook as American. ●Facebook has little connection to the countries that it operates in. ●All users outside US and Canada have a contract with Facebook's Irish Subsidy 'Facebook Ireland Ltd' an arrangement which means Facebook avoids US taxes for all users outside N. America. ●Facebook is making use of the 'Double Irish' arrangement which allows it to pay only 2-3% corporation tax on all intl revenue. Pays little revenue into the societies in which it generates its revenue.

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)

●Aimed to provide loans for rebuilding economies after WW2 and alleviate poverty. ●Now it is part of the *World Bank*, the IRBD has focused on tackling extreme poverty. ●Aims to decrease % of people living on <$1.25/day to 3% of world's pop by 2030, by encouraging income growth for the poorest 40% of a country. ●Provides low interest loans and technical assistance to developing countries, and works in partnership with govts and banks to deliver projects.

*Actions by IGOs to protect the environment*: The Water Convention

●Aims to protect the quantity, quality and sustainable use of transboundary water resources by promoting cooperation between countries. ●42 countries signed it in 1992.

*Environmental problems* Protecting Arctic and Antarctic environments

●Antarctica doesn't have a native pop, govt or laws. ●Scientific interest and potential for resource exploitation mean management is needed. ●12 countries signed an agreement in 1959, with 41 signing since then to create the Antarctic Treaty System. Sets strict rules: ●Antarctica is only to be used for scientific research. ●No military action allowed. ●No territorial claims can be made on the research. ●Under the Antarctic Protocol on Environmental Protection (1991) no resource exploitation is allowed until at least 2041. ●Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme was set up in 1991 as an IGO to inform govts about threats to the Arctic to inform decision making.

What about the EU?

●Are many European businesses in Catalonia; their independence could mean renegotiation of trade deals, changes to tax and currency which would create challenges similar to those of Brexit. ●In 2016, Corsica's new nationalist govt expressed similar views: to stay in the EU but loosen ties with France. ●Corsica has some degree of self-rule, but seeing moves towards greater autonomy in Catalonia and Scotland, its seeking change.

Sports and nationalism

●At Rio 2016, Team GB won more medals than at London 2012. ●Olympic success sae countries wrapping themselves in national flags, singing their national anthems and boosting their rankings in the medals table. ●Olympics are easy way to indulge in nationalism. Effects are strongest for the host nation e.g. Beijing 2008 allowed China to show itself as a modern power on the world stage.

*Environmental problems* Loss of biodiversity

●Biodiversity loss faces five major pressures: habitat loss, climate change, excessive nutrient load and pollution, over-exploitation and invasive species. ●Amphibians and coral are most at risk. ●1 in 8 birds, 1 in 4 mammals, 1 in 3 amphibians and 1 in corals and 6 out of 7 marine turtles are at risk of extinction. ●3/4 of the genetic diversity of agricultural crops has been lost, and 3/4 of world's fisheries are overexploited. ●70% of world's known species face extinction if global temp rises by more than 3.5 degreesC.

*Environmental problems*: Overfishing threatens Pacific bluefin tuna

●Bluefin tuna stocks in Pacific are at risk of disappearing. ●90% of specimens currently fished are too young to reproduce, due to its popularity. ●In 2013, one fish sold in Japan for £1m, reflecting demand. ●Industrial fishing has caused its near extinction, despite the Intl Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) quota system.

Questions of National Identity

●For the first time in 2011, people's own perception of their national identity was included in Census. ●They had to indicate their birth place and perceived national identity. ●Showed ethnic minorities often identified more closely with Britishness than their white British counterparts who viewed themselves often as English etc. ●Higher % of white other felt little/no connection with Britishness and retained their overseas identity. ●Only 13% of 75+ described themselves as British, viewed themselves as English etc. ●62% of Sikhs describe themselves as British v 15% of Christians.

Bolivia

●Bolivia has turned into one of the world's fastest growing economies. ●President Morales was elected in 2006 to embark on a programme to undo 20 years of privatisation under IMF influence. ●Morales' view was that privatisation had only resulted in profits for TNCs. Bolivia established its National Coalition for change in 2007. Its policies: ●Nationalised esources with profits going to govt not private shareholders. ●Reduced primary exports and used these to boost domestic manufacturing of imported products = *import substitution* ●Redistributed wealth to the campesino (peasants) by guaranteeing food prices. ●This strategy depended on nationalising Bolivia's oil and gas industries. TNCs had previously claimed 82% of their value. Morales' govt took 80%. As the state was the biggest player, it meant Bolivians began benefitting from: ●Increased gas connections, 150% improvement in electricity and 300% improvement in telecommunications. ●Improved healthcare, education and pensions. ●Reduced wealth inequalities and lower govt debt. ●Demand for domestically manufactured goods drove sustained annual growth of 5%+ 2006-12. ●Morales' was re-elected in 2014 with 60% of the vote, claiming to govern by obeying the people not the global economy.

International financial organisations

●Both World Bank and IMF were established in 1944 at Bretton Woods, to stabilise global finances after Great Depression and costs of WW2. ●Philosophy behind them is Washington Consensus, an ideology about the 'Western Way' of organising capitalism. ●USA is their biggest financial contributor and their HQs are in USA, so USA drives the global finance. ●WTO is part of the same family of global organisations. ●WTO wants to promote global trade via trade liberalisation. ●IMF wants to ensure global financial stability. Banks and govts pay into a fund to be loaned out to stabilise global currency. ●World Bank is funded in the same way as IMF and wants to finance global development.

Managing threats to the atmosphere: the Montreal Protocol

●Buildup of ozone depleting substances, CFS, halons, carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform in the atmosphere increases the amount of harmful UV radiation reaching the Earth's surface. ●UV radiation damages human health and ecosystems, biogeochemical cycles and air quality. ●CFCs damaged the ozone enough to cause the hole over Antarctica. ●To address atmospheric deterioration, the Montreal Protocol was signed in 1987. ●Stipulated phase out of ODSs by 2000. ●By 2009, it was the first global treaty to reach 197 signatories and global ratification; by 2010 nearly all counties had phased out ODSs. It was successful because: ●Was a clear cause and effect relationship, so little disputing of evidence. ●Funding assistance was given to developing nations. ●CFC substitutes were available. ●Global risks were considered immediate and widespread. ●Most ODSs are GGs, so it meant reductions in GG and already significant closing of holes in the ozone layer. ●The global ozone layer should return to pre 1980 levels by 2050, and 2070 over Antarctica.

*Actions by IGOs to protect the environment*: CITES

●CITES is an intl agreement between govts, aiming to ensure that intl trade in wild animal and plant specimens doesn't threaten their survival. ●Put into place in 1975; By 2016, 182 nations had signed it. ●Protects 35k species of flora and fauna. ●Not universally successful as enforcement hasn't been strict enough e.g. bluefish tuna isn't protected despite concerns over its sustainability.

The Cayman Islands

●Cayman Islands have a pop of 56k, including 100 nationalities. ●Became a Crown Colony in 1962, and are now among one of the world's successful financial centres, with over 100k registered companies. ●Financial services generate 55% of the islands' GDP and employ 35% of the pop. ●2015: avg GDP/capita = $58k (14th highest) ●Cayman Islands are among the world's largest offshore financial centres, so they are only permitted to work with businesses resident outside their territory. ●40 of the world's top investment banks and insurance companies are licensed there. ●In 2014, the Cayman Islands held $1.5tn in assets. ●One of the main reasons they've become a financial honeypot is because of their 0% income tax rate and low corporation taxes.

Trading blocs: towards political union?

●Centripetal forces e.g. harmonisation of economic policies and common currency draw states together. ●This needs trust and economic consistency at levels not seen before. ●Sharing laws and ideology take time, and some members might not want union as UK's vote to leave EU showed. ●Some splintering may be inevitable as nationalist forces create centrifugal forces that drive organisations or countries apart, ●UK welcomed economic benefits of EU single market which provides access to 500m people, but many worried about diluted UK sovereignty.

Growing inequalities

●Despite increased wealth since 1980s, global income growth hasn't been evenly distributed. ●Most growth occurred in China as it became the world's workshop, while at the same time outsourcing and offshoring reduced employment and incomes in the USA. ●The global elite (the top 1%) have gained hugely. ●Geographers e.g. Danny Dorling argue economic and social stability are threatened by increasing inequality e.g. reduced education and life expectancy for the poorer. ●So some countries take alternate pathways.

A cultural takeover?

●Disney owns 40 Spanish speaking radio stations and dozens of intl magazines. ●In China, Disney use leisure and film to expand their market and have opened a Chinese language radio station in Hong Kong. ●By 2015, they had opened 140 learning centres equipped with Disney materials in China, teaching English to 150k children. ●Disney promotes view of the broader benefits of Western capitalism. ●It targets MC and China and India, many who see Western brands as status symbols; Westernisation respects a bigger picture of social mobility and personal freedoms, as well as an easier lifestyle.

The role of the UN

●First UN General Assembly met in London in 1946 with a focus of developing peaceful uses of atomic energy, eliminating weapons of mass destruction. ●Now, the UN has a range of functions including: ●Maintaining intl peace and security. ●Promoting sustainable development e.g. 2015 SDGs and the IPCC. ●Protecting human rights e.g. the Intl Bill of Human Rights. ●Upholding intl law on trade, UNCLOS and justice. ●Delivering humanitarian aid to conflict refugees, sick from epidemics and victims of natural disasters. ●Is a number of different UN sub-organisations e.g. WHO and UNICEF who deliver these. (Shown in diagram) ●UNICEF was created in 1946 to aid European children after WW2, but has since expanded to provide aid globally and uphold the UN Convention on the rights of the child. ●WHO focuses on intl health issues and has largely eradicated polio and leprosy. ●World Food Programme with the Red Cross and crescent provides food aid in response to famine, natural disasters and conflict. Currently feeds 90m people in 80 nations a year.

Westernisation and cultural values

●Global economy has created global brand names e.g. Apple and Coca Cola. ●Every year, Forbes calculates the brand vsalsue of the top 500 companies. In 2015, 8 of the top 10 were American. *Entertainment* ●TV, Cinema and music are increasingly provided by a small group of huge companies. ●Three companies own 80% of the global music market and are all American. ●In Australia, 70% of newspapers are owned by Rupert Murdoch's News Corp. *Retailing* ●Westernisation affects retailing as the American model for retail is the mall. ●Most indoor shopping centres e.g. The Trafford Centre or Westfield are built by large property companies with investment from big banks. ●They change the identity of retail in towns and cities, as they're usually built out of town. ●But in each mall, global brands rep[lace independent businesses and malls often look v.similar.

Inequality in South Africa

●Globalisation has allowed SA's manufacturers access to wider market: exports and imports of consumer goods have grown. ●Gold mines near Johannesburg and tourism have presented country with economic opportunities. ●But opening SA's global markets meant taking on SAPs and accepting high levels of FDI. ●Some SAs have gained, but inequalities between different ethnic groups and political tensions have increased too. ●In 2010, South Africa had a Gini coefficient of 0.66, making it one of the most unequal societies in the world. ●The two richest people in South Africa have the same wealth as the bottom half of the population

Globalisation and inequality

●Globalisation has produced winners and losers. ●Cheap loans have allowed many to buy houses, and falling price of consumer goods meant many people feel better off. ●Forecasts predict 80% of the world's extreme poor will be in Africa by 2030. If there is no change in Africa's income inequality, poverty won't be ended (<3% of people in extreme poverty) until 2075. ●This Gini Coefficient shows how inequality has changed since 1980 for selected nations. ●Some of the emerging economies are most unequal, while Sweden is least unequal. ●Inequality within most countries has grown. For example, In Denmark, a country with a low Gini coefficient, only 15 percent of a young adult's income is determined by their parent's income. ●In contrast, In the USA, nearly half of all children born to low-income parents will become low-income adults. ●Despite this, the gap between richer and poorer countries has shrunk overall.

Made in Britain?

●HP is a famous brown sauce, made in the 19thC in Nottingham. ●In 2005, it was bought by Heinz who are based in the USA. ●In 2016, foreign brands spent $100bn+ buying British companies. ●2015: British car industry produced 1.5m cars, but few were made by British owned companies. ●For example, Jaguar Land Rover made 489k cars, but is owned by Tata Motors (Indian). It's difficult to recognise goods 'Made in Britain' because they might: ●Be made by British companies under foreign ownership ●Consist of products made abroad assembled in the UK. ●Global markets encourage mergers and takeovers and companies achieve economies of scale and efficiency by merging. ●The UK govt rarely intervenes in the sale of UK companies to foreign buyers, unless national security or media plurality are at risk. ●Elsewhere e.g. France and USA, certain industries are protected for strategic reasons (e.g. to protect jobs and skills).

The impacts of the IMF and World Bank

●IGOs promote neoliberalism to deliver economic growth, and some argue, to protect USA's hegemony. Their objectives have been to: ●1950s: support post-war reconstruction in developed countries. ●1970-80s: loan money for large scale development projects in developing countries. ●When global interest rates went up in 1980s, loan repayments became unaffordable for many developing countries. ●Unpaid interest was added to the loan amounts; by 2000, many developing countries owed more than the original loans. ●IMF and World Bank said those countries would only be helped if they agreed to conditions = structural adjustment.

Globalisation and identity

●Identity with a home country varies over time, and occasionally surges of nationalism occur. ●Politicians try and articulate national characteristics and values e.g. France's l'exception culturelle aims to protect its culture against Anglicisation, and Japan is reluctant to increase immigration to protect its culture. ●But globalisation, with fewer restrictions on movement and freer global media can alter people's views and national identities. ●Many cities now consist of people of many nationalities and diverse ethnic groups. ●London has people speaking 200+ languages, showing how globalisation implicates ideas of national identity.

Structural Adjustment

●If country can't repay its loans, the global banking system is at risk. ●In the 1980-90s, the IMF reorganised countries loans to affordable levels; they had to implement austerity and export goods to earn capital to repay. ●Policies were known as Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) ●SAPs required debtor nations to accept other conditions; without this, they'd get no more credit: ●Opening up domestic markets, allowing private companies to develop resources for export. ●Reducing the role of the govt e.g. privatising State industries. ●Reducing govt spending. ●Devaluing the currency to make exports cheaper. ●Critics argue because of these conditions, countries sacrificed their economic sovereignty as they liberalised their economies; TNCs took over privatised services and increased their dependency on trade.

Managing threats to the biosphere

●In 2016, UNEP stated wetlands were among the most diverse and productive ecosystems yet among the most threatened by urbanisation and economic development. ●UNEP exists to promote sustainable development and manage the atmosphere and biosphere. ●2016: estimated over the past 100 years wetlands have declined by 70%. Committed to stopping this rapid wetland loss. ●1971: Ramsar Convention aimed to conserve wetlands. ●Now, there's 2200 Ramsar sites managed by national governments, NGOs and local bodies e.g. Nature England.

Business ownership and identity

●Some TNCs have altered the way of life and national identities of some countries. ●In the 1930s, Chiquita owned 1m acres of land in Central America. ●1950: it owned 50% of land in Honduras and 75% in Guatemala. ●It built and ran infrastructure e.g. roads, railways and port facilities, helping economic growth and fruit exports esp. bananas. ●Plantations replaced small farms and homes, healthcare and education were provided by the company. ●In the UK, Tata owns the steel plant in Port Talbot, S Wales. ●It provides jobs in the area, and Tata claims they benefit Welsh prosperity, invest in schools and support local health and safety policies. ●But, in 2015 when cheap imported steel threatened Tata's profits they threatened to close the PT plant. ●Communities are at risk when the strong winds of globalisation cause TNCs to change tack.

Jamaica's Structural Adjustment Programme

●Jamaica became independent from Britain in 1962, but it was only in 1970s that the govt began policies to support health and education, nationalise industries, increase tax on foreign investment etc. ●But these policies struggled as the 1970s oil crisis increased costs. As cost of imports rose and exports fell, Jamaica accumulated debts. ●Debt payments rose from 16% of exports in 1977 of 35% in 1986 because of rising interest rates. ●IMF and WB imposed SAPs in return for loans. Austerity measures had a big impact: ●During 1980s the no. of registered nurses fell by 60% ●Food subsidies were removed and currency devaluation made cost of food higher. ●Spending on health, education and housing was cut. ●10 years later, govt tried neoliberal policies to solve the crisis but they didn't work. ●In 1990, 96% of children completed primary school but in 2014 only 88% did. ●In 1990, 79 mothers per 100k died in childbirth and in 2015 it was 89. ●Jamaica has now repaid more money ($19.8bn) than it borrowed ($18.5bn) and the govt still owes $7.8bn because of interest payments. ●Anjual govt foreign debt payments of $1.2bn are double the amount spent on education and health. ●Jamaica is classed as a MIC so is ineligible for debt relief. ●In 2013, the IMF announced another $1bn loan so Jamaica could meet its huge debt payments, but it was linked to 4 more years of austerity, including a pay freeze of 20%.

New types of states: tax havens

●Leading industrialised nations have adopted the Washington Consensus: the belief that economic efficiency can only be achieved if regulations are removed. ●Globalisation has also led to a government role in the economy. Deregulation became a trend in the 70s and 80s, with State interference being reduced or removed. Means capital can be transferred anywhere, freely and cheaply. ●Also led to privatisation of govt assets in services or industries, with ownership shifting to TNCs or wealthy individuals. ●Govt spending has been reduced, so tax is lower. ●Several govts have expanded their lack of financial regulation with low income and corporation tax rates, designed to attract wealthy individuals and TNCs to register themselves there. Known as *tax havens* ●UK controls 1/3 of world's tax havens; Queen is on banknotes of British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands and Bermuda.

*Actions by IGOs to protect the environment*: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (EIA)

●MEA began in 2001, to assess consequences of ecosystem change, and actions needed to conserve and use ecosystems sustainable. ●MEA is needed as since 1950 economic development and pop growth have caused irreversible ecosystem damage. ●50% of world's natural habitats have been cleared for human use and up to 1.5% is cleared annually. ●Current rates of extinction are 100x faster than natural rates. ●Species loss is 300k/year, faster than before.

Rising tensions in emerging nations

●Nationalism has cultural and historical roots, but has been strengthened in places where globalisation has greater tensions, ●BRICs and other emerging nations have seen GDP grow significantly but also consequences of national divisions. ●E.g. in Brazil there was an 'Exclusion Games' protest at the costs of Brazil hosting the 2016 Olympics at the time where Brazil was in a major recession,suffering political strife and the Zika crisis. ●There is growing political uncertainty in S Africa. ●In 2016, the main opposition Democratic Alliance won seats from the ruling African National Congress. ●Cities with a young educated pop and black townships were losing faith with the ANC over poor services e.g. water and education.

Alternative pathways

●Not all countries support globalisation processes. ●In 2010 in Latin America, several governments moved from open market principals to the left, to pursue social justice. ●By 2010, 8 S American and 4 Central American countries had elected LW govts. ●Move have been re-elected since then, although Venezuela, Argentina and Guatemala have elected RW governments since 2015. ●Centre left governments have lasted in Uruguay, Nicaragua, Bolivia and Ecuador.

Catalans demand change

●Rising nationalism and calls for independence from regions within countries has emerged alongside disillusionment with globalisation. ●For example, Catalonia's desire to be independent from the rest of Spain while remaining in the EU. -------------------------------------------------------- ●Catalonia is Spain's wealthiest region, with a pop of 7.5m producing 20% of Spain's wealth. ●As a separate nation, it would be the 34th largest economy. ●As Spain's industrial and economic powerhouse e.g. textiles, it is dominated by the regional capital, Barcelona. ●Since 1978, it has had considerable levels of self-govt, with responsibility for health, education, police and culture. ●Many Catalans believe in a pluralistic Spain with distinctive regions, languages and cultures. ●They identify as 'Catalns' not Spanish and have strong views about independence.

Failed states

●Role of state varies between countries, and national identity isn't always v. strong. ●This is true in failed states, where there are stark differences between politically and economically powerful elites, foreign investors and wider pop. ●Failed state = where political or economic system has become so weak national govt is no longer in control and can't maintain law and order e.g. Somalia or Libya. ●In these countries, there could be low life expectancy, undemocratic govt, social unrest, poverty, poor education etc. ●Small elite may wield political and economic power, and sense of national identity may be weak.

Russia's impact on geopolitical relations and global stability

●Russia has had significant impacts in E Europe, E Asia and the ME. ●Assisted by China's will to create stability to its W, Russia has been able to reach agreements with them e.g. the 2015 Silk Road Economic belt, which involves investment from China and geopolitical stability from Russia. ●Through these geopolitical relations, Russia secures the Eurasian region from US influence. ●Russia wants to regain some of its influence in E Europe; in 21st C it secured greater ties with Germany which allowed it to ensure all E European countries didn't join NATO and EU. ●Using its energy as a means of intimidation, Russia tried to prevent E European countries looking to the W. ●Created instability, esp. when Russian forces entered Ukraine, straining geopolitical relations. ●Sanctions against Russia were imposed which severely restricted its income from energy sales to Europe. ●Russia's intervention in syria was aimed to reduce the terrorist threat to Russian territory and increase its foothold in the ME. ●May add to global stability when political ramifications spread beyond the region e.g. Russian sanctions on Turkey.

The War on Terror: Geopolitical relations and global stability

●Some countries e.g. US, UK and Russia have decided to act independently of UN to intervene in failed states or conducting the 'War on Terror' which may strain geopolitical relations. ●George W Bush used the term 'War on Terror' after 9/11 in 2001. Refers to the global military and political struggle against terrorist groups and the states that support them. ●China has engaged its own war on terror, in response to violence by Uighur separatist movements in Xinjiang. It has been criticised for unfairly targeting the Muslim Uighurs. ●Russia has been engaged in counter terrorism e.g. Second Chechen War and military intervention in the Syrian Civil War. Has focused on separatist and Islamist movements that use violence to achieve their political goals. ●A new conflict in Africa arose with the advance of Boko Haram in Nigeria and Al-Qaeda in the Maghreb in Sahara in 2012. ●France and US are increasing their support to govts in the region, but groups continue to operate in lawless areas.

Does company nationality matter?

●Take-overs mean that profits go abroad instead of staying in the UK so corporate taxes are paid overseas and the British govt loses tax revenue. ●Italian owner of Boots the Chemist moved its HQ from UK to low-tax Switzerland in 2014. ●Its new tax bill was £9m instead of the £89m it had paid in UK in 2013.

What's wrong with avoiding tax?

●Tax havens offer tax advantages to companies and the super rich, sho stand to gain most by paying low/no tax. ●Many tax havens also provide political stability as well as secure banking and legal systems; don't break any rules. ●However, some are corrupt. ●Major TNCs and wealthy expats 'rest their cash' in the safer ones. Doing so is controversial, as they aren't paying tax to the country where money was earned. ●In 2015, JP Morgan reported American companies were holding $2tn cash overseas. ●Apple held 89% of its total cash abroad. It avoided paying 35% in corporate taxes that would be due in the companies where it made its profits. *Attitudes towards tax havens* ●IGOs and Govts accept growth of tax havens. ●National govts seek investment from TNCs to generate employment and wealth, and they have the freedom to set their own tax rates. ●In 2015, the EU declared the ability of TNCs to move revenues earned throughout the EU to low tax member states e.g. Ireland (only 12.5%) was unfair.

Using sanctions

●The UN Security Council meets to respond to threats e.g. armed conflict. ●Sometimes they introduce economic sanctions with countries where human suffering occurs, or use direct military intervention to protect people from conflict. They include: ●Arms and trade embargos. ●Restrictions on loans for development projects. ●Freezing assets of specific people or companies. ●Travel restrictions for specific people e.g. politicians. ●These sanctions were applied against Ivory Coast and Liberia in 2015, due to suspected war crimes. ●Iran and Bosnia show variable success of UN action.

Education and values

●Values are rooted in the institutions and history of a nation. ●Since 2014, English schools are legally required to promote British values as part of students' Spiritual, Moral, Social and Cultural Development. Fundamental British values compromise beliefs and practice in: ●Democracy. ●Rule of law. ●Individual liberty. ●Mutual respect and tolerance of those with different faiths.

Global and regional trade

●WTO members accounted for 96.4 of world trade in 2016, and 96.7% of global GDP. ●90% of world pop is governed by WTO rules; onl 13 UN members aren't part of the group. ●Being a member of global IGOs provides access to world marketplace and economic development through trade. ●Regional trading blocs have also emerged. ●Regional groups of nations which operate without cross border tax e.g. USA, Canada and Mexico under NAFTA and which allow freedom of movement of goods, services and people e.g. EU = *single markets* ●Some see eventual political union as a goal of this process.

From LON to UN

●WW1 and WW2 created a belief that war should be avoided. ●In 1919, after WW1 ended, the LON was established to attempt to ensure global peace. ●Aimed to give a voice to open nations and create cooperation. ●By 1920, it had 48 members. ●Couldn't challenge expansionism of Japan and Germany in the 1930s, and became insignificant in the run up towards WW2. *The UN: the first IGO* ●In 1942, 26 nations agreed to work as Allies against the Axis powers. ●UN's aims and structure were agreed by the USA, USSR and China in 1944. ●UN aimed to maintain global peace and security after WW2. ●Oct 1945: became first true IGO with 50 members. ●USA, UK, USSR, China and France became first 5 permanent members of its Security Council.

Iran: Economic sanctions

●Was a suspicion Iran was attempting to build nuclear weapons, so in 2006 the UN imposed economic sanctions. ●Iran didn't respond to Security Council's order that they should suspend all uranium processing, so sanctions were extended to 2010 e.g. travel ban, arms embargo etc. ●Countries could inspect Iranian cargo, prevent provision of financial services for nuclear activities and prohibit opening of Iranian banks outside Iran and prevent financial institutions making investments in Iran. ●At this time, Iran was the world's 4th largest oil exporting country, and influenced prices via OPEC. ●Showed UN as willing to act but Iran's annual GDP fell by just 5% because of the embargo. ●They did negotiate with UN and suspend enrichment activity. ●2015 UN resolution set a schedule for eventually lifting UN sanctions, with provision to put them back in place if Iran didn't comply.