MNMT 300: CH 8 Learning and Decision Making

limited, distorted, selective

Decision-Making Problems: 1. l________ information: employees subject to bounded rationality, thus must filter/simplify info which can lead to misinterpretations of best alternatives ; 2. often satisfice, select the first acceptable alternative considered 3. Faulty perceptions: process of selecting / organizing information, can be d__________ (s_________ perception) - tons of biases 4. Faulty Attributions: how we explain the actions/events that occur around us 5. Escalation of c_____________________: decision to follow a failing course of action

ratio bias effect

Decision-making bias, tendency to judge the same probability of an unlikely event as lower when the probability is presented in the form of a ratio of smaller rather than of larger numbers

contrast

Decision-making bias; tendencey to judge things erroneously based on a reference that is near to them

representativeness

Decision-making bias; tendency to assess the likelihood of an event by comparing it to a similar event and assuming it will be similar

framing

Decision-making bias; tendency to make different decisions based on how a question of situation is phrased

Anchoring

Decision-making bias; tendency to rely too heavily on one trait or peice of info when making decisions even when the anchor might be unreliable or irrelevant

recency

Decision-making bias; tendency to weigh recent events more than earlier events

complete, diversity, higher, acceptance, time, conformity, ambiguous; 1. problem is essential for all 2. when employees are essential for future implementation 3. when there is a conflict because employees/managers disagree about how to solve it; 1. group domination 2. social loafing (tendency for individuals to exert less effort when they work in a group than when they work alone) 3. Groupthink (phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action) 4. Groupshift (phenonmenon in which the initial positions of individual members of a group are exaggerated toward a more extreme position)

Group Decision Making: Pros: 1. generates more c______________ information and knowledge 2. offers increased _____________ of views 3. generates _________-quality decisions 4. leads to increased a_______________ of a solution Cons: 1. more t_______ consuming 2. discussion can be dominated by one or a few members 3. c____________ pressures in groups 4. decisions suffer from a________________ responsibility When is this type of decision making useful? What are four main problems?

Kuhn, 1. What is to be observed and scrutinized 2. the kind of questions that are supposed to be asked and probed for answers in relation to this subject 3. how these questions are to be put 4. how the results of scientific investigations should be interpreted

How does Thomas ______ define a scientific paradigM?

individuals

International: US culture blames i________________, Asian cultures blame organization/group and often CEO gets fired for mistakes at lower levels

observation, expertise, limited, attribution, moderately, weakly

OVERVIEW: Reinforcement, O____________, and Goal Orientation -> knowledge: explicit and tacit -> e______________: programmed decision accuracy and non programmed decision accuracy [Decision-making problems: 1. l_________ information 2. faulty perceptions 3. faulty a_________________ 4. escalation of commitment] **learning does influence job performance because it is m___________ correlated to task performance, but learning is only ____________ correlated to organizational commitment

operant, skinner, voluntary, 1. antecedent (condition that precedes behavior) 2. behavior (action performed by employee) 3. consequence (result that occurs after behavior); contingencies of reinforcement 1. positive reinforcement 2. extinction 3. punishment 4. negative reinforcement; 1. positive reinforcement, extinction

Reinforcement: 1. o_____________ conditioning: pioneered by B.F. S________, we learn by observing the link between v___________ behavior and the consequences that follow it; what are the 3 steps? - a c______________ cycle 2. What are the four specific consequences typically used by organizations to modify employee behavior known as? What are the four? 3. Which two are most effective at created wanted outcomes?

difficult, paycheck, desired, high, very, commission

Schedules of Reinforcement: 1. Continuous: reward given following every desired behavior, high performance but d___________ to maintain, EX: praise 2. Fixed Interval: fixed time periods, average, p______________ 3. variable interval: variable time periods, moderately high, supervisor walk-by 4. Fixed ratio: fixed number of d______________ behaviors, ____, piece-rate pay 5. Variable ration: variable number of desired behaviors, v____ high, c____________

halo effect

The tendency for one characteristic of an individual to influence a tester's evaluation of other characteristics A cognitive bias in which judgments of an individual's character can be affected by the overall impression of the individual.

1. explicit 2. tacit; reinforcement (rewards / punishment), observation, experience

What are the two basic types of knowledge? -generally build the first and use it as a platform to build the second How do employees learn these types of knowledge?

if there's low consensus (no one else is doing it), low distinctiveness (if you're irresponsible with other stuff too), high consistency (you do it often); high consensus, high distinctiveness, low consistency

When is a behavior (such as showing up to work late) an internal attribution (individual factors such as ability, motivation, or attitudes to blame)? When external (environmental factors to blame)?

decision making

`the process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem "the more knowledge and skills employees possess, the more likely they are to make a_____________ and sound decisions."

punishment

a contingency of reinforcement; an unwanted outcome follows an unwanted behavior (suspending an employee, assigning demeaning job tasks, firing)

extinction, purposeful

a contingency of reinforcement; removal of a consequence following an unwanted behavior (can be p______________ or accidental) -effective way to stop unwanted behaviors

positive reinforcement, praise, timely

a contingency of reinforcement; when a positive outcome is followed by a desired behavior (most common -> increased pay, promotions, p__________, public recognition) -must be direct link between behavior and outcome in a t___________ manner

negative reinforcement, increase

a contingency of reinforcement; when an unwanted outcome is removed following a desired behavior -designed to ____________ desired behaviors

reference group's opinions

a group to which people orient themselves, using its standards to judge themselves and the world

golem effect

a loss of performance resulting from low leader expectations.

rational decision-making model, that people are rational and that there is a clear/definite problem to solve and perfect information and that time/money matter less than maximizing value, identify, list, evaluate, alternatives

a step-by-step approach to making decisions that maximize outcomes by examining all available alternatives -becomes relevant when people don't recognize a problem as one they've dealt with before -what does this model assume? Steps: 1. i______ problem by thoroughly examining the situation and considering all interested parties 2. Develop an exhaustive l________ of alternatives to consider as solutions 3. e_________ all the alternatives simultaneously 4. Use accurate info to evaluate a________________ 5. Pick the alternative that maximizes value

training

a systematic effort by organizations to facilitate the learning of job-related knowledge and behavior

climate for transfer

an environment that can support the use of new skills

galatea effect

an individual's high self-expectations lead to high performance

fundamental attribution error, less, consensus

argues that people have a tendency to judge others behaviors as due to internal factors (we're ______ harsh when judging ourselves) -can look toward three kinds of questions to determine if an internal or external attribution factor was present: c___________, distinctiveness, consistency

stereotype, diversity

assumptions about others on the basis of their membership in a social group (many places have developed extensive d_________ training programs to help overcome these)

ideological biases

biases which are produced by propaganda

antecedent

condition that precedes behavior, for instance goals, rules, instructions, or other types of information that helps show employees what is expected of them

programmed decisions, crisis, Karl

decisions that become somewhat automatic because people's knowledge allows them to recognize and identify a situation and the course of action that needs to be taken -experts can often draw on this to act quickly, which often comes across as i___________ or emotionally charged judgements that arise through quick, nonconscious, and holistic associations -extremely helpful in ______ situations, when an urgent problem must be addressed immediately -Unfortunately, when a manager uses intuition to make a decision in a crisis situation, followers often misinterpret the manager's intent, because the manager can't put the reasons for their decisions into words. In turn the implementation of their plan often suffers. -K____ Weick created five steps for communicating intent to others when using intuition

knowledge transfer

exchanging info from older experienced memebers to younger employees, using varioations of the behaior modeling training

Solomon asch experiment

experiment tested to see the conformity of people, line matching test showed people don't want to feel left out

projection bias

false assumption people make that others think, feel, and act the same way they do; limits ability to develop appropriate criteria for a decision

communities of practice

groups of employees who work together and learn from one another by collaborating over an extended period of time

explicit knowledge, books, general, minor

knowledge that is easily transferred through written or verbal communication; readily available to most, can be learned through b________, always conscious and accessible info; g_________ info -relatively m_________ portion of what you need to know

tacit knowledge, personal, experience, specific, 90%

knowledge that is very difficult, if not impossible, to articulate to others; highly p_________ in nature, based on e_________________, sometimes holders don't even recognize that they possess it; typically job-or-situation s________ -argued that up to ___ of the knowledge contained in organizations occurs in this form

pygmalion effect

occurs when leaders articulate high expectations for followers; in many cases these expectations alone will lead to higher performing followers and teams

transfer of trianing

occurs when the knowledge, skills, and behaviors used on the job are maintained by the learner once training ends and generalized to the workplace once the learner returns to the job

self-serving bias

occurs when we attribute our own failures to external factors and our own successes to internal factors -research shows that when people have a level of familiarity with the person being judged, they'll use a more ____________ decision framework

brainstorming, heterogeneity, restricted, round, common, criticism, expressed, timeline

one of the best known methods for developing alternatives where a group works together to generate ideas and alternatives solutions by short period of times Principles: 1. h____________ of the group 2. r___________ group (5-9 participants) 3. group arrangement - r_________ table 4. equal understanding of the ___________ goal 5. hear and develop eachother's ideas 6. avoid c____________ and assessment statements 7. encouragement of jokes and stupid ideas 8. recording all e______________ ideas 9. t___________ pressuer

social identity theory

people identify themselves by the groups to whcih they belong and perceive and judge others by their group memberships (could be demographic info, occupational, where they work, country, etc.)

social learning theory

people in organizations have the ability to learn through the observation of others

performance-prove orientation, mixed

people who focus on demonstrating their competence so that others think favorably of them -prefer to work on tasks at which they're already good -tends to produce m_______ results,

performance-avoid orientation

people who focus on demonstrating their competence so that others will not think poorly of them -prefer to work on tasks at which they're already good -clear, detrimental effects

groupshift

phenomenon in which the initial positions of individual members of a group are exaggerated toward a more extreme position

groupthink

phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action

learning, decision making, permanent

reflects relatively permanent changes in an employee's knowledge or skill taht result from experience -makes significant impact on what? -only truly occurs when changes in behavior become relatively p______________ and are repeated over time

fixed ratio schedules

reinforces behaviors after a certain number of them have been exhibited

variable interval schedules

schedules designed to reinforce behavior at more random points in time (a supervisor walking around at different points of time every day)

variable ratio schedules

schedules that reward people after a varying number of exhibited behaviors (salespeople are often compensated based on commission - but they don't make the sale every time)

heuristics

simple, efficient rules of thumb that allow us to make decisions more easily -in general not bad, but can also bias us toward inaccurate decisions

fixed interval schedule

single most common form of reinforcement schedule, workers are rewarded after a certain amount of time, and the length of time between reinforcement periods always stays the same (bonuses)

social loafing

tendency for individuals to exert less effort when they work in a group than when they work alone

availability bias

tendency for people to base their judgements on info that is easier to recall

selective perception, identify

tendency for people to see their environment only as it affects them and as it is consistent with their expectations; often affects our ability to i_____________ problems

expertise; a function of learning as opposed to intelligence/innate ability

the knowlege and skills that distinguish experts from novices and less experienced people; what does research show is almost always the difference between experts and novices?

bounded rationality

the notion that decision makers simply do not have the ability or resources to process all available information and alternatives to make an optimal decision

learning orientation, positive

the orientation people have when they care more about building competence than demonstrating competence -enjoy working on new kinds of tasks (even if they fail early on because they view failure in p____________ terms) -improves self-confidence, feedback seeking behavior, and learning performance

behavioral modeling; attentional, retention, production, reinforcement

the process when employees observe the actions of others, learn from what they observe, and then repeat the observed behavior What are the four processes? 1. _____________ ___________: learner focuses attention on the critical behaviors exhibited by the model 2. _____________ processes: learner must remember the behaviors of the model once the model is no longer present 3. ______________ processes: learner must have the appropriate skill set and be able to reproduce the behavior 4. r____________________: learner must view the model receiving reinforcement for the behavior and then receive it themselves -models can be supervisors, other co-workers, etc.; unethical / counterproductive behavior can be picked up through modeling as well

continuous reinforcement, impractical

the simplest schedule for reinforcement, happens when a specific consequence follows each and every occurence of a desired behavior -oftentimes i_______________

schedules of reinforcement, variable schedules, continuous

the timing of when the contingencies are applied -what has research consistently shown to lead to higher levels of performance? -"_____________ schedules work better for reinforcing new behaviors or behaviors that don't occur on a frequent basis"

confirmation bias

we prefer to gather information selectively in order to reaffirm our own opinion

overconfidence bias

we prefer to overestimate the probability that our answers and our judgements are correct

nonprogrammed decision, larger

when a situation arises that is new, complex, and not recognized -general rule: as employees move up the ladder, a _________ percentage of their decisions become less and less programmed

satisficing

when decision makers select the first acceptable alternative considered, oftentimes similar to what you're currently doing