Module 1 Anatomy
What is a plane ?
(Imaginary) flat surface thru a body
Pericardial cavity
Btwn pericardial layers (visceral & parietal)
How are epithelial cells bound together ?
By several types of intercellular junctions
What are the 8 cellular functions?
C^3 MS. DR. L, cover, connect, communicate, move, store, defence, repro, line
What is bone ?
Calcifies matrix arranged in osteons
What is microscopic anatomy ?
Can't be seen unaided
What is lymph ?
Intestinal fluid that goes thru lymph vessels
What is necrosis?
Irreversible damage via harmful agents or mechanical damage
somatic vs autonomic nervous system
autonomic = not conscious, somatic = perceived/controlled consciously, both = motor and sensory,
What are the two types of supporting connective tissue ?
bone and cartilage
how are the most complex unconscious motor patterns controlled?
by neurons in the cerebellum, midbrain and cerebral nuceli
how are highly variable/complex voluntary motor patterns controlled?
by the cerebral cortex, occupy highest level of processing/motor control
what is the reticular formation?
grey matter projecting thru midbrain, pons, medulla, motor/sensory components, activating system processes stimuli = keeps us alert
what are involuntary autonomic reflexes?
help maintain homeostasis, smooth/cardiac muscle contractions, or gland secretion in respond to stimulus
what is the role of the cerebellum?
receive input from sensory/motor paths, detects disparity btwn intended and actual movement; correct, transmitted to premotor and primary motor cortex via thalamus and b.stem
What are the 6 types of gross anatomy ?
reds cs; regional, embryology, developmental, systemic, comparative, surface
what are the four components of the CNS that control autonomic function
s. cord, brainstem, hypothalamus, cerebrum
what is the lowest level of motor control?
simple reflexes stimulating motor neurons, nuclei in s.cord and brainstem (also used in complex)
What are microtubules made of?
tubulin radiating from Centrosome
what is a preganglionic neuron?
the first neuron in the ANS path, cell body in brain or s.cord
What is stratified epithelium?
2+ layers, not all have apical surface or attached to b.membrane
How many abdominopelvic regions & quadrants are there?
4 quads & 9 regions
Female reproductive system
Makes HOROMONES (progest & estro) & female sex cells (oocytes)
What is the role of integral proteins?
Many varied function; span entire membrane
What are 4 types wandering cells?
Mast, plasma cells, leukocytes, free macrophages
What are the 2 classifications of organelles?
Membrane vs non membrane bound
What germ layer does connective tissue come from ?
Mesoderm
What germ layer does muscle tissue come from ?
Mesoderm
What are micovilli?
Microscopic projections from p.membrane that increase s.area (for transport), no motion
Mediastinum
Middle compartment containing heart
Median plane
Midsagittal, divides body to equal L&R
What is connective tissue ?
Most diverse and abundant tissue
What are two cell types involved in movement ?
Muscle cells of the heart & skeletal muscle cells
Two ways cells die
Necrosis & apoptosis
What are the 2 types of connective tissue proper?
Resident & wandering
What is the role of the golgi?
Revive from RER (proteins & lipids) for modification, sorting, packing
Endocrine system
Secrete hormones; regulate growth (body & cell), levels (chemicals), reproduction
What are the 4 functions of epithelial tissue?
Secretion, sensation, selective, protection
Skeletal system
Skeletal = support, hempopiesis , muscle attachment, Ca & P storage
What is the peritoneal cavity ?
Space btwn visceral & parietal peritoneum
What is the pleural cavity ?
Space btwn visceral & parietal pleura
What are nuclear pores?
Selectively permeable channels that allow specific molecules in/out of the nucleus
What are the seven integument functions?
Sensory, secrete, protection, prevent water loss, regulate temp & metabolism, immune defence,
What lines the ventral cavities ?
Serious (thin) membrane
What is a tissue ?
Similar cells & extracellular products, perform a common function
What is the function of dense irregular connective tissue?
Tensile strength in all directions
What are the lungs lined by?
The 2 layered pleural membrane
What is found in the cranial cavity ?
The brain
What is physiology ?
The study of function, (therefore related to anatomy)
What is anatomy ?
The study of structure, often implies function, to cut up/open
What is plasma ?
The watery ground substance containing protein fibres
What are lysosomes ?
Vesicles from golgi, function in autolysis & phagy
What are the two continuous layers of the pericardium ?
Visceral and parietal
What is autolysis?
When a dying cell releases autosomal lysosomes; digests cell
What is the mitosis phase?
When the cell divides
neuronal convergence vs divergence
convergence = axons from multiple preganglionic synapse on one ganglionic divergence = axons from one preganglionic synapse of multiple ganglionic
where do higher order processing/integrative functions occur?
cortex (cerebrum); involve multiple brain regions
what is a postganglionic axon?
extends from cell body to target (effector) cells
what is a preganglionic axon?
extends to second cell body (autonomic ganglion in PNS)
what is dual innervation?
found in many visceral effectors, innervation by preganglionic axons for both ANS divisions, antagonist or cooperative
Skeletal muscle tissue
multinucleate; striated, parallel fibres, voluntary, cylindrical, attached to bone (sometimes skin)
What are the two types of nervous tissue?
neurons and glial cells
what are the four cranial nerves associated with the parasympathetic division
oculomotor (III), facial (VII), vagus (X), glossopharyngeal (IX)
How many organ systems are in the body?
11
What is cartilage ?
A firm gel like ECM made of proteins and ground substance, support and withstand deformation
What germ layer does epithelial tissue come from ?
ALL THREE = ecto,endo, mesoderm
How are epithelial tissues classified?
According to shape and number of cell layers
What is the basement membrane?
Acellular structure produced by epithelial and underlying connective tissue, support/anchor epithelial tissue, barrier btwn epithelial and underlying connective
What are 4 types of resident cells?
Adipocytes, fibroblasts, fixed macrophages, mesenchymal cells
What is an organism made up of?
All organ systems
Role of gap junctions
Allow adjacent cell communication via ion and small molecule flow, directly connect cytoplasms
Where is dense elastic connective tissue found ?
Arteries
What is the role of neutrophils ?
Attack bacteria
What is the role of lymphocytes?
Attack foreign material
What are the 5 epidermal strata?
Basal, spinosum, granule, lucidium (thick skin), corenum
What is the function of areolar connective tissue ?
Bind & pack organs
What happens in a membrane bound organelle?
Biochemical activity (in the organelle) is isolated from other organelles & cytosol
What is found in the pelvic cavity ?
Bladder/urethra, internal repro organs, l.intestine (some)
What are 5 examples of connective tissue ?
Blood, bones, fat, tendons, ligaments
What are three types of cells involved in repro?
Bone marrow, sperm, oocyte
Where is nervous tissue found?
Brain, S. Cord, nerves
Cardiac muscle tissue
Branched, shorter than skeletal, striated, attached by gap junctions at intercalated discs = rapid current passage, contraction causes blood movement
Ground substance of connective tissue proper
Carbs and proteins, gelatinous, the water and salts = texture from hard (bone) to semi fluid (adipose)
What are 2 functions of the nucleus?
Cell regulation and production of ribosomal subunits
6 Characteristics of epithelial tissue
Cellularity(almost entirely cells; little ECM), polarity (top & bottom), avascular (no blood vessels), high regeneration capacity, attachment (basal attaches to basement), innervation (detect changes)
Cubodial cells
Centre nucleus, same size on all sides
Chromosomes vs chromatin
Chromatin = when DNA not dividing; unwound, vs chromosomes = tight chromatin during cell division
What are the three components of areolar connective tissue?
Collagen, elastic, fibroblasts
What are the three types of protein fibres produced by connective tissue cells and secreted into the ECM ?
Collagen, elastic, reticular
What are the 3 types of epithelial cell shape ?
Columnar, cuboidal, squamous
What are proteins?
Complex molecules made of 2 AA
What are the 3 functions of lysosomes?
Digestion (of material that enters cell via endocytosis), removal, self destruction
What is the role of collagen from fibroblasts?
Connection (attachment), form ligaments; attach bone-bone
What are the 4 ways the plasma membrane interacts w surroundings ?
Connection, communication, protection, transport
How does the plasma membrane function in communication?
Contains receptors that recognize/respond to molecular signals
What is the role of the nuclear envelope?
Controls entry/exit of molecules from nucleus and cytoplasm
Frontal plane
Coronal, divides into anterior (front) & posterior (back)
Where is the visceral peritoneum found?
Covering most digestive organs
What is the function of epithelial tissue?
Covers surfaces & lines cavities/organs
What are the 2 cavities of the posterior?
Cranial & vertebral
What is a section ?
Cut thru a structure
Digestive system
DIGESTS (chemically & mech), absorb nutrients & excrete waste
What are nucleosomes made of?
DNA + histones, make up chromatin
Where is dense irregular connective tissue found ?
Deemis
What is the dermis ?
Deeper areolar and dense irregular connective tissue
Wha is the role of lymphocytes?
Defence; produce antibodies to target antigens/invading cells
What are the three types of dense connective tissue ?
Dense regular and irregular, elastic
What is fibrocartilage ?
Dense woven collagen; durability
What are the 2 layers of the integument ?
Dermis & epidermis
What are the 3 functions of the smooth ER?
Detox, carb metabolism, lipid synthesis/storage/transport (INCLUDES STEROIDS)
What is the role of peroxisomes?
Detoxify(use O2 & catalase), convert peroxide to H2O; break down fatty acids
What separates the ventral cavities ?
Diaphragm
How do epithelial cells get oxygen and nutrients?
Diffusion from underlying tissue
Sagittal plane
Divides body into L&R, unequal
What are lacunae?
ECM that encloses chondrocytes
What germ layer does nervous tissue come from?
Ectoderm
What are cisternae?
Edges that pinch off to give rise to transport/secretory vesicles, where proteins are modified
What is cisrernae ?
Enclosed spaces, membrane bound, in the ER
What are the 3 major components of the nucleus?
Envelope, nucleoli, DNA/chromosome/chhromatin
What is an example of a peripheral protein?
Enzyme
Comparative anatomy
Examines SIMILARITIES & DIFFERENCES in anatomy of different species
Urinary system
FILTERS blood to remove waste; concentrated as urine
What is the role of muscle tissue?
Facilitate movement of skeleton or organ walls
What are the three types of cartilage ?
Fibro, elastic, hyaline
What are the 5 functions of microtubules ?
Fix organelles, maintain shape, motility (cilia/flagella), organelle movement, cell division (move chromosomes)
What are 4 cell shapes?
Flat, cylindrical, oval, irregular
Squamous cells
Flat, wide, irregular shape
What are the 3 classifications of connective tissue?
Fluid, supporting, proper
What is the role of plasma cells?
Form antibodies that bind foreign substances (bacteria, viruses)
What is the function of reticular connective tissue ?
Form stroma of lymphatic organs
What is the function of elastic connective tissue ?
Framework/support for organs
Distal
Furthest attachment from trunk
What are 4 types of intercellular junctions ?
Gap, tight, adhering, desmosomes
Respiratory system
Gas exchange (O2 & CO2) btw blood and lungs (air)
Role of tight junctions
Gatekeepers btwn internal/external, prevent movement btwn epithelial cells; molecules travel through cells
What is the glycocalyx?
Glycoproteins & glycolipids attached to the external p.membrane
Neuron function
Initiate and conduct electrical activity throughout the body, communication and control of body function
What are the 2 types of proteins in the plasma membrane ?
Integral & peripheral
What are cilia?
Grouped on cells, move objects across their surface, ex respiratory tract cells
epithelial tissue ECM
Have none/little
Cardiovascular system
Heart moves blood thru vessels; distributes nutrients, gases, hormone, picks up gas
Transfers plane
Horizontal, divides into inferior (lower) & superior (upper)
What is the most common type of cartilage?
Hyaline, also the weakest
What are the abdopelvic regions ?
Iliac, lumbar, hypochondriac, epi & hypogastric , umbilical
How do tissues vary?
In structure, function & extracellular matrix
Where are integral proteins located?
In the phospholipid bilateral spanning the entire thickness, exposed to in&outside the cell
Ribosomes
Large + small subunit, protein synthesis, fixed or attached
What are the three components of reticular connective tissue?
Leukocytes, fibroblasts, reticular fibres
Where is the parietal peritoneum found ?
Lining internal walls; don't contact organs
What is the role of epithelial cells in the S.intestine ?
Lining; Regulate nutrient movement
What is the plasma membrane composed of?
Lipids & proteins
What are flagella?
Longer than cilia, singular, propel cell, ex.sperm
What are the two types of connective tissue proper?
Loose and dense connective tissue
Where are peripheral proteins located?
Loosely attached to external/internal surface of p.membrane
Where is the visceral pleura located?
Lung surface
What is autophagy ?
Lysosome enzymes digest and remove waste & damaged organelles in cell
What are the 3 roles of microfilaments ?
Maintain/change cell shape, muscle contraction, cell division
What is interphase?
Maintain/resting phase between divisions, normal metabolic activities
What is derived from epithelial tissue?
Majority of glands
What are collagen fibres ?
Make up 25% of all proteins in the human body; most abundant protein, long, strong, resist stretching, unbranched
Male reproductive systems
Makes HORMONES (testosterone) & male sex cells = SPERM
What are the 4 types of tissues in the body ?
Nervous, muscle, epithelial, connective
Neurone vs glial cells
Neurons have axons and dendrites, but glial cells lack these processes
Is the heart in the pericardial cavity?
No, it is outside the pericardial cavity
Is there separation btwn abdo and pelvic cavity ?
No; continuous
What is pseudostratified epithelium?
Nuclei give appearance of multilayer, not all cells reach apical
What are the 3 basic parts of most human cells?
Nucleus, Cytoplasm, Plasma Membrane
What are the 7 characteristics of living organisms ?
O M G RARR; organization, metabolism, growth/Dev, repro, adapt, respond, regulate
Contralateral
On opp side
Ipsilateral
On same side
Lateral
Opp of medial; away from the midline
Smooth muscle tissue
Organ walls, wide middle tapered ends = fusiform, no striations, involuntary, contraction causes movement
What does epithelial tissue line?
Organs, every body surface & cavity
What are the 3 parts of the thoracic cavity ?
PMP ; pleural, mediastinum, pericard
Secretory vesicles
Package modified proteins, become lysosomes or do exocytosis or merge with p.membrane; insert proteins
Transport vesicles
Package proteins (from RER), pinch off from RER, fuse w cis of Golgi
What is loose connective tissue ?
Packing material in spaces around the organs
What lines the abdopelvic cavity ?
Peritoneum
What surrounds the abdominopelvic cavity ?
Peritoneum
What is the role of fixed macrophages?
Phagocytize foreign material
What is the role of free macrophages?
Phagocytosize foreign material
What are the four components of blood (fluid connective tissue)
Plasma, platelets, leukocytes, erythrocytes
What is simple epithelium ?
Single layer, apical surface, attached to b. Membrane
What is the function of neurons?
Process information and control activities
What is the role of the mitochondria?
Produce ATP (on the cristae; inner membrane) via cellular respiration; provides energy
What is the role of fibroblast?
Produce fibres & ground substance of ECM
What is the role of bone marrow stem cells ?
Produce new blood cells
What is the role of mesenchymal cells?
Produce new connective tissue; divide in response to injury
What is the extracellular matrix?
Produced by cells in specific tissue, contain water, salt, proteins and macromolecules
Serious fluid
Produced by parietal & viseral layer to prevent organ friction
Muscular system
Produced movement ; muscles = move, (heat when contracted)
What is the role of epidermal cells of the skin ?
Protect outer body surface; covering
What are the 3 characteristics of connective tissue?
Protein fibres, different cell types for different types, ground substances and proteins make up ECM
What is the cytoskeleton made of?
Proteins in cytoskeleton, hollow tubes/filaments
Role of desmosomes
Provide support and stability between cells, network of proteins in intercellular space between cells at locations of mechanical stress
What are nucleoli?
RNA/enzymes/proteins, make ribosome components, dark staining
Nervous system
Regulatory & response to stimuli, controls other systems, intelligence/consciousness
What is role the mast cells?
Release histamine & heparin; local inflammation
Oblique plane
Remember vowels; oblique = angle
Role of adhering junctions
Stabilize apical epithelial surface
What are the 5 characteristics of the anatomical position ?
Standing, Arms at side, Looking forward, Feet parallel, palms forward thumbs away TAPS F
What is found in the abdominal cavity?
Stomach & intestines, liver, spleen, kidneys & ureters,
What is the role of resident cells?
Storage, maintain/repair ECM
What is the role of hepatocytes ?
Store carbs/nutrients (as glycogen)
What is the function of adipose connective tissue ?
Store fat, insulate, protection
What is the role of adipocytes?
Store lipid reserves
What is the function of dense regular connective tissue ?
Strength and flexibility (in a single direction)
What is dense connective tissue ?
Strong, mostly collagen, packed tightly
What are the 2 roles of intermediate filaments?
Structural support, stabilize junctions btwn apposed cells
Regional anatomy
Structures within one REGION, ex abdomen, head & neck
Embryology anatomy
Study of DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES prior to birth
Surface anatomy
Study of INTERNAL STRUCTURE as locations relate to surface markings / regions to skin
Developmental anatomy
Study of STRUCTURE CHANGES from conception through anatomy
What is cytology ?
Study of cells, micrometers (10^-5)
Systemic anatomy
Study of structures involved w a SPECIFIC ACTIVITY, ex digestion or repro
Where is the abdo & pelvic separation ?
Superior border of the hip bones
What is the function of connective tissue?
Support, protect and bind organs
What is the function of glial cells?
Support/protect neurons
What is the role of peripheral proteins?
Surface attachment
Where is adipose connective tissue found?
Surrounding kidneys and other organs
Where is areolar connective tissue found?
Surrounding nerves and vessels
What are the role of the rough ER?
Synthesize proteins (via ribosomes) for transport/storage , proteins can be used to create lysosomes or incorporated into p.membrane
Columnar cells
Tall, basal nucleus
What is found in the mediastinum?
The pericardial cavity, trachea/esophagus, thymus
What is the plasma membrane ?
The selective hydrophobic outer barrier that regulates passing of gas, nutrients, waste
What is the integument?
The skin, largest layer
What is found in the vertebral column ?
The spinal cord
What happens when muscle fibres are stimulated?
They shorten, the result of this shortening is movement
What are reticular fibres?
Thinner than collagen, branching & woven, in the stroma of liver, spleen & lymph nodes
What are elastic fibres?
Thinner than collagen, stretch, branch, rejoin; allow stretching and relaxing
What is histology ?
Tissues; microscopic
Medial
Toward midline
Trans vs cis region
Trans = shipping region, cis = reviving region
What are the 6 protein specific functions of the plasma membrane ?
Transduction (signal), transport, recognition (cell-cell), anchor (cytoskeleton), enzyme activity, connect (intercellular)
What is another name for integral proteins?
Transmembrane proteins
What are the 6 functions of connective tissue?
Transport, storage, support, binding, protection = physical & immune
Lymphatic system
Transport/filter lymph via lymph vessels, initiate immune response when needed
What is anatomic position ?
UNIVERSAL position for COMPARING structures
What are microfilaments made of?
actin
What are the three types of loose connective tissue?
adipose, areolar, reticular
what parts of the brain is involved in consciousness ?
cerebral cortex; sensation awareness, voluntary motor control, higher mental functions, reticular formation also has motor and sensory components
what part of the brain is involved in cognition?
cerebrum (association areas), also involved in integration of info btwn sensory input and motor output
Proximal
closest attachment to trunk
what are sympathetic trunk ganglia?
house sympathetic ganglion cell bodies, one per each spinal nerve
what is the role of the cerebral nuclei?
input from cerebral cortex and limbic system, output to primary motor cortex, movement needed for conscious motor activity by adjusting motor commands
what is the adrenal medulla?
internal adrenal gland, releases hormones (epi/norepi) into the bloodstream; promotes fight or flight
where are ganglionic neurons found?
terminal ganglia (close to target organ) or intramural ganglia (wall of target organ)
higher order mental functions
learning, memory, reasoning, consciousness, both conscious and unconscious processing information processing involved
what parts of the brain is involved in memory ?
limbic system, frontal cortex, insula, storing/retriving info requires higher-order mental functions and complex interactions among different regions
Where is the parietal pleura?
lines the thoracic cavity; outrermost
Where is reticular connective tissue found ?
lymph nodes, liver, spleen, bone marrow
What are the 3 components of the cytoskeleton?
microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments
Where is the parietal pericardium ?
outside layer, sac surrounds heart
parasympathetic vs sympathetic
parasympathetic = rest and digest; homeostasis, sympathetic = fight or flight; increased metabolic activity
what is the craniosacral division ?
parasympathetic division, preganglionic neurons in brainstem nuclei and in gray regions of S2-4
neurons of somatic vs autonomic nervous system
somatic = motor neruons innervate skeletal muscle = voluntary movement, single axon extends s. cord to muscle, autonomic = motor neurons innervate smooth, cardiac muscle and glands, can excite or inhibit viscera cells, two neuron chain innervates muscle and glands; pre and postganglionic neurons
What is the mitochondrial matrix?
space inside the inner membrane
What is gross anatomy ?
structures that can be seen with the unaided eye
What is the hypodermis?
subcutaneous layer; not part of the skin, under dermis, mostly adipose
What is the epidermis ?
superficial keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, several layers (strata)
what are the three types of prevetebral ganglia?
superior and inferior mesenteric ganglion and celiac ganglion
Where is the visceral pericardium?
surface of the heart
what is the autonomic plexuses?
sympathetic post and preganglionic and visceral sensory axons
what is the thoracolumbar division?
sympathetic, preganglionic cell bodies btwn T1-T2, travel w somatic motor axons to exit spinal cord and enter anterior roots then T1-L2
Where is dense regular connective tissue found ?
tendons and ligaments
what is a ganglionic neuron?
the second neuron in the pathway
What are the 2 ventral cavities?
thoracic (superior) and abdominopelvic (anterior)
what parts of the brain is involved in language ?
wernickle area = recognize written/spoken language, angular gyrus = processes words so we can speak
