Module 3 Review

Matrilineal

the new king was the son of the old king's sister.

How did the Maya, Aztec, and Inca compare?

Writing:The Maya developed a complex writing system that used numerous symbols called hieroglyphics. A hieroglyph is a picture used to represent an object, idea, or sound. The Aztec also used pictures to represent an object or idea, but used different pictures than the Maya. The Incas spoke Quechua, but did not have a writing system. Instead, they kept records by using a cord with knotted strings called quipu. Religion:The Maya worshipped about 160 gods and goddesses. Each one represented an element of nature, such as the sun, the moon, corn, and rain. The Aztecs worshipped hundreds of gods and goddesses as well, and each one ruled a different part of nature. Both the Maya and the Aztecs offered human sacrifices, but the Aztecs took this practice to an extreme by performing mass human sacrifices. The Maya used a complex religious calendar with 260 days, a solar calendar of 365 days, and other calendars. The Aztecs used similar religious and solar calendars. The ritual and agricultural cycles of the Aztecs and the Mayans finished together every 52 years. The Incas also believed in many gods, but the ruling family prayed mainly to the sun god. Religious calendars were not important to the Incas. Instead, they practiced divination to determine when to do various activities, such as going to war or planting crops. The Incas also performed human sacrifices, but less frequently than the Aztec or Maya cultures. Innovation:The Maya, Aztec, and Inca all did ambitious public works projects, which included constructing roads, buildings, and canals. However, each culture is noted for different projects. For example, the Maya carved their records on huge stone monuments called stelae. These records included important dates and events in the lives of their rulers. By displaying their records in this way, the Maya made them available to the public and emphasized their importance. The Aztecs needed more land for farming. They solved this problem by building chinampas -fields built up above the surface of a lake. The Aztecs separated the fields with canals and planted trees on the chinampas. The trees' roots pierced the lakebed, thereby anchoring the fields. The Inca constructed a complex road system, which extended about 14,000 miles. Much of this system covered rugged mountainous terrain and, if possible, was constructed near water sources. The Inca paved the roads with stones and used suspension bridges to span rivers. This system greatly improved communication and the movement of troops, allowing them to use their military effectively. Economics:The economics of the Maya, Aztec, and Inca centered on agriculture with corn being the main crop. In swampy areas, the Maya used canals to drain land and then used the unearthed soil to build raised fields. To grow crops in rugged terrain, the Incas cut terraces into hillsides, which lessened erosion. Each culture had extensive trade networks that extended into the surrounding areas. Politics:The Mayan region was divided into several independent city-states, some of which became powerful. A king ruled each city-state and served as the head of the government, the military, and the religion. Each king had a court of followers and was advised by a council. To avoid war, kings often acted as diplomats as they formed alliances with other city-states. However, diplomacy often failed, and as a result, war between city-states was common. The city-state structure of the Maya prevented them from uniting into an empire. In contrast, the Aztec and the Inca each succeeded in forming large empires. A single leader ruled each of these realms with the support of an advisory council. As the Aztec conquered more and more territory, they found it necessary to divide their empire into provinces. Each province had a capital and was ruled by a governor who collected taxes. The Inca formed a complex bureaucracy that included the emperor and four officials who oversaw the four main political districts. Within each district were governors and many lower officials. The Incan government also enforced a system called mita. According to this system, a commoner could be called on to construct public works, serve as a warrior in the army, or farm fields for an aristocrat. When a commoner was summoned for service, the government oversaw the care of their family and land.

Animists

the belief in the existence of individual spirits that inhabit natural objects and phenomena

What were the significant events and who were the significant people of ancient and medieval Sub-Saharan Africa?

1st Century:The Somali peoples of Central Africa migrate to the Indian Coast. Then, over several centuries, they move north to the Horn of Africa. Along the way, they encounter Arab and Persian merchants and adopt Islam. 320 CE:King Ezana of Axum becomes the first Christian African king. He converts, following contact with Byzantine missionaries. 6th Century:Axum extends its power west into Nubia, along the Nile River, as well as east and south along the coast into modern Ethiopia and across the Red Sea into the Arabian Peninsula. 8th Century:Arab Muslims retake Arabia and push into Africa, conquering Axum. The people of Axum migrate south into what would become Ethiopia and help build a new kingdom there. Meanwhile, Arab traders continued to push south along the Red Sea and the Indian Coast 10th Century:The Tutsi people, pastoralists and iron workers, begin migrating south into Central Africa. They conquer the Bantu inhabitants and establish new kingdoms. Meanwhile, Bantu peoples from the interior push farther east and settle along the coast. Arab merchants, too, continue to found Swahili Coast city-states such as Kilwa and Mombasa, and small numbers of Persians and Indians settle there, as well. They blend with African culture to produce Swahili civilization. 11th Century:Arab traders found Mombasa in what is now Kenya. This coastal city would become the most prosperous trade city of the Swahili Coast. It would become a fiercely contested prize among Africans, Arabs, Persians, and Portuguese. 1270 CE (270 CE?):Yekuno Amlak, possibly a descendent of the Axum people, founds the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia. His grandson Amda Seyon would extend the borders of Ethiopia and would demand greater rights for Christians in neighboring Muslim kingdoms such as Egypt. 14th Century:The ruler of the Bantu-speaking Ganda people, who lived along Lake Victoria, centralizes power and begins the kingdom of Buganda. 15th Century:Great Zimbabwe and Kilwa both go into decline as the gold trade shifts to Mutapa. This trade also draws the Portuguese, who expand trade not only in gold, but also in African slaves. Explorer Vasco de Gama lands in Mombasa in 1498. Around this time, the pastoral peoples of the Lower Nile River Valley, including the Maasai, begin migrating south to Central Africa. Related peoples known as the Luo also move south and establish the kingdom of Bunyoro-Kitara along Lake Albert. Meanwhile, the warrior Kongolo was uniting territories to the south to form the kingdom of Lunda, making Mwibele its capital.

Axum

Ruled area known today as Ethiopia Established 1st century CE Fueled by trade, became the wealthiest, most influential market city on the Ethiopian coast Extended power by conquering neighboring lands Utilized trade routed throughout Africa, the Mediterranean, and Asia Traded ivory, gold, glass, and agricultural and metal goods Christianity brought in during the 4th century CE by missionaries 320 CE, King Ezan becomes first known Christian king in Africa Persian dominance in Arabia cut off Axum's power, resulting in its decline in the 7th century CE

quipu

an ancient Inca device for recording information, consisting of variously colored threads knotted in different ways.

Soninke

people who founded Ghana

Meroe

Ancient city settled on the Nile in modern-day Sudan Kush broke free of Egyptian rule, c.750 BCE, and moved capital to Meroe, c. 590 BCE Dependent on farming and iron-making Thrived through trade Expanded trade to include Greek, Roman, Arab, and Indian merchants Flourished for several hundred years Buried kings and queens in pyramids, like the Egyptians 4th century CE, Axum conquered Meroe

Great Zimbabwe

Bantu migration to the southeastern hills of modern-day Zimbabwe Became known for stone architecture and pottery between the 11th and 15th centuries CE Prospered through the trade of gold, copper, and iron Skilled craftsmen and builders Cattle herding and agriculture also contributed to the power Declined and largely abandoned in the late 15th century CE

What factors allowed Ghana to gain military advantages within the region?

But why didn't the kingdoms conquer and control the areas to the south? One reason was the lush forests in the south. The armies of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai were successful because they rode horses into battle, but armies of horses would not be successful in a forest.

How did the early Andean civilizations compare, and where were they located?

Chavin:The Chavín culture thrived in the area of modern-day Peru for over a thousand years between 900-200 BCE. While the culture dominated much of the coast of central Peru, the influence of this culture was felt much further north and south along the coast. Much of what remains of the Chavín culture is preserved at ChavÍn de Huantar. Now merely an archaeological site, the stone ruins built into the mountain demonstrate the high level of organization this culture once had. The Chavín were the first advanced society in the Andean highlands area of modern Peru. From 900 to 200 BCE, the Chavín flourished. The Chavín brought the first political unification to the region, uniting some local groups with a common religion and culture. The Chavín civilization receives its modern name from their most important surviving settlement, at Chavín de Huántar. The temple ruins at Chavín de Huántar include many common Chavínmotifs, such as people, birds, cats, crocodiles, and serpents. The temple shows that the Chavín understood drainage. To prevent the temple from flooding during the highlands' rainy season, it was built with complex drains that kept the temple dry. Like the Olmec, the Chavín influenced groups all across the region. Their characteristic art and engineering innovations can be found in distant settlements. Nazca:The Nazca were also from what is now modern-day Peru. However, this culture did not emerge until after the ChavÍn had mostly disappeared. The Nazca dominated a smaller area of southern coastal Peru between 200 BCE to 600 CE. While the Chavín dominated the highlands of Peru, the Nazca were developed in Andean valleys. From 200 BCE to 600 CE, the Nazca produced fine art—and a great mystery. Nazca pottery is very recognizable and attractive. It is polychrome, meaning that one piece is decorated with several different colors. Although the images are of people and animals, they are highly stylized and angular. Designs are bold and modern-looking.Perhaps the most famous art of this culture is the Nazca lines. These are line drawings created out of stone that are so massive they can only be seen from the air. Plants and animals, hundreds of feet long, are drawn into the ground. No one knows what purpose these lines served, if any. Some think that the lines were a calendar system or were used for astronomy. Others think that ceremonies were conducted around the drawings. The lines will probably remain a mystery forever. Moche:A contemporary culture of the Nazca was the Moche. The Moche thrived in northern coastal Peru near the border with Ecuador between 400 BCE to 800 CE. Like the ChavÍn culture, much of what is known about the Moche comes from archaeology. Of the many remaining ruins, the ruins at Moche Valley are some of the best known. The site is the home of the Moche Temple of the Moon and the Temple of the Sun. The area surrounding the temples appears to have been the site of a large Moche city. The third great early civilization of Peru was the Moche, who flourished from 400 BCE to 800 CE. We do not know a lot about the Moche political structure. It is possible they were a unified empire, or perhaps they were a handful of independent groups who shared an elite class. Most of the surviving artifacts of the Moche culture are from this elite class, who were significantly taller than average. This indicates that they were much better fed than the average Moche. The culture's best-known remains are the ruins at the Moche Valley in northern Peru. It is from these ruins that the civilization receives its modern name. The site includes two large ceremonial structures, known now as the Temple of the Sun and the Temple of the Moon. But there is also evidence that the site was lived in by many people, indicating that it was a city, as well as a temple complex. The Moche had a complex system of irrigation, which allowed them to grow enough beans, maize, and other crops to feed an urban population. Their metalworking and pottery are impressive and are decorated with realistic images from daily life. Most of what we know about Moche life comes from these images. Some of them are mundane, showing people eating and sleeping. Others are a bit more dramatic. Some Moche pottery shows people ritually consuming the blood of sacrificed prisoners. Why the Moche civilization declined is another mystery. Earthquake, drought, or changing weather patterns might have contributed to the end of this society. Since there is no record of their departure from Moche Valley, we can only guess.

What is the Beringian Theory?

Due to the glacial build-up of various ice ages, a land bridge called Beringia appeared between what is now Siberia and Alaska. For at least five thousand years, grasslands connected the two continents. People were able to cross the grasslands into North America. Once there, they slowly migrated south. As the planet warmed, the water levels rose. Beringia was submerged. Today, a body of water called the Bering Strait separates Siberia and Alaska

What was the impact of Moctezuma I on the Aztecs?

Expansion of Empire: he conquered more territory to gain sacrificial victims.Even so, these wars of conquest failed to provide enough human sacrifices, and because of this, Montezuma formed a Triple Alliance with cities in the Valley of Puebla-Tlascala. Together, they fought wars to gain prisoners for sacrifice. However, the Aztecs quickly came to dominate this alliance, and they became the most powerful tribe in the region. Moctezuma expanded the limits of the Aztec Empire. By expanding the boundaries of the empire, his people gained access to many goods, such as fruits, cocoa, and seashells. Religion:Soon after he assumed the throne, the Aztecs were hit with a series of disasters, namely a plague of locusts, a flood, and a harsh frost. As a result, a terrible famine devastated the empire, killing thousands of people. The Aztecs performed human sacrifices to their god Huitzilopochtili because they believed he desired human blood. They further believed this god caused the disasters because he had not received enough blood. In order to appease him, Moctezuma increased the number of human sacrifices. Innovation:In addition, Moctezuma realized that his government failed to help the Aztecs during the famine. To correct this problem, he decided to reorganize the government. By doing this, he gave himself more power to deal with future disasters. In order to prevent flooding, he built a ten-mile dam around Tenochtitlan. In addition, he sponsored the construction of an aqueduct, which provided a constant supply of fresh water to the city of Tenochtitlan

What was the contribution of Huayna Capac on the Inca?

Expansion of Empire: launched campaigns against tribes to the east and north of the empire. However, these tribes proved to be fierce fighters, and once conquered, often rebelled. Huayna Capac significantly extended the Inca Empire to the south, into what is now Argentina and Chile. Huayna Capac also fought to gain territories north of his empire in what is now Ecuador.During this time, the empire covered a vast territory, including parts of present-day Colombia, Peru, Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, and Ecuador. Religion:During his reign, Huayna heard about bearded men with pale skin who resembled the Incan god Viracocha and took this news as a bad omen. Soon after this, he and many of his subjects saw an eagle being killed by six hawks during a festival. Huayna took this as another bad omen that predicted the destruction of the empire. Before long, a horrible disease struck the Incas and killed thousands of people, including Huayna. This disease was most likely smallpox brought by the newly arrived Spanish. Before Huayna's death, the ruler divided the empire between his two sons. This division weakened the Inca Empire, which eventually fell to the Spanish. Innovation:Huayna decided to build a second Incan capital called Tumibamda, which is located in present-day Ecuador. In this city, he constructed an opulent palace. Tumibamda was constructed on a high elevation near cliffs.In order to govern the vast territories effectively, the empire was divided into four political districts.

What was the impact of Pacal on the Maya?

Expansion of Empire:Pacal ruled for about 67 years, during which he expanded Palenque's power, conquering western Maya states. Religion:Pacal used history and religion to make his claim to the throne. Pacal pointed out that Ac Kan had succeeded his mother as ruler, thereby establishing a precedent for the rule to pass through a female. He tried to justify the way he gained the throne by connecting his mother with the Divine Mother and the mythological events that happened during the creation of the world. Innovation: Pacal started a program that built many great buildings around the capital. Every new building displayed texts stating Pacal's royal ancestry, as well as his image. Inherited throne through female (his mother)

How did trade contribute to the rise of the Sudanic States?

In about 300 CE, camels were becoming more common in the Sahara. Camels' ability to survive in the desert enabled increasing numbers of traders to travel across the dry region. They gathered in large camel caravans and traveled along established trade routes. Most of these trans-Saharan trade routes began or ended in the area that became the core of the kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai.The merchants in the western Sahel could sell the traders the goods, food, and water that the travelers needed to continue. These things were taxed by the kings in the area. The people of the western Sahel were the middlemen who controlled the trade. Trade provided goods from south of the Sahara to the people of North Africa, the Mediterranean, and, later, Europe. These goods from the south included gold, ivory, kola nuts and slaves. For this reason, modern Ghana was formerly known as the Gold Coast, while the modern country of Côte d'Ivoire preserves its heritage as the Ivory Coast. The people of the south traded for salt, silk, spices, coffee, and other goods from the north. The more people on both sides of the trade were introduced to new goods, the more they wanted. And the middlemen certainly profited. It was only to be expected that a king in this situation would take advantage of the opportunity to expand his territory as much as possible. The larger an empire became, the more land and resources a king controlled. More land would also provide more slaves, more people available to serve in the army, more admiration from conquered kings, and more trade routes to tax.

Monte Alban

In the 700s BCE, the Zapotec began constructing a city located at Monte Albán. This city included pyramids, elaborate tombs, and even a ball field. It is likely that the inhabitants of this city had a written calendar and language, as well. The settlement at Monte Albán flourished primarily from 300 to 900 CE. During that time, it was the largest and most important center in Mesoamerica. In the last centuries before the Spanish conquest, the settlement became less important and was inhabited by the Mixtec, whose culture merged with that of the Zapotec.

Who settled the lands of East, Central, and South Africa?

Northern and Eastern Migrations:Around 2000 BCE, people of the upper Nile area and Southwest Asia migrated along the coast of the Red Sea and settled the lands known as the Horn of Africa. They blended a pastoral and an agricultural lifestyle. Some farmed, and others herded livestock. Located near the great civilizations of North Africa and Southwest Asia, these people also became traders. Ancient Greeks and Egyptians referred to this area as Punt. Around 700 BCE, one group of people emerged as dominant in the region. They established the D'mt (pronounced Da'maat) kingdom. This kingdom began to trade with interior African peoples, as well as with merchants of the Arabian Peninsula. By about 300 BCE, D'mt had lost control over port cities that had begun to amass their own wealth and power. Bantu Migrations:Also around 2000 BCE, an even larger migration got under way-that of the Bantu-speaking peoples based in the forested lands near the Niger and Benue rivers. The first wave of the Bantu migrations would occur over the course of 2,000 years. The Bantu, who were primarily farmers, spread south and east, blending with local hunter-gatherers who inhabited the areas that they settled. Historians debate the causes of the Bantu migrations, but many attribute the movement to overpopulation. Too many people in the lands of the Niger and Benue river valleys may have caused some to seek out new opportunities-and resources-elsewhere. As the Bantu peoples spread, they carried farming with them. Over time, the descendants of the first wave of migrants would push farther south, spreading their language and culture throughout the region. In time, as more people settled along the coast, they, too, would become traders.

How did the early Mesoamerican civilizations compare, and where were they located?

Olmec:flourished in southern Mexico from 1200 to 400 BCE. The Olmec came and went before the Aztecs even existed. The spread of their artifacts around the region shows that the Olmec had a great deal of influence on neighboring and later cultures.n the 20th century, archaeologists began finding stones and objects with engravedglyphs. These symbols may have been the Olmec writing system. These carvings provide us with new information about the Olmec. For example, at least 10 separate gods were found in the carvings, which led archaeologists to the conclusion that the Olmec were a polytheistic society, meaning they worshipped many gods. The people who we call "Olmec" did not use that name for themselves. Olmec is a modernized version of Olmecatl, which is an Aztec word meaning "rubber people." The Aztecs gave them this name because the Olmec used latex from rubber trees to create rubber. This shows that the Olmec were technologically advanced. The most recognizable artifacts of the Olmec civilization are their massive, carved stone heads. It is believed that they are portraits of Olmec rulers. The heads can be found at San Lorenzo, the oldest known Olmec settlement. The massive monuments at this and other Olmec sites show us that the Olmec had a complex society and were building towns before the rest of Mesoamerican civilization became sophisticated. Today, a series of tombs, pavements, and monuments are all that remain of the city that was built in alignment with a constellation or star. The design and layout of La Venta tells us that the Olmec, like the great Mesoamerican civilizations that came after them, had an interest in and knowledge of astronomy. We also know that the Olmec had a vast trading network around the region. From their monuments and art, we know their society was complex. The Olmec society thrived until 400 BCE, after which the Olmec no longer dominated the region. Zapotec:After the decline of the Olmec people, other civilizations vied for control of the region. One particularly well-known group is theZapotec, who first developed their society in what is now the state of Oaxaca in southern Mexico. Like their contemporaries, the Mixtec (Mixteca) and the Mayans, the Zapotec were likely influenced by the Olmec.Thousands of Zapotec still live in Oaxaca. Most are farmers or craftsmen, and they speak several dialects of Zapotec. Although the Olmec people did not survive to modernity, the effects of their culture survive in modern Zapotec people. Since the Spanish conquest, the Zapotec have practiced Roman Catholicism, but their original myths and traditions survive as well.

Why was Timbuktu an important city?

One of the great cities in the Mali Empire was Timbuktu. The name has come to mean "the ends of the earth" or "the farthest away a person could ever get." A city with an amazing history, Timbuktu was a market city and important in the trans-Saharan trade. But even more importantly, it was a center of learning. After the Great Mosque was built in Timbuktu, many schools that taught the Quran opened, and the city became a center for learning. Ultimately, scholars from all over the Muslim world came to Timbuktu to study. Their studies were not limited to Islam, as they are also credited with advancements in medicine and mathematics. Later, great histories of the Songhai people were written by the scholars at Timbuktu.

How do the empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai compare?

Rise: Ghana:The legend of the origin of the Soninke people starts with a man named Dinga who came from the Middle East. He had many sons as he traveled but finally settled down near the Niger River and married the daughters of the chief genie in the area. Dinga wanted to hand over power to his oldest son Khine, but his younger son, Diabe Cisse, tricked his father and attained the power to rule instead. Diabe Cisse chose Kumbi Saleh to be the capitol of his kingdom. Mali:The kingdom of Mali started farther east and farther south than the kingdom of Ghana, closer to the border between present-day Mali and Guinea. The Mali kingdom soon grew by conquering areas to the west and north. Ultimately, the Mali Empire controlled 400 cities, towns, villages, and an estimated 20 million people, which today would equate to the population in all of Australia. Songhai:The Songhai came to control much of what had been the Mali Empire, but not all of it. In the end, though, the Songhai Empire was the largest of the three West African empires that even controlled the salt mines at Taghaza in the Sahara Desert. Trade goods/natural resources: Ghana:The Ghana Empire relied heavily on trade of gold and salt. They traded their large amounts of gold in return for salt with Muslim traders. At the center of the trans-Saharan trade routes, Ghana also grew rich by taxing the traders, who then introduced Ghana to Islam. Mali:reestablished the gold and salt trade that had declined after the fall of Ghana Social structure:Mali:The Dyula were a local merchant class who were all Muslims. There were Dyula merchants during the Ghana Empire, but they rose to their height during the Mali Empire.Most of the kings of Mali were also Muslims,Like the Ghana kingdom, succession among the early Malinke also seems to have gone to the son of a sister of a king, at least some of the time. At other times, it seems an outsider gained the throne. We know this because one of Mali's greatest kings, Sakura, was not a member of the royal family when he rose to power. Rather, he was a military leader. Sakura expanded the empire into the land of the Songhai and their kingdom of Gao. Later kings followed the patrilineal tradition, where the eldest son succeeds the father. Since there seems to have been no strict tradition, there were many fights over succession. This led to civil wars and was a large part of the reason why the Mali Empire declined. Songhai:Many of the Songhai people, even at the height of the empire, practiced both Islam and traditional spiritual beliefs. The kings, however, were Muslims. Songhai society was male dominated and patrilineal. It was also a hierarchical society. Decline/fall: Ghana:Climate change and struggles with Berber groups in the Sahara led to the downfall of the Ghanaian kingdom. The Sahara was moving southward, and Kumbi Saleh was no longer a good endpoint for the trans-Saharan trade. Smaller kingdoms to the south, where the land was greener and more productive, became more powerful. Songhai:Like the Mali Empire, the Songhai Empire also suffered from many battles over succession. In Songhai, the brothers of the king often tried to depose him; in turn, some kings tried to protect themselves by killing all their brothers. The last great battle for succession occurred when a great army general challenged a new king. Many men were killed in the battle for control of the country and the Songhai army was weakened. When troops from Morocco invaded to seize control of and revive the trans-Saharan trade in gold, the Songhai Empire could not win and was conquered, making this the last of the great West African empires.

What was Mayan society like?

Rise:At around 250 CE, an Olmec-influenced society in Mesoamerica began to rise in prominence and power. From 250 to 900 CE, a span called the Mayan Classic Period, the Mayan civilization stretched across southern Mexico, Guatemala, and northern Belize. More than 20 elaborate cities were home to 5,000 to 50,000 people, and at the empire's height the Mayans may have numbered up to two million. Accomplishments/Innovations:Their cities included temples, monuments, pyramids, ball fields, plazas, and palaces. Structures were mostly cut from large stone. This stone was then decorated with carved glyphs, or characters representing the Mayan language. Used astronomy to chart the movements of Venus and the moon, and to devise a complex calendar based on a solar year of 365 days. Developed an advanced, logical math system formed by symbols representing circles and lines, which meant that a person at a marketplace could easily grab some sticks and rocks to post prices. Built great cities with pyramids, temples, palaces, and government structures. Social Structure:Priests acted as mediators for the Maya and as practitioners of ritual sacrifice to appease the gods and keep their world in balance. Religion:Polytheistic, religious rituals were a major focus of Mayan life. Some involved torture, blood-letting, and human sacrifice. Fall:Many of the greatest Mayan cities were abandoned by the ninth century as a result of drought, overpopulation, and warfare.

What was Aztec society like?

Rise:At the beginning of the 16th century, the Aztecs were the dominant empire in Mesoamerica. Their origins are unclear, but according to Aztec myth, they were previously hunter-gatherers in northern Mexico. By the 14th century CE, they had settled on the islands of Lake Texcoco, founding the great city Tenochtitlán in 1325 CE. In the next century, the ruler Itzcóatl formed alliances with neighboring groups and, through trade and war, quickly established a strong and broad empire. By the 16th century CE, this empire included 400 to 500 small states and nearly six million people. Accomplishments/Innovations:Developed chinampa, a farming process through which the Aztecs converted most of the lakes into farmland.Although many people were farmers in rural areas, cities and villages allowed for craft specialization. Craft and merchant guilds were common and complex Social Structure:Aztec social structure was divided by social class, with a substantially different diet, dress, and lifestyle for each class. An individual could rise in social class through personal success. Indentured servants and slaves were at the bottom of the social order. Religion:Polytheistic; worship occurred both at small altars in the home and in elaborate ceremonies and festivals. Some involved blood-letting and human sacrifice. Fall:In 1519 CE, the growth of this flourishing empire was abruptly cut short by the arrival of the Spanish invaders. The conquistador Hernán Cortés took the ninth Aztec emperor Moctezuma II and threw him in prison, where he died. The Spanish battled for control over Tenochtitlan, and within one year following the death of Moctezuma II, the great Aztec empire had fallen.The empire ended when Spanish conquistadors arrived in Mesoamerica.

What was Incan society like?

Rise:The Incas began as a small group not very different from other groups within the Andean region. They established their capital at Cuzco in Peru in the 12th century CE. In the 14th century CE, they began expanding by conquering neighboring groups. Accomplishments/Innovations:The Incas built on the engineering accomplishments of the mother cultures that preceded them in the Andes region.One such achievement is the city of Machu Picchu. Tucked high in the Peruvian Andes, the sheer existence of this city is a remarkable feat of engineering. Yet it was not unusual for Incan cities.Developed an extensive system of roads and suspension bridges that connected the empire. Used a relay system of runners to bring messages encoded on knotted lengths of string, called quipu, between parts of the empire. Social Structure:In order to control their growing empire and prevent rebellion, ethnic groups were separated. Large populations were forced to move to a different ethnic group's area. From conquered populations, the Incas demanded a tax of labor. This tax could be paid with military service, construction work, or agriculture work. It was this organized and intensive system of labor that allowed the Incas to complete massive construction projects. Had strict social classes. At the top of the social structure was the emperor, also considered a god, known as the Sapa Inca. At the bottom were farmers. Members of the elite wore tunics with toquapus, decorative symbols of authority. The lower classes and conquered peoples paid taxes, often in the form of physical labor to build the roads, bridges, and structures. Religion: polytheistic involving nature gods and human sacrifice Fall: when spaniards conquered them

How has Africa's physical geography impacted its people and history?

Sahara:The Sahara Desert is the largest in the world. The Sahara is also one of the hottest and driest deserts, reaching temperatures of 136 degrees Fahrenheit. The Sahara Desert receives very little rain; some years it does not receive rain at all.Because the Sahara Desert separates North Africa from the rest of the continent, it developed differently. The languages, cultures, and ethnicities of North Africa are more closely linked to Arabia and the Mediterranean than to the rest of Africa. Sahel:The Sahel, which means "shore" in Arabic, consists of desert and semi-arid land. We typically do not think of a shore as being in an area without water; however, in this case it refers to the area where the sand dunes end and vegetation begins.Temperatures are between 77 and 86 degrees Fahrenheit throughout the year. Over 50 million people live in Sahel. A major source of income for the people of Sahel is farming. Many crops can grow in the semi-arid areas of the land, including chickpeas, pharsalus beans, and green grams. Unlike the Sahara, some animals can survive here, including elephants, giraffes, and certain cattle. Inland Delta: The area in Mali just before the Niger River bends is called the Inland Delta, an area of swamps and marshes surrounded by desert. In the past, the Niger River would flood the Inland Delta and leave behind rich silt, providing fishing, water to grow crops, and land for animals to graze, much like the Nile in Egypt. Even today, as the Sahara grows and the region becomes drier, the Inland Delta remains wet and fertile. Niger River: The Niger starts in present-day Guinea and flows northeast into Mali, where it bends and begins to flow southwest through Niger and Nigeria, where it empties into the Atlantic Ocean.

What were the contributions of each leader to his empire?

Sundiata Keita:organized many of the Mandé chiefs to fight a rival, the Soso kingdom. Sundiata won, and the Mali Empire began. Sundiata recaptured the gold-producing areas of West Africa and reestablished the gold and salt trade that had declined after the fall of Ghana. Mansa Musa:Mansa Musa. In 1324, he left on his pilgrimage, bringing thousands of officials, slaves, and more than 80 camels with sacks of gold with him. By the time Mansa Musa completed his pilgrimage, the wealth of his empire was well known, boosting trade, bringing even more wealth to its cities, and cementing Musa's power in the region. Mansa Musa brought back an Arab architect, Abu Ishaq al-Sahili, who changed the way the people of Mali built their homes. Al-Sahili built Mansa Musa a rectangular home, which had a domed roof. Instead of mud brick, the palace was covered in plaster and painted with beautiful designs. Today, many homes in the region are still built and decorated this way! Historians think that al-Sahili might also have built the Great Mosque in Timbuktu. Sunni Ali:Ninety years after the successful rebellion against Mali, Sunni Ali led the Songhai in conquering the cities of Mema and Timbuktu. Later he added more territory to the empire. founder of the Songhai empire, led the Songhai in conquering the cities of Mema and Timbuktu

What factors contributed to the rise and fall of kingdoms and empires in East, Central, and South Africa?

These empires, like those of North and West Africa, thrived in large part through trade—with one another and with foreign merchants. However, non-African merchants and explorers such as the Arabs brought more than trade goods with them. In time, contact with Europeans anxious to find new sources of wealth would lead to the collapse of many African kingdoms and the colonization and enslavement of their peoples.

Griots

a West African word for a person who plays music and tells the legends, myths, and stories of a people

codices

a paper book from Mayan or other ancient American civilizations; plural codices

Triple Alliance

agreement formed between the Aztecs and the cities in the Valley of Puebla-Tlascala to fight wars and gain prisoners for human sacrifice.

What processes are used to reconstruct history when written history is missing or limited?

archaeology

Where were the Aztec, Maya, and Inca civilizations located?

central america and andes

mother culture

cultures that had a direct influence on later civilizations in the region

chinampas

fields built up above the surface of a lake used by the Aztec for farming