Motivations and Goals
Define extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
Cognitive dissonance counter evidence
may be dispassionate cognitive process (Bem, 1972); though negative affect is reported - Only 'important' inconsistencies cause dissonance
How do needs interact with social context according to SDT?
needs facilitate natural growth processes: intrinsic motivation behaviour, integration of extrinsic motivations OR Reduced motivation, performance and well being. If needs not met then ill health and darker sides of human nature, e.g. psychpathology, prejudice and aggression.
Define need
personal forces that narrow down classes of incentives e.g. need for social power
Define biological needs
serve the evolutionary purpose of 'survival' and are powerful influence on motivation (food, sex, warmth).
Define self-serving attribution bias
tendency to attribute positive events to their own character but attribute negative events to external factors.
Define motivation
the 'driving force' behind volitional behaviour and determines the strength ; direction ; persistence of behaviour (Geen, 1995)
How are values grounded in 1 or more of the 3 universal requirements of human existence?
values grounded in either needs of individuals as biological organisms, requisites of coordinated social interaction, and survival and welfare needs of groups.
Explain Oettingen (2000) fantasy realisation theory
when people contrast their fantasies about a desired future with reflections on present reality, a necessity to act is induced that leads to the activation and use of relevant expectations.
define overjustification effect
when some extrinsic reward leads to a reduction in a person's intrinsic motivation e.g. you were originally intrinsically motivated but when paid a salary (an extrinsic reward), your intrinsic motivation starts to decline.
Define goal
lower order aims that serve incentives e.g. get a part time job
Cue value
makes competence information salient ¡E.g. You got that prize because you're so good at that! Most people didn't manage that!
Describe Maslow's (1954) hierarchy of needs
*Transcendent* supporting others 1. Self-actualisation (full potential, creative activities) *Cognitive/Aesthetic * 2. Esteem (accomplished) 3. Love/belonging (friends/intimacy) 4. Safety 5. Physiological (food/water/rest)
What were Schwartzs (1992) findings for his theory of basic human values?
- 2 subsets: Growth vs Protection Values - 4 higher order values: Openness to Change, Self-transcenence; Self-enhancement; Conservation - Ten values: - 19 finer grained values
Explain cognitive dissonance
(Festinger, 1957) Forced compliance Perform an action that goes against beliefs, and if no external justification (payment), end up changing beliefs
Explain the relationship between values
- Actions in pursuit of values can be compatible or may conflict with the pursuit of other values e.g. Actions that express obedience may conflict with actions intended to express independence be compatible with actions promoting social order - Adjacent value types are assumed to be most compatible; increasing distance indicates decreasing compatibility and greater conflict
What are we like when we're accountable?
- Consider more alternatives - Spend more effort integrating factors - Less likely to succumb to biases - Make better quality judgements - However also : - Give too much weight to irrelevant information - Can bias beliefs towards those they are accountable to
According to Cogntivie evaluation theory, how is intrinsic motivation influenced?
- If rewards are considered the only reason for the behaviour, then intrinsic motivation will be low, but rewards could also be perceived as an indicator of competence in which case that reinforces the psychological need for competence and intrinsic motivation is reinforced.
When does self affirmation not show up?
- People given chance to examine information that affirmed or didn't recent decision (e.g. car purchase) - looked more to threatening info (Freedman & Sears, 1965)
Explain Schwartz (1992) analysis of values
- Tested universality of values through self report using cross sectional surveys - Samples drawn from 20 countries within every inhabited continent - Includes members of 8 religions and athiests; primarily teachers & undergraduates Analysed using Smallest Space Analysis (SSA); represents values as points in space so distances between points reflect the empirical relations between importance ratings
Describe implemental mindset
- focus on relevant information (less distracted) - process desirability information in a biased manner (less doubts) - process feasibility information in a biased manner (more optimisitc)
Explain (Brandstatter et al. (2001) study with heroin addicts
41 heroin addicts; 20 experiencing withdrawal, 21 no withdrawal All unemployed, and agreed to compose a cv ¡half randomly assigned to make an irrelevant implementation intention regarding having lunch half assigned to make a relevant implementation intention: where they would compose it, when, how to start Relevant imp group significantly more likely to hand in a cv the next day; for both those in withdrawal and those not in it => helpful even under high cognitive load
Explain results from Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett (1973) study with nursery children and reward
Average quality ratings for pictures also sig lower in the expected award group compared to unexpected and no- aware groups => Overjustification effect (indicates cause of behaviour is external)
How is the overjustification effect similar to the undermining effect
Both indicate - Salient rewards undermine IM - Both indicate when positive competence info provided, less likely to undermine IM Undermining effect additionally focus on perception of being controlled (diminished autonomy). For overjustification effect, rewards are considered in advance - activity undertaken to obtain goal
Which needs are deficiency needs?
Bottom 4, esteem, love, safety, physiological Deficiency needs are basic needs arising from being deprived of something.
Explain Self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987)
Compare actual self to 'ideal' or 'ought' self Ideal self - personal desires for the self; Primarily promotion focused (approaching the ideal); Resulting in sadness or happiness Ought self - defined by duty, responsibility to others; Implies acting to avoid a punishment (e.g. disapproval); Primarily prevention focused (avoiding negative judgement); Resulting in anxiety/guilt or relief
Explain implementation intentions
Delegate control of behaviour to the environment Action representation activated by cues - automate behaviour Reduce problems of: initiaing goal directed behaviour but also stabilising goal striving (resisting distractions); shielding goal striving from obstacles Meta-analysis (Gollwitzer and Sheeran, 2006) indicates a medium to large effect size (d = 0.65)
What are the 3 motives for social judgement? (Dunning, 2001)
Desire for knowledge Desire for coherence Affirmation of competence
Explain Lepper, Greene, and Nisbett (1973) study with nursery children and reward
Field study with 3-5 yr old nursery children 51 Ps who showed intrinsic interest in target activity randomly allocated to 1 of 3 conditions: 1. Expected reward condition: group asked to draw pictures and rewards promised for the best drawing 2. Non-rewarded condition: group drew pictures, without the promise of a reward 3. Unexpected reward condition: group drew pictures and given a surprise reward
Explain Bargh (1990) automotive theory
Goals can become activated without awareness: mental links form between situations and goals often pursued; situation subsequently activates goal; requires an initial reflective goal that is repeated over time
Explain Pittman & Pittman, 1980 study with help training
High, low or no helplessness training - Low helplessness group made more accurate attributions about essay writing causes than control group. Inferred weaker attitudes when people wrote essays for pay than those who wrote essays privately (more accurate); more hostile and anxious. - Performance declined in high helplessness group; more depressed and anxious
What enhances curiosity?
Issues that are familiar, in which we have some expertise When new information violates expectations. When consequences for themselves e.g. when accountable for behaviour
How does knowledge affect our need for control?
Knowledge enables prediction and control Questioning people's control subsequently makes them more competent in social cognitive tasks
Describe implicit motives
Natural incentives that do not require awareness. Does not require an intention to be formed - biologically based
Explain Deci (1971) study in puzzles and rewards
Paid students spent more time solving puzzles But when reward removed, spent less time - Intrinsic motivation may be undermined if they are induced to engage as a means to an extrinsic goal. - Rewarding people for an interesting activity --> attribute their behaviour to the extrinsic reward rather than to intrinsic interest. => Undermining effect
Explain Loewenstein et al., 1992 study on curiosity
Participants shown photographs of individuals body parts (Loewenstein et al., 1992) - self reported curiousity - given choice of $0.50 bonus payment or seeing whole photograph Curiousity increased with the number of body parts viewed; Positive relationship between feelings of knowing and curiosity
Define effort justification
Participants value things they work hard for (hazing)
Describe the model of action phases (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987)
Predecisional - Deliberating goals and choosing between them Preactional - Planning goal directed actions and getting started Actional - Successfully achieving the goal Postactional Evaluating the outcomea
Explain Self-regulation (Carver & Scheier, 1981)
Purposeful, self corrective, adjustments to pursue personal goals. Possible future self (goal): Unrealised future potential; what you might be; gives us direction and purpose Goals as reference values for feedback purposes
Which needs are being/growth needs?
Self-actualisation (2% make it to the top Maslow estimates). a person has to fulfill her deficiency needs before she can move on to fulfilling growth needs.
Explain Cognitive Evaluation Theory (sub theory to SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 1985)
This theory examines the effects of rewards, feedback and other external events on intrinsic motivation. Underlying intrinsic motivation are primarily the innate psychological needs - competence and autonomy. Effects of external events will depend on functional significance for perceived autonomy & perceived competence.
Explain Values (Schwartz, 1992)
Trans-situational goals which serve as guiding principles in life of a person or group; more general and abstract than attitudes. 10 basic values relevant to all societies organised into a structure where some complement and some inhibit others. Develops from social and psychological conflict and congruity between values that people experience in everyday life. Continuum of values though presented in discrete categories
Explain Mario et al., 2009 study on value clashes
Using value self confrontation procedure (Rokeach, 1975) Participants asked to rank 16 values (from Schwartz) Shown (fictitious) average ratings from rest of the student sample; prioritised either self enhancement; self transcendent; conservation; or openness to change values Identified top 4 values of others and themselves; examined differences and similarities. Read and then wrote about characteristics of other group (most just repeated what they'd read) Control group read a passage and memorised words Ranked 16 further different values (from Schwartz)
Explain the Self-Determination Theory
We have 3 innate basic need that are essential for psychological growth, integratiy and well being: Autonomy, Competence, Relatedness (close relationships) Motivation lies on a continuum from intrinsic motivation to extrinsic motivation; intrinsic motivation is self determined/regulated; activities are done for personal enjoyment/satisfaction to extrinsic motivation where people are regulated by external demands or processes, such as parental controls.
Critiques of value theory
Whilst values appeared in most cultures examined, not all grouped in the same way (particularly Chinese samples differed) Spirituality is unaccounted for in the model because it only appeared in some cultures examined Values may be expressed differently in actions by different people and could be argued to be of little consequence on their own Values expressed may be normatively approved ideals rather than personal value priorities
Define Amotivation
a state in which people lack the intention to behave and therefore aren't motivated at all. This may happen when people have no sense of efficacy or control. So if people are actually forced to do something, they are amotivated, they have no intention or motivation. [Forcefeeding broccoli]
Why do we have psychological needs?
for 'self-actualization': achieving your full psychological potential - self fulfillment, so will differ from person to person. - for 'autonomy' (Rogers, 1960). Explains motivated behaviour such as exploratory behaviour (e.g., seeking tasks).
Define incentives
high order desired outcome (subsuming lower order goals), e.g. gain money
How can assigned goals be transformed into personal goals?
if perceived as desirable and feasible; they are personal redefined; integrated with other existing goals. Self set goals tend to be desirable and feasible
Verbal rewards
informational aspect salient thus increases Intrinsic motivation - But can be perceived as controlling - leads to undermining intrinsic motivation e.g. You must keep up the good work! => Importance of interpersonal context
Define Introjected Regulation
involves some kind of self-control by the individual, there will be some kind of inner conflict between what they want to do and what they know they ought to do - like they have really learnt the rule but not become part of the self [I must eat my broccoli otherwise I shouldn't have pudding].