Native American Final

Wagon Box Fight

33 American soldiers and civilians against 3,000 Native American attackers August 2, 1867 The battle continued from about 7:30 a.m. until 1:30 pm. The defenders had plenty of ammunition, and furthermore, arrows could not penetrate the thick sides of the wagon boxes. -2 of the 33 are killed. 400 of the 3,000 killed -Red Cloud realized they couldn't take any more defeats like that -outcome: signed peace treaty at Fort Laramie -animosity from many natives toward Red Cloud for signing the treaty, but he knew they couldn't withstand the new gun technology -Spencer repeating rifle

Hayfield Fight

August 1, 1867 •32 soldiers at Fort C. F. Smith, Montana went out to cut hay for the horses •Run into Cheyenne and Arapaho (and Lakota) : around 1,000 of them •Start a siege on the group •4 of the 32 are killed •400 of the Indian warriors are killed -New technology: Spencer repeating rifle

Wounded Knee Massacre

December 29, 1890, near Wounded Knee Creek on the Lakota Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in the U.S. state of South Dakota. - the U.S. government had continued to seize Lakota lands. The once-large bison herds had been hunted to near-extinction by European settlers. Treaty promises to protect reservation lands from encroachment by settlers and gold miners were not implemented as agreed. As a result, there was unrest on the reservations. - During this time, news spread among the reservations of a Paiute prophet named Wovoka, founder of the Ghost Dance religion. He had a vision that the Christian Messiah, Jesus Christ, had returned to Earth in the form of a Native American. the Messiah would raise all the Native American believers above the earth. During this time, the white man would disappear from Native lands, the ancestors would lead them to good hunting grounds, the buffalo herds and all the other animals would return in abundance, and the ghosts of their ancestors would return to Earth — hence the word ghost in "Ghost Dance". taught the Lakota that while performing the Ghost Dance, they would wear special Ghost Dance shirts as seen by Black Elk in a vision. Kicking Bear said the shirts had the power to repel bullets. -American settlers were alarmed by the sight of the many Great Basin and Plains tribes performing the Ghost Dance, worried that it might be a prelude to armed attack. Among them was the U.S. Indian agent at the Standing Rock Agency where Chief Sitting Bull lived. United States officials decided to take some of the chiefs into custody in order to quell what they called the "Messiah craze". Sitting Bull was killed -At daybreak on December 29, 1890, Forsyth ordered the surrender of weapons and the immediate removal of the Lakota from the "zone of military operations" to awaiting trains. A search of the camp confiscated 38 rifles, and more rifles were taken as the soldiers searched the Indians. None of the old men were found to be armed. A medicine man named Yellow Bird allegedly harangued the young men who were becoming agitated by the search, and the tension spread to the soldiers. -According to some accounts, Yellow Bird began to perform the Ghost Dance, telling the Lakota that their "ghost shirts" were bulletproof. As tensions mounted, Black Coyote refused to give up his rifle; he was deaf and had not understood the order. Another Indian said: "Black Coyote is deaf." (Black Coyote did not speak English.) When the soldier persisted, he said, "Stop. He cannot hear your orders." At that moment, two soldiers seized Black Coyote from behind, and (allegedly) in the struggle, his rifle discharged. At the same moment, Yellow Bird threw some dust into the air, and approximately five young Lakota men with concealed weapons threw aside their blankets and fired their rifles at Troop K of the 7th. After this initial exchange, the firing became indiscriminate. -The officers had lost all control of their men. Some of the soldiers fanned out and finished off the wounded. Others leaped onto their horses and pursued the Indians (men, women, and children), in some cases for miles across the prairies. In less than an hour, at least 150 Lakota had been killed and 50 wounded. -hired civilians to bury the dead Lakota. The burial party found the deceased frozen; they were gathered up and placed in a mass grave

Battle of the Little Big Horn

June 25-26, 1876, near the Little Bighorn River in eastern Montana Territory -most prominent action of the Great Sioux War of 1876. -an armed engagement between combined forces of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes and the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States Army. -Tensions between the two groups had been rising since the discovery of gold on Native American lands (the Black Hills, sacred for the Lakota). When a number of tribes missed a federal deadline to move to reservations, the U.S. Army, including Custer and his 7th Calvary, was dispatched to confront them. Custer was unaware of the number of Indians fighting under the command of Sitting Bull (c.1831-90) at Little Bighorn, and his forces were outnumbered and quickly overwhelmed in what became known as Custer's Last Stand. -Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, leaders of the Sioux on the Great Plains, strongly resisted the mid-19th-century efforts of the U.S. government to confine their people to reservations. In 1875, after gold was discovered in South Dakota's Black Hills, the U.S. Army ignored previous treaty agreements and invaded the region. This betrayal led many Sioux and Cheyenne tribesmen to leave their reservations and join Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse in Montana. By the late spring of 1876, more than 10,000 Native Americans had gathered in a camp along the Little Bighorn River-which they called the Greasy Grass-in defiance of a U.S. War Department order to return to their reservations or risk being attacked. -The fight was an overwhelming victory for the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho, led by several major war leaders, including Crazy Horse and Chief Gall, inspired by the visions of Sitting Bull -The U.S. 7th Cavalry, including the Custer Battalion, a force of 700 men led by George Armstrong Custer, suffered a major defeat. -After a night's march, Custer contemplated a surprise attack against the encampment the following morning of June 26, but he then received a report informing him several hostiles had discovered the trail left by his troops. Assuming his presence had been exposed, Custer decided to attack the village without further delay. -At mid-day on June 25, Custer's 600 men entered the Little Bighorn Valley. Among the Native Americans, word quickly spread of the impending attack. The older Sitting Bull rallied the warriors and saw to the safety of the women and children, while Crazy Horse set off with a large force to meet the attackers head on. Despite Custer's desperate attempts to regroup his men, they were quickly overwhelmed. Custer and some 200 men in his battalion were attacked by as many as 3,000 Native Americans; within an hour, Custer and all of his soldiers were dead. -The Battle of the Little Bighorn, also called Custer's Last Stand, marked the most decisive Native American victory and the worst U.S. Army defeat in the long Plains Indian War. The demise of Custer and his men outraged many white Americans and confirmed their image of the Indians as wild and bloodthirsty. Meanwhile, the U.S. government increased its efforts to subdue the tribes. Within five years, almost all of the Sioux and Cheyenne would be confined to reservations

1850 CA Act for the Governance and Protection of Indians

stated that while both non-Indians and Indians may take complaints before a justice of the peace, that "in no case shall a white man be convicted on any offense upon the testimony of an Indian."In other words, if a non-Indian were to commit a crime, such as murder, rape, or theft, and the only witnesses were Indians, then no conviction would be possible. The act also curtailed Indian land rights.

1887 General Allotment Act

"Dawes Act" adopted by Congress in 1887, authorized the President of the United States to survey American Indian tribal land and divide it into allotments for individual Indians. Those who accepted allotments and lived separately from the tribe would be granted United States citizenship. objectives: lift the Native Americans out of poverty and to stimulate assimilation of them into mainstream American society. Individual household ownership of land and subsistence farming on the European-American model was seen as an essential step. The act also provided what the government would classify as "excess" those Indian reservation lands remaining after allotments, and sell those lands on the open market, allowing purchase and settlement by non-Native Americans. -associated with Wilson's (Wovoka's) prophecy of an end to white expansion while preaching goals of clean living, an honest life, and cross-cultural cooperation by Indians. Practice of the Ghost Dance movement was believed to have contributed to Lakota resistance to assimilation under the Dawes Act. In the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, U.S. Army forces killed at least 153 Miniconjou and Hunkpapa from the Lakota people.

1903 Lone Wolf v Hitchcock

-(1903) was a United States Supreme Court case brought against the US government by the Kiowa chief Lone Wolf, who charged that Native American tribes under the Medicine Lodge Treaty had been defrauded of land by Congressional actions in violation of the treaty. -The Court declared that the "plenary power" of the United States Congress gave it authority to unilaterally abrogate treaty obligations between the United States and Native American tribes.

John Chivington

-1821-1894 -former Methodist pastor -served as colonel in the United States Volunteers during the Colorado War and the New Mexico Campaigns of the American Civil War. -Hero of a battle. Saves the union in Colorado. Still has a militia, time was almost up for their contracts. -felt pressure to use the "Bloodless Third" before the volunteers' terms expired -people were calling for them to do something to those who had killed white families -SAND CREEK MASSACRE: led a 700-man force (Third Colorado Cavalry) of Colorado Territory militia during the massacre at Sand Creek in November 1864 -surround Black Kettle's Lodge, where he had the American flag flying -250 men women and children killed -2/3 women and children -/3 men women and children •treated even more horrifically after the battle •Congress is MAD oCalls for Chivington's head •he resigns from militia unit • the Army can't court marshal him •Indians aren't citizens, so they can't bring any lawsuits against him -gets away, criminal charges could not be filed against him.

Helen Hunt Jackson

-1830-1885 -American poet and writer, activist on behalf of Native Americans -wrote: a Century of Dishonor -heard Ponca chief Standing Bear speak in Boston, related these and other events in her book -describes the history of the government's relations with the indians as "a shameful record of broken treaties and unfulfilled promises" -called for radical change of Indian policy -sent a copy of her book to every congressman

Doolittle Committee

-Congress appointed a special committee to investigate and debate a number of possible solutions -In 1867, a special committee of Congress chaired by Wisconsin's Senator James Doolittle reported that Indians outside of Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) were decreasing. With regard to Indian wars with non-Indians, the committee felt that most "are to be traced to the aggressions of lawless white men". The committee report noted the loss of Indian hunting grounds and that driving the last vestige of the buffalo from the plains will "put an end to the wild man's means of life".

Walker War

-Growing tension between the Mormon settlers and the Ute Indians resulted in the Walker War. -In a defensive effort, Brigham Young directed settlers to move from outlying farms and ranches and establish centralized forts. His people began to heavily guard the travel routes between Mormon settlements -Walkara and his warriors conducted raids against Mormon outposts in central and southern Utah; in turn pioneer militias retaliated. In one case, four settlers driving oxen-drawn wagons to Salt Lake City from Manti were attacked and killed at Uintah Springs on the night of September 30, 1853. Historical accounts indicate that pioneers retaliated the next day, and intermittent fighting continued until early November. In December of that year, Brigham Young, president of the LDS Church, offered amnesty to all the Ute. They did not respons and continued to commit violent acts for several more weeks. On March 24, Young sent Major E.A. Bedell, the federal Indian agent, to meet with Walkara and other Ute leaders. Bedell was to inquire if they would make a treaty with Young for the sale of their land. During the meeting with Bedell, Walkara said that "he would prefer not to sell if he could live peacefully with the white people which he was anxious to do." -The Walker War ended through this understanding personally negotiated between Young and Walkara that was finalized in May 1854 in Levan, near Nephi, Utah.

John D. Lee

1812-1877 - prominent early member of the Latter Day Saint Movement in Utah. Lee was later convicted as a mass murderer for his complicity in the Mountain Meadows massacre, sentenced to death and was executed in 1877.

Nez Perce War

-Nez Perce extended hospitality to expedition of Lewis and Clark -lived in place where Washington, Oregon, and Idaho meet -from first meetings with Americans in 1805, pursued peaceful coexistence -in 1855 signed a treaty with Governor Stevens of Washington Territory to set aside a large reservation for the tribe -gold was discovered there in 1860, so immigrants and miners encroached on the reservation -in 1863, the Americans negotiated a new treaty with a chief named Lawyer. The Nez Perce lost 90% of their land and were assigned to the Lapwai on the Clearwater River in Idaho -most Nez Perce chiefs refused to remove, like Old Joseph. Made his son Chief Joseph promise to never sell their homelands -Chief Joseph and the other Nez Perce chiefs were told by General OO Howard that they would be forced to move to the reservation. -the Indians pleaded to be allowed to remain on their homelands, but Howard lost patience and arrested one of the older chiefs -the Nez Perce were given until April 1, 1877 to complete the move -"That is what brought the war, the arrest of this chief and showing us the rifle" - Yellow Wolf -Joseph persuaded his people to move rather than to go to war -3 young warriors killed some men along the Salmon River in revenge for the murder of their chief -the US was quick to respond and attacked the Nez Perces at White Bird Canyon. Neo Perce won: first of a series of embarrassing defeats for the United States, and the beginning g of the 15 hundred mile odyssey for the Nez Perce -800 Nez Perce crossed the Bitterroot mts to find refuge with the Crow, led by Chief Joseph, and his brother -they rested at Big Hole River, and Colonel Gibbon struck them in surprise at dawn killing men, women, and children. the warriors rallied and fought off the troops until their families could escape -decided to go into Canada, but 30 miles from the border (after scaring some tourists in Yellowstone) they were stopped by General Miles and 600 men. Chief Joseph surrendered his rifle to Miles -Nez Perce betrayed again. although they were promised they would be sent home, they were put on a train that took them to Oklahoma. -Joseph went to Washington to ask that they be allowed to return home -allowed to return to the Northwest 1885, but never allowed to return to their homelands

Taylor Peace Commission

-On July 20, 1867, Congress established the Indian Peace Commission to negotiate peace with Plains Indian tribes who were warring with the United States. The Peace Commission met in St. Louis, Missouri, on August 6, 1867, where it elected Nathaniel G. Taylor, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, as its president. Commissioners agreed that lasting peace was contingent upon separating Indians regarded as "hostile" from those regarded as friendly, removing all Indian tribes onto reservations away from the routes of U.S. westward expansion, and making provision for their maintenance -The official report of the Commission to the President of the United States, dated January 7, 1868, describes detailed histories of the causes of the Indian Wars including: numerous social and legal injustices to Indians, repeated violations of numerous treaties, acts of corruption by many of the local agents, and culpability of Congress in failing to fulfill certain legal obligations. The report asserts that the Indian Wars were completely preventable had the United States government and its representatives acted with legal and moral honesty in dealing with the Indians.

Bear River Massacre

-The establishment of the California and Oregon trails, as well as the establishment of Salt Lake City in 1847 brought the Shoshone people into regular contact with white colonists moving westward. -The foraging and hunting by settlers traveling on the western migration trails took resources away from the Shoshone. -Desperate and starving, the Shoshone attacked farms and cattle ranches for food, as a matter not just of revenge but survival -at the outbreak of the Civil War, Lincoln sent California militia to secure mail routes. Soldiers didn't want to be there, wanted to fight in the eastern front of the Civil War -Largest massacre of American Indians in American history -January 1863 -350-380 killed men, women and children killed -California militia welcomed like heroes

Susan and Suzette LaFlesche

-Tribe:

Geronimo

-Tribe: Apache 1829-1909 -not a chief, but a great leader -most Apache were confined on a reservation at San Carlos, AZ territory -many Apaches rebelled against reservation confinement, preferring death of battle to a slow death at San Carlos (most died from malaria, rattlesnakes, heat, and starvation. used to the pine trees of Northern Arizona) -led raids and related combat that were a part of the prolonged period of the Apache-United States conflict, that started with American settlement in Apache lands following the end of the war with Mexico in 1848 (in Arizona and New Mexico) -he surrendered in 1866 -sent to Florida -died a prisoner of war, never allowed to return to his homeland

John Ross

-Tribe: Cherokee (1790-1866) -one-eighth cherokee -started as Cherokee tribal spokesman, presided over the National Committee -promoted the Cherokee newspaper, the Cherokee Phoenix, hoping it would help the spread of literacy and give wider understanding of tribal affairs -elected president of cherokee's constitutional convention: established the first constitutional government of an American Indian tribe, similar to US Constitution (3 branches, bicameral legislature, court system) -elected principle chief 34-6 (kept office for 4 decades) -Indian removal: visiting Washington every year to visit Jacksn (whom he fought with in the Creek War) to forestall the forced removal of his tribe west of the Mississippi -while Ross was in Washington, minority group that wanted removal signed Treaty of New Echota that would force the entire tribe across the trail of tears -despite Ross's protests, the treaty was ratified by the Senate, and the Cherokees had 2 years to move -took charge of the removal, sparing the tribe humility of being driven west at gunpoint: established a removal committee, organized the tribe into 13 removal detachments of 1000 people each -Ross and his family joined the last small party of invalids and elderly who left in December 1838 -once west of Mississippi, elected Ross chief -advocated an alliance with the Confederacy during Civil War: treaty with confederacy preserved tribal independence and guarantee that Cherokee forces would not be used outside their borders. As the Confederacy began to be close to losing, Ross pled the Cherokees case wth Abraham Lincoln, saying they made the treaty under duress. -After Lincoln's death, Dennis Cooley became commissioner of the Indian affairs, and intended to make the Indians pay for disloyalty (deprive them of lands, force railways to cross their lands) -died "Principle Chief of the Cherokees" in 1866

Stand Watie

-Tribe: cherokee -Brother of Elias Boudinot -member of the "Treaty Party": those who signed the Treaty of New Echota and agreed to move west voluntarily. Felt they had no alternative but to migrate -the last Confederate general in the Civil War to surrender in 1865 -all other members of the Treat Party were assassinated

Opothleyahola

-Tribe: Creek 1792-1863 -Muskogee Creek Indian Chief - influential and eloquent speaker -became a "diplomatic chief." -became a wealthy trader and owned a 2,000-acre plantation, he purchased African-American slaves as workers for his plantation. - joined the Freemasons and accepted Christianity, becoming a Baptist. -among the minority of Creek in Indian Territory who supported the Union during the Civil War - they believed that the pressure for Indian removal came from Georgia and the southern populations, so did not support the Confederacy. -Creek with African ancestry resented the restrictions of proposed "black codes," increasing their sense of loyalty to the Union -he and another tribal chief contacted President Abraham Lincoln to request help for the loyalists. They received a positive response stating the United States government would assist them. -believing the federal government would help them, they retreated to Kansas, fighting battles with a Confederate army -lost an estimated 2,000 of his 9,000 followers from the battles, disease, and bitter winter blizzards during their ill-fated trek to Fort Row. The fort lacked adequate medical support and supplies to care for the refugees. -moved to Fort Belmont, where conditions were still very poor, where he died in 1863

Little Crow

-Tribe: Dakota Sioux (Mdwekanton) -1810-1863 -for years, pursued a policy of accommodation in dealing with the United States and took the lead in signing treaties selling Dakota lands (Treaty of Traverse des Sioux and Treaty of Mendota) -the Americans failed to deliver the annuities, and the Indian agent (Andrew Myrick) told the hungry Dakotas to eat grass -1862: led his angry warriors in the Dakota War of 1862, or Santee Sioux Uprising against the Americans -killed in 1863 by an American settler while picking raspberries with his son. his body was scalped and dismembered by Americans

Crow Dog

-Tribe: Lakota Sioux (Brulé) -helped popularized the Ghost Dance. -shot and killed principal chief Chief Spotted Tail on the Rosebud Indian Reservation --Spotted Tail argued for peace and cooperation among whites, while he maintained traditional Sioux views -To avoid further bloodshed, the families of Spotted Tail and Crow Dog agreed on a settlement: Crow Dog gave Spotted Tail's family fifty dollars, eight horses, and a blanket to "cover" the crime. This settled the case for the Sioux -when white settlers in South Dakota learned that Spotted Tail had been murdered, they summoned a grand jury. -he was tried for murder in the territorial court at Deadwood, South Dakota. he was convicted and sentenced to death. -ex party Crow Dog -led to Major Crimes Act

Sitting Bull

-Tribe: Lakota Sioux (Hunkpapa) 1831-1890 -holy man who led his people during years of resistance to United States government policies -Before the Battle of the Little Bighorn, he had a vision in which he saw many soldiers, "as thick as grasshoppers," falling upside down into the Lakota camp, which his people took as a foreshadowing of a major victory in which a large number of soldiers would be killed. About three weeks later, the confederated Lakota tribes with the Northern Cheyenne defeated the 7th Cavalry under Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer on June 25, 1876, annihilating Custer's battalion. -Sitting Bull refused to surrender and in May 1877 led his band across the border into the North-West Territories, Canada. He remained in exile for four years -Hunger and desperation eventually forced him, and 186 of his family and followers, to return to the United States and surrender on July 19, 1881. -transfer him and his band to Fort Randall, to be held as prisoners of war. There they spent the next 20 months. They were allowed to return north to the Standing Rock Agency in May 1883 -In 1885, Sitting Bull was allowed to leave the reservation to go Wild Westing with Buffalo Bill Cody's Buffalo Bill's Wild West. He earned about $50 a week for riding once around the arena, where he was a popular attraction. -When the Ghost Dance movement reached Standing Rock, he allowed the dancers to gather at his camp. -In 1890, James McLaughlin, the U.S. Indian Agent at Fort Yates on Standing Rock Agency, feared that the Lakota leader was about to flee the reservation with the Ghost Dancers, so he ordered the police to arrest him. -The Sioux in the village were enraged. Catch-the-Bear, a Lakota, shouldered his rifle and shot Lt. Bullhead (Indian policeman), who reacted by firing his revolver into his chest, killing him (fulfilling prophecy that he would be killed by his own people)

Crazy Horse

-Tribe: Lakota Sioux (Oglala) -1842-1877 -leader of the Oglalas -son of a medicine man -14, went on his vision quest, received a new name: -creator promised he would never be killed by bullets if he painted lighting bolts on his face and raindrops n his chest -16, first raid against the Crow (injured, but not killed, medicine proved strong) -successful in most battles (Little Big Horn, Bozeman Trail) -Bozeman Trai Forts: wood train taking wood to build forts. He tells them to stop taking their wood It's their homeland and it's sacred -Fetterman's massacre -led Battle of the Rosebud -surrendered at Fort Robinson in 1876, and stabbed by a bayonet when "trying to escape"

Black Elk

-Tribe: Lakota Sioux (Oglala) 1863-1950 -medicine and holy man -Near the end of his life, he met with amateur ethnologist John Neihardt and recounted to him his religious vision, events from his life, and details of Lakota culture. Neihardt edited a translated record and published "______________ Speaks" in 1932.

Luther Standing Bear

-Tribe: Lakota Sioux (Oglala) 1868-1939 chief, author, educator, philosopher, and actor of the twentieth century -attended Carlisle Indian Boarding School -participated in the Wild West Show with Buffalo Bill -Red Progressive -fought to protect Indian sovereignty and rights

Washakie

-Tribe: Shoshone 1810-1900 -signed treaties with the U.S. at Fort Bridger, Utah. The Fort Bridger Treaty of 1863 established a generic Shoshone country, -friend of Brigham Young and expressed sadness at the fighting his people had often done with the Utahs. It was not until after 1880, after Young's death, that Washakie became a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints -this valley remains the home of the Eastern Shoshones today -determined that Native Americans should be educated, and he gave land to Welsh clergyman John Roberts to establish a boarding school where Shoshone girls learned traditional crafts and language.

Walkara

-Tribe: Ute 1808-1855 -military leader of raiding parties, and in the Walkara War (Walker War) -the most prominent Native American chief in the Utah area when the Mormon Pioneers arrived in 1847. -Growing tension between the Mormon settlers and the Ute Indians resulted in the Walker War. -He and his warriors conducted raids against Mormon outposts in central and southern Utah; in turn pioneer militias retaliated. -The Walker War ended through personal negotiation between Young and himself that was finalized in May 1854 -died of "lung fever" on 29 January 1855

Red Cloud

-Tribe: Lakota Sioux (Oglala) -1822-1909 -one of the most capable Native American individuals against the US government -outlives almost every other leader -gold is found, and a trail forms form Colorado gold fields in Denver, through Fort Laramie to Virginia City, Idaho -becomes "Bloody" Bozeman Trail because 600 people were killed by Indian raiders -where the trail was the last place where the bison roamed, and they didn't want anymore people coming in that direction -in 1866, the government sent a peace delegation to make a treaty, 7 nations of the Lakota come. -their objective: crete a new trail for the Bozeman trail and give compensation for the animals killed on their land -just as they were about to sign the treaty, the engineers show up to build the forts -he stood up and said, "You presupposed that we would sign the treaty, well we're not going to sign it. You better not build the forts, and no one else is allowed to cross our lands." took his pen and went home -failed peace treaty, but they decide to build anyway because the engineers were already there -with Crazy Horse, decide to hit one of the forts and wipe them out, leads to Hayfield and Wagon Box fights: realized they couldn't have anymore defeats like that -in 1868, signed the Treaty of Fort Laramie- created the Sioux reservation (one huge entity in the Dakotas), provided education for their children, provided money for civilization, and the government agreed to no longer use the Bozeman trail (because the railroad had gone through in 1869 and was much faster) -there was animosity toward him for signing the treaty, but he knew they were no match for the new gun technology

Chief Joseph

-Tribe: Nez Perce -1840-1904 -chief after his father died -in 1855, the Nez Perce signed a treaty that set aside a large reservation for the Nez Perce. After gold was found there (1860), miners encroached on the reservation and in 1863 the Americans negotiated with a chief named Lawyer to make a new reservation (Lapwai). They lost 90% of their lands. Most of the Nez Perce chiefs refused to sign the treaty and remained in their homeland -promised his father (Tukekas or Old Joseph) that he would never sell their homeland -the U.S. dispatched commissioners to investigate the situation and try to persuade him to see and join the "treaty party" on the Lapwai Reservation -US commissioner Oliver Otis Howard became impatient and declared they must move to the reservation or be moved by force -persuaded his angry people to move rather than go to war, leading more than 800 people to Montana (hoped to find refuge with the Crows) -stopped by the US army -surrendered to General Miles' : "I am tired of fighting... I will fight no more forever" -handsome and dignified in defeat became a celebrity as newspapers spread reports of his speech and dignified surrender -not allowed to return home (although they were promised). loaded onto trains and sent to northeastern part of Oklahoma because General Sherman and Sheridan decided they should not be allowed to return home. -by the end of the year, more than 1/4 of them died due to change in climate -he and Yellow bull travelled to Washington to plead that they be allowed to return home -allowed to return to the Northwest in 1885 -died in 1904 due to a heart attack on the Colville reservation

Black Kettle

-Tribe: Northern Cheyenne -peace leader -Colorado Gold Rush 1859 led to altercations. -1864, met with Governor John Evans, and promised to do his best to keep the young warriors in check, but tells him he doesn't have complete control over them -had flag american flag and truce flag flying over his lodge at Sand Creek -Chivington led the Third Colorado Cavalry to attack the village, and soldiers butchered between 150 and 270 people, mostly women and children. -signed the Medicine Lodge Treaty in 1867 -strong advocate for peace with the whites in Colorado -fell on deaf ears, so he moved his people to Oklahoma -lots of dog soldiers followed Roman Nose off the reservation and were deemed hostile. -Custer sent to deal with those who left the reservation, by going to the reservation and killing the people who were where they were supposed to be?? -Shot and killed with his wife at the battle of Washita by Custer's troops (still with the American flag flying over his lodge)

Sarah Winnemucca

-Tribe: Northern Paiute -1844-1891 -saw her Paiute people decline into poverty after they were confined to a Nevada reservation created by presidential order in 1860 and then relocated to the Yakima Reservation in Oregan in 1879 -wrote a book "Life Among the Piutes: Their Wrongs and Claims" which was clearly intended for a white audience. it described the brutality of white expansion, the immorality and hypocrisy of American "civilization" policies, and the greed and corruption of Indian agents -the first known Native American woman to publish a book -died in 1891 without seeing the Paiutes receive justice

Wovoka

-Tribe: Paiute "Jack Wilson" mystic, trained as a small boy in revivalist themes -at age 14, lived with a farmer David Wilson. learned English and Christianity. Took the name Jack Wilson -At age 30, felt that his mission was going to begin -Started the Ghost Dance religion: A new Religious Pan-Indian movement that spread throughout the West in response to the destruction of traditional tribal cultures -belived 1) in the new millennium, ancestors would be resurrected, animals would return to the plains, the wicked would be punished (whites destroyed) and 2) there would be a Savior figure to come and redeem the people -Mormon influence?: Abstination from alcohol and wore a "garment" that protected them from harm - teachings spread quickly among many Native American peoples, notably the Lakota. -The Ghost Dance movement is known for being practiced by the victims of the Wounded Knee Massacre

Standing Bear

-Tribe: Ponca 1829-1908 -Ponca chief -in 1877, the government forcibly removed members of the Ponca tribe from Nebraska to Indian territory. (the Ponca's land had been assigned to them by treaty in 1865, but was subsequently included in the reservation area ceded to the Sioux by the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868) -The land to which the Ponca moved proved unsuitable; poor farming conditions led to persistent famine. -the following year, the chief and a small group set off on a 600 mile walk to carry the body of his only son back home to Nebraska or burial.(left without permission) -when he reached his destination, he was arrested and imprisoned -brought habeas corpus suit in federal district court, arguing that an Indian was a person under federal law and entitled to its rights and protection. (1879) -Standing Bear v. Crook -the judge concurred, and he immediately won his freedom -his case sparked controversy, generated national publicity, and fueled demands for reform in Indian policy -he and some of his tribe were allowed to return to their home in Nebraska

Ely Parker

-Tribe: Seneca 1828-1895 Military secretary to General Ulysses S Grant -Drew articles of surrender signed by General Robert E Lee at Appomattox in 1865 -President Ulysses S Grant appointed him as Commissioner of Indian affairs. He was the first Native American to hold this position -in public and in print did what he could do shape or temper US policies

1885 Major Crimes Act

-a law passed by the United States Congress in 1885 as the final section of the Indian Appropriations Act of that year. The law places certain crimes under federal jurisdiction if they are committed by a Native American in Native territory. - passed by Congress in response to the Supreme Court of the United States's ruling in Ex parte Crow Dog (109 U.S. 556 (1883)) that overturned the federal court conviction of Brule Lakota sub-chief Crow Dog for the murder of principal chief Spotted Tail on the Rosebud Indian Reservation. -Murder -Manslaughter -Rape -Assault with intent to kill -Arson -Burglary -Larceny -great blow to Indian sovereignty and how they could deal with their own crimes

Black Hawk War

-brief but bloody war from April to August 1832 between the United States and Native Americans led by Black Hawk (Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiak), a 65-year-old Sauk warrior who in early April led some 1,000 Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo men, women, and children, including about 500 warriors, across the Mississippi River to reclaim land in Illinois that tribal spokesmen had surrendered to the U.S. in 1804. The band's crossing back into Illinois spurred fear and anger among white settlers, and eventually a force of some 7,000 mobilized against them—including members of the U.S. Army, state militias, and warriors from various other Indian peoples. Some 450-600 Indians and 70 soldiers and settlers were killed during the war. By 1837 all surrounding tribes had fled to the West, leaving most of the former Northwest Territory to white settlement. Among those who participated in various roles during the war were a number of men who would figure prominently in U.S. history, including future U.S. presidents Abraham Lincoln and Zachary Taylor, longtime military leader and presidential candidate Winfield Scott, and Jefferson Davis, who would become president of the Confederate States of America. -a brief 1832 conflict, between the United States and Native Americans, led by Black Hawk, a Sauk leader. The war erupted soon after Black Hawk and a group of Sauks, Meskwakis, and Kickapoos, known as the "British Band", crossed the Mississippi River, into the US state of Illinois, from Iowa Indian Territory in April 1832. -US officials, convinced that the British Band was hostile, mobilized a frontier militia and opened fire on a delegation from the Native Americans on May 14, 1832. Black Hawk responded by successfully attacking the militia at the Battle of Stillman's Run. He led his band to a secure location in what is now southern Wisconsin and was pursued by US forces. Meanwhile, other Native Americans conducted raids against forts and settlements largely unprotected with the absence of US troops. Some Ho-Chunk and Potawatomi warriors with grievances against European-Americans took part in these raids, although most tribe members tried to avoid the conflict. The Menominee and Dakota tribes, already at odds with the Sauks and Meskwakis, supported the US. Commanded by General Henry Atkinson, the US troops tracked the British Band. Militia under Colonel Henry Dodge caught up with the British Band on July 21 and defeated them at the Battle of Wisconsin Heights. Black Hawk's band was weakened by hunger, death, and desertion and many native survivors retreated towards the Mississippi. On August 2, US soldiers attacked the remnants of the British Band at the Battle of Bad Axe, killing many or capturing most who remained alive. Black Hawk and other leaders escaped, but later surrendered and were imprisoned for a year. As the U.S. Army built more forts and droves of settlers moved into the territory during the next 15 years, Black Hawk grew increasingly angry. Finally, in 1831, settlers began to occupy the village of Saukenuk, an area that would later become Rock Island, Illinois. Regardless of the provisions of the 1804 treaty, Black Hawk refused to leave his own home. He began to prepare for war. Early in 1832, General Edmund P. Gaines arrived in the area with a sizeable force of U.S. soldiers and Illinois militiamen. Initially, Black Hawk withdrew his large band of warriors, women, and children to the west side of the Mississippi. On April 5, however, he led them back into the disputed territory, believing that other Indian forces and the British to the north would support him in a confrontation. The following day, a large army of soldiers caught up to Black Hawk and his followers near the Rock River of northern Illinois. When neither the British nor his Indian allies came to his support, Black Hawk attempted to surrender. Unfortunately, one of his truce bearers was killed in the confusion, and the Black Hawk War began. In May, Black Hawk's warriors won a significant victory that left the Americans badly demoralized. As subsequent generations of Indian fighters would learn, however, the mighty force of the U.S. government was relentless. On August 2, U.S. soldiers nearly annihilated Black Hawk's band as it attempted to escape west across the Mississippi, and Black Hawk finally surrendered. -Casualties in the 15-week war were grossly one-sided. An estimated 70 settlers or soldiers lost their lives; estimates for the number of Indians killed are between 442 and 592. -The war gave impetus to the US policy of Indian removal, in which Native American tribes were pressured to sell their lands and move west of the Mississippi River and stay there. -in late September 1832 Scott and Reynolds met with the Sauk and Fox chiefs and demanded most of eastern Iowa as an indemnity for the war, offering an annual payment of $20,000 for the next 30 years. As a result of Keokuk's negotiating, the Fox and Sauk also received a 400-square-mile (1,036-square-km) reserve. In the end, as a result of the Black Hawk War, the friendly Sauk and Fox found themselves stripped of valuable and extensive landholdings and dependent, economically and politically, on the United States.

Seminole War

-conflicts in Florida between the Seminole—the collective name given to the amalgamation of various groups of Native Americans and African Americans who settled in Florida in the early 18th century—and the United States Army. Taken together, the Seminole Wars were the longest and most expensive (both in human and monetary terms) Indian Wars in United States history. -1st: Andrew Jackson's excursions into West Florida and Spanish Florida against the Seminoles after the conclusion of the War of 1812. According to the Treaty of Moultrie Creek of 1823, the Seminoles were required to leave northern Florida and were confined to a large reservation in the center of the Florida peninsula. 2nd: esult of the United States government attempting to force the Seminoles to leave Florida altogether as described in the Treaty of Payne's Landing of 1832, which Seminole leaders claimed that they signed under duress. Raids and skirmishes and a handful of larger battles raged throughout the Florida peninsula, with the outgunned and outnumbered Seminoles effectively using guerrilla warfare to frustrate the ever more numerous American forces. After several years spent chasing bands of Seminole warriors through the wilderness, the US Army changed tactics and began seeking out and destroying Seminole farms and villages, a strategy which eventually changed the course of the war. The war resulted in most of the Seminole population in Florida being killed in battle, ravaged by starvation and disease, or relocated to Indian Territory in modern Oklahoma. A few hundred Seminoles were allowed to remain in an unofficial reservation in southwest Florida. 3rd: result of Seminoles responding to settlers and US Army scouting parties encroaching on their lands, perhaps deliberately to provoke a violent response that would result in the removal of the last of the Seminoles from Florida. After an army surveying crew found and destroyed a Seminole plantation west of the Everglades in December 1855, Chief Billy Bowlegs led a raid near Fort Myers, setting off a conflict which consisted mainly of raids and reprisals with no large battles fought. American forces again focused on destroying the Seminoles' food supply, and in 1858, most of the remaining Seminoles, weary of war and facing starvation, agreed to be shipped to Oklahoma in exchange for promises of safe passage and cash payments to their chiefs. An estimated 100 Seminoles still refused to leave and retreated deep into the Everglades to live on land that was unwanted by white settlers.

1854 Nebraska-Kansas Act

-he Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. The initial purpose of the Kansas-Nebraska Act was to open up thousands of new farms and make feasible a Midwestern Transcontinental Railroad. The popular sovereignty clause of the law led pro- and anti-slavery elements to flood into Kansas with the goal of voting slavery up or down, resulting in Bleeding Kansas. -Prior to the organization of the Kansas-Nebraska territory in 1854, the Kansas and Nebraska territories were consolidated as part of the Indian Territory. Throughout the 1830s, large-scale relocations of Native American tribes to the Indian Territory took place, with many Southeastern nations removing to present-day Oklahoma, a process ordered by the Indian Removal Act of 1830 known as the Trail of Tears, while many Midwestern nations removed by way of treaty to present-day Kansas. -The passing of the Kansas-Nebraska Act came into direct conflict with these relocations. White American settlers from both the free-soil North and pro-slavery South flooded the Northern Indian Territory, hoping to influence the vote on slavery that would come following the admittance of Kansas, and to a lesser extent Nebraska, into the United States. -settlers brought disease, violence, racism

Sand Creek Massacre

-in 1858, gold was discovered in Colorado -thousands of settlers poured into the area, transforming the Rockies and Plains and destroying the Cheyenne's way of life -tensions escalated, heightened by settlers fears during the Civil War that the withdrawal of American troops from east for the war would precipitate in an Indian uprising -in 1864, Black Kettle's band of Cheyenne and some Southern Arapahos were capped at Sand Creek near Fort Lyon Colorado, under the protection of the US government (supposedly). -Colonel Chivington and the Third Colorado Cavary attacked the village -Black Kettle raised the American and the white flag but the soldiers killed 250 men women, and children, 2/3 of which were women and children (they were treated even more horrifically after the battle) -in the Treaty of Little Arkansas the following year, the US apologized to the Cheyenne's and Arapahos and promised reparations for what happened -in response as the word spread across the Plains, Indian warriors retaliated and the war that the settlers feared became a reality

Navajo Long Walk

-in the southwest, Carson, Canby, and Carleton accompanied by Ute Indian allies, campaigned vigorously and mercilessly against the Navajos, destroying sheep herds and homes. -the Navajos surrendered, and in 1864, thousands of Navajos were removed to the Bosque Redondo reservation at Fort Sumner, New Mexico, a 400 mile walk that cost 2,000 lives -Carleton hoped that relocating the Navajos to Bosque Redondo would create a buffer zone protecting New Mexicans from Comanche raids -the government provided rations that were sometimes unfit for human consumption, and there were tensions with New Mexicans and raids by Comanches -as many as 2,000 died while imprisoned at Redondo -the government tried to transform the Navajo into farmers -chief Manuelito travelled to Washington DC to plead that his people be allowed to return home -after 4 years, the Navajos were allowed to return home to their traditional homes, with 15,000 sheep and goats to replenish their herds -in return, they promised to stay on their reservation, stop raiding, and become farmers and ranchers -like the Trail of Tears for the Cherokee, this remained a traumatic and defining point in their history

Kit Carson

1809-1868 American frontiersman -mountain man (fur trapper), wilderness guide, Indian agent, and American Army officer. -in the southwest, he, colonel Canby, General Carlton, and Ute Indian allies destroyed the sheep herds of the Navajos and their homes. The Navajos surrendered, and in 1864 thousands of Navajos were removed to Bosque Redondo Reservation in New Mexico: the "long walk" = 400 mile trek, cost 200 lives Carleton hoped the Navajos would create a buffer zone, protecting New Mexico from the Comanche raids. malnutrition and disease, bad water, drought, given rations that were unfit to eat... 2,000 died here. government tried to transform the Navajo into farmers. after 4 years, they were allowed to return to their home

Grattan Massacre

-opening engagement in the First Sioux War, August 1854 -fought between United States Army and Lakota Sioux warriors -Summer of 1854, group of Mormon immigrants from Denmark goes across the plains -One of their cows gets loose - Killed by Indian guest High Forehead, visiting Brules - Immigrant train passed by Fort Laramie - Sends Lieutenant John Grattan -Takes an interpreter with them that's not too friendly to Indians - Finds them eating the cow - Offered 2 horses to compensate for the loss of the cow - Grattan demands that High Forehead gets taken back to Fort Laramie to be prosecuted - Things escalate, war ensues - Grattan and his men are all killed -Second Lieutenant John Lawrence Grattan, of the U.S. 6th Infantry Regiment, a recent graduate of West Point and supernumerary waiting for a vacancy in the regiment, led an armed detachment into the Indian encampment to take custody of High Forehead and bring him back to the fort. -"After one of the soldiers shot Chief Conquering Bear and killed him, the Brulé Lakotas returned fire and killed a total of 29 soldiers, Lieutenant John Grattan, and a civilian interpreter. The massacre, as it was called by the American press, is considered an early, significant event in the Plains Indian Wars." -led to Battle of Ash Hollow in which U.S. soldiers killed a number of Brulé Sioux in present-day Garden County, Nebraska.

Mountain Meadows Massacre

-the killing of roughly 120 emigrants who were passing through Southern Utah in September 1857. -The massacre occurred on September 11, 1857. The emigrants-men, women, and children-were traveling from Arkansas to California, part of the Baker-Fancher wagon train. They were killed by a group of Mormons with the help of local Paiute Indians. -After the Fancher party left Cedar City, frustrated with the refusal of local Mormons to sell them needed goods, they continued southwest through the mountain pass called Mountain Meadows. There they were attacked by Mormon assailants, some of them killed. The remaining emigrants pulled their wagons into a tight circle for protection. Over the next five days, the emigrants were held at siege in their wagon circle. During this period they were attacked two more times. -On September 11, 1857, John D. Lee entered the wagon circle with a white flag, convincing the emigrants to surrender peacefully. Required to put down their guns, the women and children were escorted out first, then the men and boys. Each man and boy was escorted by an armed militiaman. They walked about a mile when, upon a predetermined signal, the militiamen turned and fired on each man and boy. Indians who had been convinced to participate in the massacre came out from their hiding places to attack the women and children. -While most of the Fancher party was killed (about 120 people), there were 17 young children who survived. These 17 children were adopted by local families. Two years later in 1859, the U.S. government reunited the children with their extended families in Arkansas.

O. O. Howard

1830-1909 -one-armed Civil War General, founder of Howard University for African American students -led commissioners to Wallowa valley in northeastern Oregon to investigate the situation and then persuade the Nez Perce (Chief Joseph and others) to sell their land and join the "treaty party" on the Lapwai reservation -He declared that those who had not signed the treaty of 1863 must come into the reservation or be moved their by force -Indians pleaded to be allowed to remain in their homelands, but he lost his patience and had one old chief, Toohoolhoolzote arrested and thrown into the guardhouse -800 Nez Perce fled led by Chief Joseph and his younger brother, fighting off his troops as they crossed the Bitterroot Mountains into Montana, but were stopped by General Miles

George Custer

1839-1876 -major General by the age of 23 -valor in the battle of Shiloh catapults him to the top -one of the favorites of Sheridan -always led from the front -notorious for pushing his men, stories told that they would ride for 20 hours a day -court marshaled because he left his post to see his wife (AWOL), but Sheridan pulled some strings so he could be reinstated to lead the cavalry -wanted to try out winter fighting: Battle of Washita- successful, but abandons Elliot and his men, who were all killed. Benteen never forgave him. outcome: other villages move back to reservation. -Battle of Little Bighorn: he and his entire command were wiped out

Richard Pratt

1840-1924 -founder and longtime superintendent of the influential Carlisle Indian Industrial School at Carlisle, Pennsylvania. "kill the Indian and save the man" -believed that to claim their rightful place as American citizens, Native Americans needed to renounce their tribal way of life, convert to Christianity, abandon their reservations, and seek education and employment among the "best classes" of Americans. - outspoken and a leading member of what was called the "Friends of the Indian" movement at the end of the 19th century. He believed in the "noble" cause of civilizing the Indians. -he sanctioned beatings to force Native Americans to stop speaking their own respective languages. -outspoken opponent of tribal segregation on reservations. He believed the system as administered and encouraged by the Bureau of Indian Affairs was hindering the education and civilization of Native Americans and creating helpless wards of the state.

1871 End of Treaty-Making

According to the Indian Appropriation Act of March 3, 1871, no longer was any group of Indians in the United States recognized as an independent nation by the federal government.[5] Moreover, Congress directed that all Indians should be treated as individuals and legally designated "wards" of the federal government.[6] Before this bill was enacted, the federal government signed treaties with different Native American tribes, committing the tribes to land cessions, in exchange for specific lands designated to Indians for exclusive indigenous use as well as annual payments in the form of cash, livestock, supplies, and services.[7] These treaties, which took much time and effort to finalize, ceased with the passage of the 1871 Indian Appropriation Act, declaring that "no Indian nation or tribe" would be recognized "as an independent nation, tribe, or power with whom the United States may contract by treaty." [8] Thus, it can be argued[weasel words] that this bill made it significantly easier for the federal government to secure lands that were previously owned by Native Americans.

California Indians and Birth of Reservation System

By 1848 - just before gold was discovered in California - somewhere between 70,000 and 100,000 Indians and less than 2,000 white people lived in California. Later that year when gold was discovered, the population mix began a dramatic alteration. By the time California became a state in 1850, California Indians were a minority and a "problem" for the newly-migrated Californians. For the next decade, the "problem" of what to do with California's Indian population was tackled by the new state government and the people of California, as well as the federal government. But each of these stakeholdersMap of pre-contact California Indian nations had various and conflicting interpretations of how to handle the "Indian problem." The State of California wanted to: -protect white settlers and miners from Indian attack,protect white property from Indian loss or attack, and regulate Indians as a labor force California citizens wanted the Indians removed from Northern California as quickly as possible. The Federal government was bound by its trust responsibility to Indian Nations throughout the United States to maintain some degree of safety and well-being among the Indian People of California. During its first ten years as a state, California neither recognized Indians as citizens with civil rights, nor did it treat Indians as sovereign people. As soon as the state government was created, the new legislators - those men largely ruled by pro-slavery and pro-southern sentiments - passed a series of legislative acts that legally did the following:Legalized Indian slavery by allowing whites to obtain control over Indian children especially through kidnapping, to contract for Indian services, to outlaw Indian vagrancy. Denied Indians equal protection under the law by forbidding Indians to defend themselves in a court of law, describing the only type of life acceptable via Euro-American customs, allowing the courts to contract Indians out as servants. Pomoted vigilante justice by empowering and funding militias.

Fetterman Massacre

Fetterman = Captain of the army under General Carington Civil War, combat experience Been to west point Wants conflict so he can advance (compared to Carrington who wants peace) Believed could get through the Sioux with only 80 men -21 December 1866: wood train being attacked by Crazy Horse -Carington authorizes Fetterman to pursue Crazy Horse -Carington tells Fetterman: Don't pursue past Lodge Trail Ridge, we can't provide reinforcements because we can't see you. -Fetterman gives his word to Carington -Goes with 80 men, heading northwest -Crazy Horse and his men go the the top of the Lodge Trail, and started provoking them, "come and fight" -Follows them and goes over Lodge Trail Ridge, even though he gave his word to Carington Also known as "Battle of One Hundred Slain" -There were no survivors from Fetterman's army -Ambush waiting on the other side of the mountain -Carington is relieved, receives blame for the Fetterman defeat

Grant's Peace Policy

President Ulysses S Grant (in office 1869-1877) had established precedent by using churchmen as officials and agents as part of his "peace Policy" and some of his appointees had brought a high element of humanitarianism to Indian affairs -to implement this peace policy, Grant appointed as commissioner of Indian Affairs Ely S Parker, author of the confederate surrender terms at Appomattox and the first Native American to hold the position -remove corrupt Indian agents, who supervise reservations, and replace them with Christian missionaries, whom he deems morally superior.

Brigham Young's Indian Policies

The Mormons, unlike the trappers who had preceded them, intended to stay in Utah. Therefore they needed to develop a stable relationship with Native Americans. Brigham Young announced a policy of friendliness toward Indians that was designed to minimize tensions between settlers and natives. Brigham Young's policy was to deal with the Indians fairly. Unlike other American settlers, the Mormons were not to kill Indians randomly, nor were Indians to be killed for stealing. This policy, however, was soon challenged. - Brigham Young, the president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, recommended that the Mormon settlers avoid trading with Native American tribes. At this time, the Ute bands of Indians were divided, but Walkara's band was one of the most influential. Walkara recognized that trading with the settlers would enable his band to become more powerful. However, the Ute were angered by the Mormons building a permanent settlement in the area, and Walkara favored driving them out by force. -Brigham Young's policy was to feed the Indians rather than fight them

1850 Compromise

The Republic of Texas had claimed ownership of the eastern half of present-day New Mexico, along with sections of Colorado, Kansas and Wyoming, but Texas had never effectively controlled the area, which was dominated by hostile Indian tribes. However, the federal government now controlled the area after 1846. The Compromise of 1850 solved the problem by setting the present boundaries of Texas in return for $10 million in federal bonds paid to the state of Texas

Destruction of the Bison (Buffalo!)

There were even buffalo killing contests. In one, a Kansan set a record by killing 120 bison in just 40 minutes. "Buffalo" Bill Cody, hired to slaughter the animals, killed more than 4,000 buffalo in just two years. Some U.S. government officials even promoted the destruction of the bison herds as a way to defeat their Native American enemies, who were resisting the takeover of their lands by white settlers. One Congressman, James Throckmorton of Texas, believed that "it would be a great step forward in the civilization of the Indians and the preservation of peace on the border if there was not a buffalo in existence." Soon, military commanders were ordering their troops to kill buffalo — not for food, but to deny Native Americans their own source of food. One general believed that buffalo hunters "did more to defeat the Indian nations in a few years than soldiers did in 50." By 1880, the slaughter was almost over. Where millions of buffalo once roamed, only a few thousand animals remained. Soon, their numbers dwindled, with the largest wild herd — just a few hundred animals — sheltered in the isolated valleys of the newly created Yellowstone National Park.

Quanah Parker

Tribe: Comanche 1852-1911 son of Comanche chief Nocona and kidnapped American Cynthia Ann Parker -became the last chief of the Comanches -transformed himself from a 19th century Comanche Warrior to a 20th century Comanche politician and businessman. -fought against the Americans in the Red River War of 1874-75 -shift to the reservation environment markedly accelerated his rise to prominence among the Comanches -rose to prominence as the principle chief and a savvy politician after his people were confined to the reservation -appointed as chief by the Indian agents on the reservation, gained recognition and titles from Texan cattlemen (helped the cattlemen by watching their herds which prevented Comanche raids in return for gaining prominence in the white society) -made himself useful to the US government as a leader who would comply with the new policies being implemented on the reservation. -leased grazing rights on Comanche lands to local cattlemen -achieved wealth and position, owning a large herd of cattle and living in an impressive house -he sent his children away to receive an american education -used his influence to represent his people -refused to cut his hair or to comply with the governments rules forbidding polygamy -became a leader in the Native American Church, probably introduced the Comanche to peyote -when the government wanted to open the reservations to white settlement and give the Indians allotments, rather than opposing it, he concluded that the government would have its way, and the best strategy would be to get as good a deal as possible. sought to extract a higher price per acre than the commissioners offered, tried to increase the size of allotments, and tried to postpone implementation as long as possible -at the time of his death in 1911, he still held the title principle chief of the Comanches, but it was largely honorific, and no chief was appointed after his death.

Manuelito

Tribe: Navajo 1818-1893 Navajo Chief -one of the last to surrender to General Carleton, Colonel Canby, and Kit Carson when they came and destroyed their sheep herds and crops -went on the "Long Walk" with his people to the Bosque Redondo reservation in New Mexico -traveled to Washington DC to plead that his people be allowed to return home -after 4 years, they were allowed to return to their traditional homes with 15,000 head of step and goats as breeding stock to replenish their severely depleted herds -in return for being given a chance to rebuild their communities, they promised to stay on their reservations, to stop raiding and become farmers and ranchers

US v Kagama

a United States Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of the Major Crimes Act of 1885. This Congressional act gave the federal courts jurisdiction in certain cases of Indian-on-Indian crimes, even if the crimes were committed on an Indian reservation. Kagama, a Yurok Native American (Indian) accused of murder, was selected as a test case by the Department of Justice to test the constitutionality of the Act. -Plenary power over Indian tribes, supposedly granted to the U.S. Congress by the Commerce Clause of the Constitution, was not deemed necessary to support the Supreme Court in this decision; instead, the Court found the power in the tribes' status as dependent domestic nations. This allowed Congress to pass the Dawes Act the following year. The case has been criticized by legal scholars as drawing on powers that are not granted to Congress by the Constitution.

ex parte Crow Dog

a decision of the Supreme Court of the United States that followed the death of one member of a Native American tribe at the hands of another on reservation land.[fn 1] Crow Dog was a member of the Brulé band of the Lakota Sioux. On August 5, 1881 he shot and killed Spotted Tail, a Lakota chief; there are different accounts of the background to the killing. The tribal council dealt with the incident according to Sioux tradition, and Crow Dog paid restitution to the dead man's family. However, the U.S. authorities then prosecuted Crow Dog for murder in a federal court. He was found guilty and sentenced to hang. The Supreme Court held that unless authorized by Congress, federal courts had no jurisdiction to try cases where the offense had already been tried by the tribal council.[1] Crow Dog was therefore released. This case was the first time in history that an Indian was held on trial for the murder of another Indian. The case led to the Major Crimes Act in 1885, which placed some major crimes (initially seven, now 15) under federal jurisdiction if committed by an Indian against another Indian on a reservation or tribal land. This case was the beginning of the plenary power legal doctrine that has been used in Indian case law to limit tribal sovereignty.

1890 Ghost Dance

a new religious movement incorporated into numerous American Indian belief systems. According to the teachings of the Northern Paiute spiritual leader Wovoka (renamed Jack Wilson), proper practice of the dance would reunite the living with spirits of the dead, bring the spirits of the dead to fight on their behalf, make the white colonists leave, and bring peace, prosperity, and unity to Indian peoples throughout the region. -Following the Wounded Knee Massacre, interest and participation in the Ghost Dance movement dropped dramatically for fear of continued violence against practitioners of the religion.

Santee Sioux Uprising

an armed conflict between the United States and several bands of Dakota, led by Little Crow -Little Crow pursued a policy of accommodation in dealing with the United States and took the lead in signing treaties selling Dakota lands (Treaty of Traverse des Sioux and Treaty of Mendota) -the Americans failed to deliver the annuities, and the Indian agent (Andrew Myrick) told the hungry Dakotas to eat grass -1862: led his angry warriors in the Dakota War of 1862, or Santee Sioux Uprising against the Americans -the war torre apart kinship and other relationships that had evolved over years as Dakota people intermarried and coexisted with white traders and neighbors. families of mixed heritage faced divided loyalties -dakota warriors killed more than 1000 settlers -Little Crow had warned the angry warriors when they demanded that he lead them to war that the Americans were as thick as locusts in flight -American troops put down the Great Sioux Uprising, and about 1,700 Sioux were marched to Fort Snelling and confined in a wooden stockade -400 indians were put on trial for murder, 38 executed: the largest public hanging in American history -some Dakota refugees fled west to join their Lakota relatives on the Plains

Friends of the Indians

movement was fueled by rhetoric, religion, and "sympathetic" rich people -fought hard for the cultural assimilation and subsequent Americanization of the native peoples. Their logic was simple and absolute: assimilate the Indians or they will be destroyed by The United States of America.

1851 Treaty of Ft. Laramie

signed on September 17, 1851 between United States treaty commissioners and representatives of the Cheyenne, Sioux, Arapaho, Crow, Assiniboine, Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara nations. The treaty is an agreement between nine more or less independent parties. The treaty set forth traditional territorial claims of the tribes as among themselves. The United States acknowledged that all the land covered by the treaty was Indian territory and did not claim any part of it. The boundaries agreed to in the Fort Laramie treaty of 1851 would be used to settle a number of claims cases in the 20th century. The Native Americans guaranteed safe passage for settlers on the Oregon Trail and allowed roads and forts to be built in their territories in return for promises of an annuity in the amount of fifty thousand dollars for fifty years. The treaty should also "make an effective and lasting peace" among the eight tribes, each of them often at odds with a number of the others. ogovernment wanted • to ensure peace with Plains Indians (esp. Lakota) • want safe passage through the plains (trains) • to have tribes identify where they live geographically • start placing it on maps • some tribes overlapped oUS offers $50 thousand worth of presents every years • A LOT of money • For right of passage • Done because the Indians have the power and control decision making • US asked where the tribes were, what boundaries they considered their territories, the enumeration of the tribes oSenate reduces payment, and then the treaty is ratified oLakotas (massive plains power) made peace with the United States

Black Hills Gold Rush

the Black Hills were used by Native Americans (primarily bands of Sioux but others also ranged through the area). The United States government recognized the Black Hills as belonging to the Sioux by the Treaty of Laramie in 1868. Despite being within Indian territory, and therefore off-limits, white Americans were increasingly interested in the gold-mining possibilities of the Black Hills. - began in 1874. The first arrivals were a force of one thousand men led by George Armstrong Custer to investigate reports that the area contained gold,[5] even though the land was owned by the Sioux. -led to the battle of little bighorn

1868 Treaty of Ft. Laramie

the tribes were assigned reservations of diminished size compared to territories defined in an 1865 treaty. The treaty tribes never ratified the treaty by vote of adult males, as it required. In addition, by changing allotment policy under the Dawes Act and authorizing sales under the Agreement with the Cheyenne and Arapaho (1890) and the Agreement with the Comanche, Kiowa and Apache (1892) signed with the Cherokee Commission , the Congress effectively further reduced their reservation territory.

1867 Treaty of Medicine Lodge

three treaties signed between the United States government and southern Plains Indian tribes in October 1867, intended to bring peace to the area by relocating the Native Americans to reservations in Indian Territory and away from European-American settlement. The treaty was negotiated after investigation by the Indian Peace Commission, which in its final report in 1868 concluded that the wars had been preventable. They determined that the United States government and its representatives, including the United States Congress, had contributed to the warfare on the Great Plains by failing to fulfill their legal obligations and to treat the Native Americans with honesty. -The U.S. government and tribal chiefs met at a place traditional for Native American ceremonies, at their request. The first treaty was signed October 21, 1867, with the Kiowa and Comanche tribes. The second, with the Kiowa-Apache, was signed the same day. The third treaty was signed with the Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho on October 28.