Natural Hazards

Hazards associated with tropical storms - coastal and river flooding

- Warm humid air associated tropical storm can generate torrential rainfall - often in excess of 200mm in few hours - Can trigger flash flooding at coast particularly in urban areas ( surface water can overwhelm drainage system) - Urbanisation - with system of drain, impermeable surfaces, high density of buildings - exacerbates flood hazard by encouraging rapid overland flow and causing flash flooding- Warm humid air associated tropical storm can generate torrential rainfall - often in excess of 200mm in few hours - Can trigger flash flooding at coast particularly in urban areas ( surface water can overwhelm drainage system) - Urbanisation - with system of drain, impermeable surfaces, high density of buildings - exacerbates flood hazard by encouraging rapid overland flow and causing flash flooding

park model of response to hazards 2. Rehabilitation

- longer phase lasting weeks or months - when infrastructure and services are restored, possibly temporarily to allow reconstruction phase to begin - day / weeks - not back to normal - economic activity much lower than before event - social stability very low

Cyclone Winston Flash funding appeal

- march Fijian gov + UN - $38.6 mill flash appeal - 51% of appeal funding received = best funded emergency response in the world in 2016. - Nearly 60% of the funding went to projects implemented by the Fijian Government and 8% by national NGOs - gov 58% - UN 20% - INGO 14% - NNGO 8%

hazard frequency

- may effect the recovery of a country, if there is already pre existing damamage physically and economically - response may not be as quick or substantial enough

Consequences of Hurricane Katrina

- most catastrophically in New Orleans, bringing devastation to 80% of the city. - Storm winds generated a massive storm surge - overtopped the famous coastal city's levees. - 1,600 people lost their lives - damages of $100 billion were recorded.

tropical storms - Atmospheric instability

- most likely to form in region of intense atmospheric instability, where warm air is being forced to rise

fatalism

- people accept that there will be a risk but choose to do little about it prior to event - Event will still be reactive but hazard event will often lead to large loss of life due to limited organisational capacity - response more likely in developing

natural hazard

- perceived event that threatens both life and property. - Few hazards are entirely natural - association with disaster is the result of human vulnerability - human actions intensify the impact of natural hazards - E.g. exacerbating earthquake rick by building inappropriate buildings

hazard adaption

- places which experience regular hazards a response is often to adapt or adjust their behaviour to be able to cope with future events better - tornado valley has shelters dug into ground

hazard management

- possible risk of to human life and to properties and allocating appropriate resources to tackle hazard again - depends of countries level of wealth

Cyclone Winston Long term responses

- post-cyclone shelter programming, encouragingly strong emphasis on 'Building Back Safer' = make country more resilient to future cyclones. - Protection projects better funded and more visible in the Winston response reflecting the lessons learned from prev cyclone Pam 2015 - State of the art, mobile-based data collection software was used by several clusters and by the UNDAC team. - Working on Gov's commitment to implement U-Report as a community feedback mechanism = see responsiveness to the needs of affected people.

risk

- probability of a hazard occurring and creating a loss of lives and/or livelihoods - Many people consciously place themselves at risk - consider, for example, all those who live in the shadow of a volcano

Hazard management cycle - recovery

- restoring affected areas to something approaching normality. There are short term and long term priorities

park model of response to hazards 3. Reconstruction

- restoring same or better quality of life as before even took place - likely to include measures to mitigate a similar level if disruption of event occurs again - weeks / years - returning to normal - better quality of life ? - economic activity same as before event - social stability same or better than before event

cyclone Winston responses summary

- revealed that there are differing degrees of coordination between disaster stakeholders in humanitarian response and long-term development -each department and division within the administrative regions have their own plans without comprehensive oversight to harmonise the initiatives and activities

Hurricane Katrina - Short term responses - Sanctuary's

- sanctuary within New Orleans - Sanctuary in Houston - 25,000 ppl in astrodome -clean conditions -no water or functioning washing facilities in neighbourhoods

Hazard management cycle -preparedness

-education and raising public awareness can reduce human causes and adjust behaviour to minimise the likely impact -knowing what to do in the immediate aftermath can speed up the recovery process - in areas of high risk the level of preparedness will be greater than where events are rare

impact of tropical storms - primary impact

-initial and direct impact of tropical storm - these include strong, winds, storm surge and heavy rain at the coast causing flooding

where do tropical storms occur

- Caribbean Sea / Gulf of Mexico area : Hurricanes (11% of all tropical revolving storms) - Western side of Central America ( eastern pacific) : Hurricane - Arabian Sea / Bay of Bengal area : cyclones (8% )

cyclone Winston secondary impacts

- Homelessness and lack of shelter was a major problem = 131,000 people in need of immediate shelter - The total damage caused by the storm was estimated at US$255.7 million

why we can't predict cyclones

- Hurricane return period = frequency at which a certain intensity of hurricane can be expected within a given distance of a given location - Tropical storms respond to atmospheric and oceanographic conditions at time - cant make exact path predictions

saffir simpson scale category 5

catastrophic level of damage - Complete devastation - People and livestock could be killed even if indoors - Total destruction of homes regardless of age or building type

vulnerability

defined as the risk of exposure to hazards combined with an inability to cope with them

saffir - simpson scale category 3

extensive level of damage - People and livestock would risk death from flying debris - Older buildings such as ones made of metal could collapse - Windows could be blown out or smashed from flying debris - Trees uprooted Gable ends and temporary structures, decking destroyed

saffir simpson scale category 4

extreme level of damage - Well build homes can be damaged and poorly build homes can be completely destroyed - Windows from many buildings blown out - Signs and fences ripped out Power cuts and water shortages would be significant

impact of tropical storms - secondary impact

impact that happens as a consequence of the primary impacts, such as inland river flooding and landslides

How is New Orleans hazard risk now being managed post Hurricane Katrina - hurricane hazard management Hard engineering

levee Building - used along the Mississippi flood plain banks of material that line the river bank or coastline, allowing greater heights of water to be reached without water spilling onto settled land. - 2005, major repairs have been made and for the foreseeable future, New Orleans will be protected by levees. - re-constructed levees still be unable to protect against a storm with Katrina's strength. - Army Corps of Engineers spending $15 billion on post-Katrina levee construction and reconstruction - every house being rebuilt in New Orleans has a 26% chance of being flooded again over a 30-year mortgage - every child born in New Orleans has nearly 60 % chance of seeing a major flood in his or her life

Hurricane Katrina primary impacts

· 800,000 homes were destroyed · Over 1,800 people were killed · People were evacuated form the areas where the storm hit · 80% of the city was flooded of New Orleans · Emergence search and rescue

Hurricane Katrina Environmental impacts

• Cotton and sugar cane crops were destroyed. • Flooding of 80% of New Orleans • 7 million gallons of oil spilled throughout the region from 44 oil spills • Household hazardous wastes, pesticides and other toxic chemicals also created contaminated floodwater that quickly seeped into and contaminated groundwater across hundreds of miles.

Cyclone Winston - importance of international aid

Flash funding appeal - disaster prompted a large-scale local, national and international response, led by the Fijian Government - support from national and international partners, the Republic of Fiji Military Forces and foreign military assets.

tsunami - Geophysical Hydrological

Is a huge ocean wave that can travel at speeds up to 600 mi/hr hundreds of miles over open sea before it hits land triggered by an underwater earthquake

drought - atmospheric

Is a long period of unusually dry weather that causes water shortage and crop damage

avalanche - Geophysical- caused by earthquakes Atmospheric - warmer temperatures causing snow slip

Is a massive slide of snow, ice, rocks or debris down a mountain side.

wildfire - atmospheric

Is a raging fire that rapidly spreads out of control

earthquake - geophysical

Is a tremor of the earths surface usually triggered by the release of underground stress along fault lines

hazard magnitude and levels of development

- Higher magnitude = more damage especially in HIC countries where they have more goods of value that can be damaged. - LIC's = have less preparation and mitigation plans creating more damage as well as buildings of a lower standard

Hurricane Katrina - Short term responses -US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

- $3 billion directly to Louisiana victims through individuals and household programmes - 1 million housing inspections = saftey - 81,000 houses temp covered = 'blue roof programme' = can stay in homes - 43,000 temp homes set up - £102 million in unemployment assistance for 108,000 eligible hurricane victims - US army corps cleared 30mill m3 debris - but 40 mill m3 yet to be

Post Katrina environmental issues

- 'Build back green' campaign - Carbon neutral, green community where some of poorest used to live - 150 green affordable high quality design homes in- Brad pitt - 1/5 mill tonn of Co2 eliminated from atmosphere

Saffir-Simpson Scale category 1

- 119-153 km/h - low level of damage - Roof coverings partly removed - Mobile homes / carports could be destroyed - Glass broken

saffir - simpson scale category 2

- 154-177 km/h - moderate damage -All types of mobile homes / flimsy structures destroyed / shredded by flying debris - Roof structures on poorly constructed houses could be ripped off Unreinforced buildings could be damaged

Hurricane Katrina secondary impacts

- 230,000 jobs were lost - 705 people were missing - Electricity, gas and water supplies where lost - Water diseases like cholera were spread easily - Surveys conducted in December 2005 indicated that about 50% of the half million evacuees were unwilling to return to their homes.

tropical storms - high temperatures

- 26 degrees C needed - formed in lower latitudes over summer due to temp of water

Hurricane Katrina - Short term responses - Red Cross

- 356 shelters in 9 states - 107,400 evacuees - 249 emergency response vehicles - 500,000 hot meals each day via red cross and baptist convention

Formation of Earth

- 4.6 billion years old - formed from the aggregation of materials thrown out by the explosion of a star = big bang - molten materials that slowly cooled from the surface downwards to form a crust of solidified rocks. - gasses escaping from the Earth's interior via volcanic activity = a primitive atmosphere very different from the one today - oldest known rocks on planet Earth dated between 2.5 and 3.8 billion years, oldest found on Hudson Bay.

cyclone Winston primary and social impacts

- 40,000 + homes were destroyed - Communications between islands were lost for several days as 80% of the population lost power - 225 + schools were damaged or destroyed - strong winds that reached up to 285km/h. This led to all the buildings in Kade Village on Koro Island to be destroyed -60% of the population were significantly affected - 44 killed

Hazards associated with tropical storms - Landslides

- 90% of landslides each year are caused by heavy rainfall - many triggered by troipical storms - Intense rainfall increases pore water pressure (hydrostatic pressure within slope) - weakens cohesion and triggering slope failure

What are the characteristics of a tropical storm ?

- A tropical storm is a huge and extremely violent weather event that can extend 500km in diameter and that by definition has average wind speeds in excess of 75mph. - The most powerful and damaging part of a tropical cyclone is the bank of cloud that rings the eye. This is called the eye wall

Hazards associated with tropical storms - strong winds

- Average windspeeds in excess of 120 km/h - 250km/h recorded at eye wall - Capable of causing significant damage and disruption by tearing off roofs, breaking windows, damaging and disruption by tearing off roofs, breaking windows and damaging communication networks - Debris forms flying missiles, damaged power lines lead to widespread electricity cuts - Major transport disruption

Hurricane Katrina - Long term responses - 'Build back green' campaign

- Brad pitt - 'global green' piloting carbon neutral' green community in lower 9th ward (city's poorest live) - 'make it right foundation' = 150 green affordable homes - slow to build = plans in 2005 -2008 to complete - USA had lots at disposal but poorly managed and implemented.

environmental impacts - cyclones

- inundation of saltwater - destruction of coastal environments - pollution

Saffir-Simpson Scale

- Classifies hurricanes according to wind speed, air pressure in the center, and potential for property damage. - 1-5 scale rating

how does hazard vulnerability vary over time ?

- Disasters are becoming less deadly but more costly - Improvement in science and technology means we are better at forecasting disasters while buildings and structures can withstand physical impacts better

post Katrina social issue - murders

- Exaggerated looting, national guard, police dept, vigilantes all acted heavy handed in aftermath of hurricane - refugees seeking help shot as thought they were looters

Cyclone Winston economic impacts

- Fiji lost 1/5 of its GDP = contraction in labour demand, resulting in the loss of 14,450,129 workdays - equivalent to approx. 50,000 full-time jobs -Food prices rose in the following weeks = due to the damage inflicted on crops by the storm - the agricultural sector lost over US$54 million - Commercial and manufacturing activities suffered 10%-17% - losses in tourism and transport suffered 8%

characterised into 3 types

- Geophysical : driven by earths own internal energy sources - Atmospheric : driven by processes at work in the atmosphere -Hydrological : driven by the earths major water bodies

Why are LIC's more vulnerable to natural disasters

- Growth in population and economies = main reason more money is lost in disaster (more infrastructure in more developed places) - Economies that rely on tertiary sector are less affected than those that rely on agriculture where fields and crops can be devastated - Rural populations are more dispersed with less well built homes and access to healthcare - Numbers killed decrease as GDP per capita increases due to poverty, poor health, food insecurity, housing conditions and medical care standards

post Katrina social issue - Long term psychological stress for children and adults

- Health officials believe it could take many more years for the children of New Orleans to recover from severe psychological stress = 45,000 children in the city that have some kind of mental health problem - Many people do not have homes to return to due to scale of rebuilding - Non-profit organisations and local authorities busy rebuilding, recovery process is fragile, made more fragile with current economic climate - Many homes not rebuilt in lower ninth ward Houses, towns, people all different not same as before

disaster aid - tropical storms

- Immediate humanitarian relief in the form of search and rescue, food, water, medicine and shelter - Longer-term reconstructional aid that seeks to support recovery and reconstructional - First stage in any impending disaster is for gov to declare state of emergency - often triggers federal / state support both financially and also in terms of mobalising armed forces and emergency services - most governments seek support from the international community

How is New Orleans hazard risk now being managed post Hurricane Katrina - hurricane hazard management

- In the case of hurricanes, mitigation is not possible - storms cannot be prevented. - range of adaptation measures can still be taken in order to minimise losses of life and property should a repeat event occur. - Adaptive measures range from hard engineering (flood walls) to soft engineering (moving people away from high-risk areas).

how to population characteristics affect vulnerability ?

- Increased population density and urbanisation increases vulnerability to disasters - Congestion, limited escape routes, dense infrastructure and poverty increase vulnerability - Growth of coastal populations exposes more people to flooding, hurricanes and tsunamis - More likely to be poor, less educated and politically marginalised

Tornado - atmospheric

- Is a destructive windstorm occurring over land characterised by a funnel shaped cloud extending toward the ground

Hurricane / cyclone (tropical storm)- Atmospheric

- Is a severe tropical storm typically associated with incredibly strong winds

landslide - Geophysical = earthquakes , Atmospheric = heavy rainfall

- Is the movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope

what role can attitudes play in affecting vulnerability

- Japanese authorities responded quickly within months devastated areas had been cleared (quick response helped recovery) - Better prepared and better attitude play a huge role - if you can reduce loss of life (planning and preparing) - Signs stood amongst remaining devastation saying 'hold out, stand firm and hang in there' - fatalistic view = more likely to be harmed

Why are storm surges a major hazard with tropical storms

- Large destructive powers - Land slides - Tidal wave effect coming on land - Although strength of wind water will cause buildings to collapse and significant damage - Stagnant water could leave diseases rife - Worst factor for loss of life

NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)

- NOAA published prediction of hurricane activity for forthcoming season - Uses number of indicators such as sea surface temperatures, atmospheric conditions and short term climatic cycles ( el niño and la Niña) - suggest number of storms that might be expected - NOAA does not predict likely landfall or levels of activity for particular locations - can only be predicted in final few days before landfall happens

Cyclone Winston - is Fiji now in a better state to cope with a further cyclone ?

- Need to review existing social protection policies and legislation to bring them up to date and make them vital element of future disaster response strategy - Broaden disaster responsive social protection interventions to include more for youth, working age and public works programmes - - Develop standard operating procedures and disasters for responsive social protection - Establish coordination mechanism for cash transfer interventions in times of disaster - Consolidate and centralize poverty benefit scheme so both poor and near poor households can be targeted in times of disaster - develop post-disaster communication plan - lack of sustainable development approaches also a issue, especially in the tourism sector. - interlinkages between disasters, tourism activities and their impact to local communities at the sub-national levels requires thorough research and resources to identify measurement indicators. - country is also experiencing a resilience gap, especially among younger populations who lack traditional knowledge for enhancing disaster preparedness

Hurricane Katrina - Short term responses - Emergency services, city authorities and federal gov

- New Orleans evacuated - military planes evacuated seriously ill - congress approved US$10.5 bill aid package - largest airlift in USA history rescued thousands

how does technology affect vulnerability

- No reliable method for predicting earthquakes - however probabilities can be calculated : assesments of long term earthquakes e.g rates in California suggest roughly 2 in 3 change that magnitude 6.7+ will strike in next 30yrs - Spatial patterns important - stress along fault line, change in gas emissions - USGS designed to detect signs of unrest in volcanoes - Avalanches - mapped

structural responses to cyclones

- Offer protection from storm surges by soft engineering schemes ( planting trees, building beaches) - Coral reef = acting as buffer in reducing storm surges

Hurricane Katrina social impacts

- Population of new-Orleans estimated to have fallen by 8.4% (378,000 people) from deaths and evacuations - Over 1,800 people died from primary impacts and secondary impacts - Close to 2.3 million people were left without power.

Cyclone Winston cluster achievements

- Shelter Cluster partners, along with the Fijian Government, have distributed more than 50,000 shelter and non-food items to 28,000 affected households, including tents, tarpaulins, shelter kits and shelter tool kits. - Supporting Fijians to build their homes back safer is a priority for the Cluster from the beginning of the response - Social welfare top up payments - food vouchers program - housing program

hazards associated with tropical storms

- Strong winds - Storm surges - Flooding - rivers and coasts - Landslides

Hazards associated with tropical storms

- Surge of high water typically up to 3m - Sweeps inland from the sea, flooding low lying areas caused by combination of the intense low atmospheric pressure of tropical storm (enabling sea to rise vertically) together with powerful driving surface winds - Storm surges are major cause of widespread devastation and loss of life ( hurricane katrina in USA 2005 7.6m ) - Addition to loss of life storm surges inundate agricultural land with saltwater and debris, pollute fresh water supplies and destroy housing and infrastructure. - Enhanced costal erosion can lead to undermining of buildings and highways

probability

- likelihood of harm and damage - probability of an event occurring and the severity of the hazard when it does occur

volcano - geophysical

- When pressure from the molten rock beneath the earth's surface becomes too great, the rock, usually accompanied by lave or gasses, escapes through a fissure or vent in the crust of the earth

Hadley Cell

- a system of vertical and horizontal air circulation predominating in tropical and subtropical regions and creating major weather patterns. - ground is heated by the overhead sun. The warm air rises, leaving low pressure on the ground. - The rising air then cools and forms thick clouds in a zone called the INTER TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE (ITCZ). - The ITCZ is the perfect spawning ground for tropical storms.

hazard mitigation

- action taken to reduce or eliminate the long term risk to human life - help an area to be prepared for the impacts and lessen the impacts when the hazard occurs

hazard management cycle

- actions aimed at reducing the severity of an event and lessening its impacts e.g. building design; mangrove maintenance to protect from storm surges. It could be supported after a disaster in the form on insurance or aid.

Cyclone Winston short term responses

- assistance was mobilised quickly = food rations, agricultural inputs for replanting crops - TC Winston response successfully involved wide use of cash vouchers for the purchase of both food and rebuilding materials -Schools able to reopen within couple of weeks = help of temporary learning spaces - Health facilities were mostly operational quickly after the cyclone with some needing repairs. -Civil-military cooperation assisted with the logistics of a response across many isolated islands. - After 2 days international airport re-opened enabling emergency supplies to be airlifted in. - Huge amount of debris and waste cleared for reconstruction

How is New Orleans hazard risk now being managed post Hurricane Katrina - evacuation

- better signage and public awareness - Disaster planning greatly improved since 2005. - Hurricane Gustav threatened New Orleans in 2008, 1.9 million people immediately evacuated the city and the wider south Louisiana area. - Few as 10,000 people stayed put in New Orleans itself

Cyclone Winston overview

- category 5 - 185mph winds - 44 deaths - fiji - 126 injured Perception of storm = Usually experience 2 tropical storms per year = familiar/part of their life · Distinct lack of awareness about the weather phenomena underpinning a tropical cyclone

Coriolis effect

- certain amount of spin is needed to start the rotating motion of a tropical storm. - increases with distance away from the Equator and explains why hurricanes do not usually form between 5 degrees N and S (i.e. close to) of the equator.

resilience

- degree to which a population or environment can absorb a hazardous event and yet remain within the same state of organisation.

perception of hazards

- determined by the effect it may have on our lives - Increases if people have direct experience of hazards and also how long term the impact has been - Many people underestimate the risk of hazards - Some communities can be 'fatalistic' about hazards - what will be will be, cant od anything -can be because of religion (gods will), culture, socio economic factors such as not being able to move away -attitude that is accepting of the impacts typically found in countries where they know there is a likely hood of it happening, don't have means or education to do anything - Linked to levels of mobility, education, wealth - different in LIC and HIC as we have power to make the change if we are in danger with provisions as well as moving whereas poorer communities don't have a choice as they don't have the means to move anywhere else as well as not know of anywhere else.

Hurricane Katrina - Short term responses - ISSUES

- feb 2006 much of New Orleans no sewer system or electricity and gas no functioning - only 9 functioning gas stations - FEMA 3 days after landfall to grasp magnitude of hurricane's destruction - FEMA = ill prepared to conduct massive search and rescue operation

Hurricane Katrina - Long term responses - Levee building

- greater heights of water to protected from - $15 bill spent on levees = 100yr protection (thames UK = 1000 years) - not able to protect against storms as strong as Katrina - ppl may leave houses on land 'protected by levees - reality = not safe = hazard risk increases

How is New Orleans hazard risk now being managed post Hurricane Katrina - FEMA's Hi-tech people locator

- hi-tech locator system to help people displaced by hurricanes get in touch with their family. - 2005, estimated 18,000 people were lost in the system - Now America's Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has developed a new method of monitoring the movement of evacuated people. - Displaced citizens can sign up with the National Emergency Family Registry Locator. - computerised system allows up to seven people access their information, including ways to contact them

park model of human response hazards 1. relief

- hours / days - short term - immediate local and possibly global response - in form of aid, expertise, search and rescue

How is New Orleans hazard risk now being managed post Hurricane Katrina - Managed retreat

- strategy of abandoning high-risk land has proved controversial. - the highest-risk areas for flooding have tended to be places where large numbers of black Americans live rather than white Americans (a highly controversial finding, for obvious reasons). - citizens who lost flooded homes in same areas recently pitched tents on sites of their former properties, and protested against bulldozers to remove housing rubble in preparation for park building. - want to see their districts rebuilt and not abandoned.

Cyclone Winston - long term able to rebuild lives ?

- technical training pilot program = aim to train those within NGO's, community, organisations for safer construction practices = 'build back safer' - aimed to target both owner-builders, as well as skilled and semi-skilled carpenters - 'Build back safer' construct more durable housing, become more resilient for future as well as technical training support for labour, construction of transitional or core shelters. BUT - long-term development agenda was replaced by the immediate response phase and the rebuilding was not interlinked to any established development priorities

disaster

- the realisation of a hazard when it causes a 'significant impact on a vulnerable population. - serious disruption of functioning of a community or society involving widespread/ serious socioeconomic and environmental losses that exceeds the ability of the community to cope. - it exceeds their capacity ( to cope) and resilience

hazard management cycle - response

- the speed of response will depend on the effectiveness of the emergency plan in place

tropical storms - oceans

- tropical storms get their moisture and energy from oceans - evaporation = moisture - latent heat - air gains heat from condensation which future promoted rising of air and cloud formation - depth of 70m to provide moisture and latent heat

Hurricane Katrina - Long term responses - Managed retreat

- wanted to turn most vulnerable areas into park land to act as buffer for future flooding = people apposed and camped in protest (often areas of poorest ) - FEMAs Hi-tech People locator = helps displaced people get in touch with family - Displaced citizens sign up with National Emergency Family Register Locator = ppl can find displaced cictizens

Cyclone Winston causes

- warm ocean waters near the equators above 26 degrees - causing an area of lower air pressure below which draws in the local Trade Winds - air rises and cools, the water vapour condenses into clouds - · wind spins in a clockwise direction due to the Coriolis effect and grows - fed by the ocean's heat and water evaporating from the surface - Cyclone Winston was to the East of Fiji it crossed the warmest waters of the Pacific which gave it more energy and turned it into a category 4 cyclone

Hurricane Katrina economic impacts

- £50 billion in damage - most damage on poorer neighbourhoods with high rates of unemployment and a high proportion of people renting their homes. Most have neither home insurance or the money to return and rebuild. - Oil platforms were destroyed. - Tourism decreased - New Orleans lost 190,000 jobs and employment fell by more than 30 percent from August 2005 to December 2005

Formation of tropical storms

1. Sun warms ocean 2. 27 degrees + needed 3. Cause warm moist air to rise, then cool and condenses to form clouds and rain 4. Some cooled air sinks back down creating a eye 5. Air rushes from high to low pressure creating winds which rotate due to the spin of the earth

Hurricane Katrina - Long term responses - act to reorganise = FEMA

2006 - 'Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act' offers grants = help cities revise evacuation plans - provisions for better communication with non-english speakers

flood - Hydrological - costal flooding tidal surges Atmospheric - high rainfall

An overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry