NCE Practice Test One

1. The Sensorimotor period is part of whose developmental stage theory? a. Freud b. Piaget c. Erikson d. Kohlberg

B. Piaget

22. Jenny recently lost her job and fell behind in her mortgage payments, so now she is facing foreclosure. She is seeing a counselor to help her cope with the stress in her life. She feels like a failure and wants her self-esteem to be higher, and she feels that she is not living up to her potential. Her counselor tells her that her first priorities are to fulfill her more basic needs, such as applying for food stamps so she will not go hungry and getting help with her housing situation so that she meets her needs for safety and physical security. The counselor tells her that once she has addressed these basic needs, she can then address her higher-order needs for self-esteem and fulfilling her potential as a person. Which theorist has most influenced Jenny's counselor? a. Abraham Maslowb. Edward Thorndike c. Erik Eriksond. Harry Stack Sullivan

a

28. Four broad stages of development in the first three years of life are identified in Object Relations Theory. Which of these represents the correct chronological order of these four stages? a. Fusion with mother; Symbiosis with mother; Separation/Individuation; Constancy of self and objectb. Symbiosis with mother; Fusion with mother; Separation/Individuation; Constancy of self and objectc. Constancy of self and object; Separation/Individuation; Symbiosis with mother; Fusion with motherd. Separation/Individuation; Constancy of self and object; Symbiosis with mother; Fusion with mother

a

32. Which is the correct chronological order of the five stages of development identified by Sigmund Freud?a. Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genitalb. Oral, Phallic, Anal, Genital, Latency c. Oral, Latency, Anal, Genital, Phallic d. Oral, Anal, Genital, Latency, Phallic

a

42. Counselors should be familiar with the distribution of test scores within the normal, or bell, curve. Which of these correctly describes this distribution?a. 68% makes up one standard deviation from the mean, 13.5% makes up two, and 4% makes up three. b. 13.5% makes up one standard deviation from the mean, 68% makes up two, and 99% makes up three.c. 95% makes up one standard deviation from the mean, 68% makes up two, and 13.5% makes up three. d. 99% makes up one standard deviation from the mean, 95% makes up two, and 68% makes up three.

a

48. Who established the very first psychological laboratory in history? a. Wilhelm Wundtb. Sigmund Freudc. Jesse Davis d. Clifford Beers

a

56. Which of the following is not a central concept in existential therapy? a. Guiltb. Anxietyc. Free association d. Search for meaning

a

6. Which is not true of assigning diagnostic codes to clients solely for the purpose of insurance reimbursement? a. It is a legally mandated practice. b. It may constitute insurance fraud. c. It is unethical. d. It is illegal.

a

60. Which of these psychologists' theories completely ignore the unconscious? a. Glasser's Reality Therapy, Rogerian Counseling, and Behaviorismb. Freudian Psychoanalysis, Jungian, and Adlerian Counselingc. Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, and Object Relations Theory d. Rollo May, Viktor Frankl, Abraham Maslow's Existentialism

a

62. A group that is focused on a central theme, such as anger management or learning job seeking skills, is known as a:a. Structured groupb. Self-help group c. Psychoeducation group d. T-group

a

66. Which of the following is the correct chronological order of the four career development stages identified by Linda Gottfredson?a. Orientation to size and power, Orientation to sex roles, Orientation to social valuation, Orientation to the internal unique self b. Orientation to the internal unique self, Orientation to sex roles, Orientation to size and power, Orientation to social valuationc. Orientation to sex roles, Orientation to size and power, Orientation to social valuation, Orientation to the internal unique self d. Orientation to social valuation, Orientation to the internal unique self, Orientation to sex roles, Orientation to size and power

a

67. Harry Harlow used baby monkeys and several different kinds of "surrogate mothers" to investigate which factors are important in early development and attachment. According to his findings, baby monkeys:a. preferred a soft terrycloth "mother" to a wire-mesh "mother" that held a bottle b. preferred a wire-mesh "mother" that held a bottle to a soft terrycloth "mother" c. showed no preferenced. preferred neither "mother"

a

76. Arnold Gesell believed that:a. Development was genetically pre-ordained and realized via maturation.b. Development was differentially influenced via environmental conditions.c. Development resulted from a combination of genetics and environment.d. Development could be realized via nature or nurture, depending on the individual.

a

8. If a therapist has a good ability to perceive and appreciate his/her client's subjective reality (i.e., emotions and cognitions), the therapist is said to have:a. Empathic understandingb. Congruence c. Unconditional positive regard d. Reflection

a

81. In Ellis' Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), what do the A, B, and C stand for in his AB- C-D-E modalities' taxonomy?a. Action, Belief, Consequent affectb. Activity, Behavior, Consequences c. Alternatives, Beginning, Correction d. Avoidance, Basis, Conceptualizing

a. Action, Belief, Consequent affec

The Eskimo word piblokto refers to "arctic hysteria," characterized by uncontrolled screaming and crying that is often accompanied by running through the snow naked. This is an example of what kind of disorder? a. Culture-specific b. Culture shock c. Culture freed. d. Cross-cultural

a. Culture-specific

88. When E. G. Williamson expanded the Trait-Factor approach, he included all except which of these steps?a. Decisionb. Synthesis c. Counseling d. Follow-up

a. Decision

69. Which of the following is true regarding validity and reliability of tests? a. Validity is how consistent the test is.b. A test may be reliable, but not valid.c. A test may be valid, but not reliable. d. Reliability is specific to the situation.

b

73. Who first established the trait-factor guidance approach? a. Jesse Davisb. Frank Parsonsc. E. G. Williamson d. Clifford Beers

b

77. Robert Havighurst is identified with all but which of the following?a. Stages of growth, each of which must be completed to reach the next oneb. Stages of growth resulting in successively higher levels of cognitive functionc. Developmental tasks arising from maturation and environmental influencesd. Developmental tasks that are acquired via maturation, social learning, and effort

b

9. Changes in human growth and development which are qualitative are: a. Changes in number, degree, or frequencyb. Changes in structure or organizationc. Changes which are sequential d. Changes which are discontinuous

b

99. As of the 21st century, the number of certified and licensed counselors in the U.S. is close to: a. 10,000b. 100,000c. 1,000,000 d. None of these

b. 100,000

80. Which of the following would least relate to one of Lazarus' seven modalities? a. The act of standing up or of sitting downb. A perception of an odor that doesn't existc. Having a conversation with an acquaintance d. Having an idea about how to solve a problem

b. A perception of an odor that doesn't exist

84. What is not one of the strengths or benefits of Rogerian counseling? a. Acceptanceb. Concretenessc. Openness d. Versatility

b. Concreteness

83. What would G. L. Harrington or William Glasser most likely say regarding transference? a. It is a normal process in therapy and can be analyzed and resolved.b. It impedes progress and need not occur if the therapist is genuine.c. It is disregarded as an internal state without observable behaviors. d. It is encouraged, and it is used as an exploratory therapeutic tool.

b. It impedes progress and need not occur if the therapist is genuine

89. John Crites' comprehensive model of career counseling includes three diagnoses of a career problem. Which of the following is not one of them?a. Differential diagnosisb. Maturational diagnosis c. Dynamic diagnosis d. Decisional diagnosis

b. Maturational diagnosis

96. One of the main premises of ____________ theory is that individuals choose occupations that will permit them to use their competencies.a. Caplow'sb. Super's c. Roe'sd. Hoppock's

b. Super's

94. Which of the following is not a reason to use nonparametric statistics? a. You have a homogeneous sample.b. You have a normal score distribution.c. You have two independent samples. d. You have nominal (categorical) data.

b. You have a normal score distribution

10. Jim's new therapist believes in the uniqueness of each individual. She talks about the importance of social influences on a person. She tells Jim that everybody has a sense of inferiority, and as a result is always striving to attain superiority. Her counseling goals are to help Jim understand his lifestyle, or unified life plan, which gives meaning to his experiences, and to help him identify social and community interests most appropriate for him. She also wants to help explain Jim to himself. The techniques she uses in her therapy include life histories, homework assignments, and paradoxical intentions. Describe the therapeutic modality that best describes this therapist's approach.a. Client-centered therapyb. Gestalt therapyc. Individual Psychologyd. Transactional Analysis

c

15. Career counseling based on Bandura's social cognitive theory emphasizes all of these concepts except:a. Personal agencyb. Positive uncertainty c. Self-efficacyd. Vicarious learning

c

17. Which of these is/are not considered underlying principles of ethical decision making? a. Beneficence and nonmaleficenceb. Justice (fairness), fidelity (faithfulness)c. Informed consent and confidentiality d. Autonomy and self-determination

c

19. According to REBT, negative reactions can become either self-destructive or appropriate emotions depending on oura. behavior.b. situation. c. thoughts. d. intentions.

c

20. How does consultation differ from counseling? a. It uses different skills than counseling does.b. It is for resolving, not preventing, problems.c. It is a voluntary, work-related process. d. It is process-oriented, not content-oriented.

c

24. Becky is an elementary school student who displays a number of attention-seeking behaviors which are disruptive in the classroom. Her teacher was approached by a local university researcher to refer students for an experiment. The teacher and her parents ask Becky if she would like to participate in the study and she agrees. The research team has collected baseline behavioral data on Becky from the teacher. Early in the study, they find that her behavior is much improved compared to the baseline. Which of these is the most likely explanation for Becky's better behavior during the experiment? a. The Rosenthal effect b. The Pygmalion effect c. The Hawthorne effect d. The Placebo effect

c

26. Which of the following are four "core" elements in building a helping relationship? a. Friendship, knowledge, cultural foundations, directionb. Leadership, skills, empathy, emotional influencec. Human relations, social influence, skills, theory d. Assertiveness, social influence, knowledge, theory

c

30. Which of these books was authored by Eric Berne? a. I'm OK - You're OKb. In and Out of the Garbage Canc. Games People Play d. On Becoming a Person.

c

33. Which demographic is projected about the U.S. population by the year 2050?a. The numbers of Hispanic Americans will exceed the numbers of White Americans.b. The largest number of Americans in the U.S. population will be Non-Hispanic Whites.c. All of the minority groups combined will outnumber the Non-Hispanic White population. d. Non-Hispanic Whites will outnumber all the minority groups combined in the population.

c

36. Which is not an example of resistive individual or group behavior that would impede progress in a therapy group?a. Being unable to set goalsb. Talking too much or too little c. Discussing members' problems d. Arriving late to group meetings

c

40. Which of the following does not use John Holland's typology for determining a person's career type?a. The Vocational Preference Inventoryb. The Self-Directed Search c. The Career Pattern Studyd. The Career Assessment Inventory

c

41. Which of the following is not true of standard deviation?a. Standard deviation describes the variability within a distribution of scores.b. Standard deviation is basically the mean of all the deviations from the mean.c. Standard deviation is a term of quantity which is equal to the term variance.d. Standard deviation is an excellent way to measure the dispersion of scores.

c

45. Which of these is true of qualitative research?a. This kind of research assumes social elements have a single objective reality. b. This kind of research tends to study groups, such as samples or populations. c. This kind of research assumes that different realities are socially constructed. d. This kind of research tries to avoid influencing its data collection instruments.

c

50. Which of these is true regarding the licensure of counselors? a. Licensure can be at the state level or at the national level.b. Licensure requirements are the same in every U.S. state.c. Licensure is possible in several different states at once. d. Licensure is portable from one U.S. state to another.

c

53. An infant first sucks on a nipple to nurse. Then the infant sucks on other things—a toy, Daddy's finger, etc. Later, this infant discovers other things to do with objects beyond sucking on them such as grasping them, shaking them, and otherwise manipulating them, for example. These two behaviors were labeled by Jean Piaget with what terms, in order of their occurrence? a. Adaptation and assimilationb. Adaptation and organizationc. Assimilation and accommodation d. Accommodation and assimilation

c

55. People are said to be products of five different cultures. Two are inevitable culture sources (a culture of human biology and a culture of ecology, which refers to the climates in which people live). Which is not one of the other three?a. Racio-ethnic b. Linguisticc. Regionald. National

c

58. Which two psychologists most emphasize freedom of choice and responsibility in their theories?a. B. F. Skinner and Arnold Lazarusb. William Glasser and Rollo May c. Carl Rogers and Heinz Kohut d. Albert Ellis and Eric Berne

c

59. Which is not considered a weakness of Adlerian counseling? a. It is not firmly based in research.b. Its concepts and terms can be overly vague.c. It is a very rigid and inflexible approach. d. Its approach is very narrow in nature

c

63. Which of the following is the least likely question that a Gestalt therapist might ask of a client who is making a fist with his hand?a. "What are you experiencing when you are making a fist?"b. "How does it feel when you make a fist?" c. "Why are you making a fist?"d. "What is your fist saying?"

c

65. Who developed the Archway Model of self-concept determinants? a. John Hollandb. Linda Gottfredsonc. Donald Super d. John Krumboltz

c

68. Which of these is NOT correct regarding standard scores?a. We obtain a standard score by converting raw score distributions. b. A z-score is a type of standardized score which is commonly used. c. An n-score is a type of standardized score that is commonly used. d. A t-score is a type of standardized score which is commonly used.

c

7. Research that compares findings across many studies is known as: a. Quasi-experiment b. Survey method c. Meta-analysis d. Comparative research

c

70. The emphasis for this type of group is on prevention and development of healthy behaviors.a. Secondaryb. Tertiary c. Primaryd. Homogeneous

c

75. Which is not included in the conditions required for a successful malpractice claim against a therapist?a. A professional relationship was established.b. There was a breach of duty causing an injury. c. The client disliked the counselor's methods. d. A client was physically or psychically injured.

c

100. What is accreditation?a. A process whereby a counselor becomes certified or licensed to practice therapyb. A process whereby a researcher receives credit for his or her work in a publicationc. A process whereby an institution or program receives public recognition for meeting standards d. A process whereby a doctoral student is credited for earning a counseling degree

c. A process whereby an institution or program receives public recognition for meeting standards

79. Which is correct regarding the notion of world views?a. An emic world view is the belief in a global view of all of humanity. b. An etic world view is the belief in taking each group's perspective. c. An etic world view is the belief we are more similar than different. d. An emic world view is the belief in transcending all our differences.

c. An etic world view is the belief we are more similar than different.

90. Convergent validation and discriminant validation occur within what type of validity? a. Content validityb. Predictive validityc. Construct validity d. Concurrent validity

c. Construct validity

Presenting stimuli in different sequences to reduce "order of presentation" influences in an experiment is called: a. Countertransference b. Counterculture c. Counterbalancing d. Countercounseling

c. Counterbalancing

82. In Ellis' Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), what do the D and E stand for in his A-B-C- D-E modalities' classification?a. Decision, Externalsb. Doubt, Engaging c. Disputing, Effectd. Denial, Excitement

c. Disputing, Effect

87. In Frank Parsons' actuarial or Trait-Factor approach to career counseling, which step listed is not a part of the process?a. Study the individualb. Survey occupations c. Give a prognosis d. Make a match

c. Give a prognosis

92. You are given the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales (WAIS-IV) by a psychologist. When showing you your results, the tester compares your score on the vocabulary subtest to your score on the digit span subtest and your score on the block design subtest, etc. This type of assessment is: a. Norm-referencedb. Criterion-referencedc. Ipsatively interpretedd. None of these

c. Ipsatively interpretedd

11. Which of the following is not considered a specialty counseling certification from the National Board for Certified Counselors, Inc. (NBCC)?a. National Certified School Counselor (NCSC)b. Certified Clinical Mental Health Counselor (CCMHC) c. Master Addictions Counselor (MAC) d. National Certified Counselor (NCC)

d

13. All of these are characteristics of test reliability except: a. Stabilityb. Equivalencec. Internal consistency d. Predictive

d

16. Managing a counseling program requires skills in which of these areas? a. Program design and developmentb. Marketing and public relationsc. Budgeting d. All of these

d

18. Sallie attends two different therapy groups in an attempt to find one that suits her. In Group A, the leader uses high levels of emotional stimulation, frequently uses caring functions, and uses low amounts of executive direction. In Group B, the leader uses low amounts of emotional stimulation, low amounts of caring functions, high use of executive behavior, and low amounts of meaning attribution. According to Yalom, which group leader is more effective? a. Group A's leader is more effective. b. Group B's leader is more effective. c. It depends which Sallie likes better. d. Neither leader is more effective.

d

31. What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?a. There is no real difference; they are simply different names for the same essential process.b. Classical conditioning involves a stimulus while operant conditioning involves a response.c. Classical conditioning is concrete operational while operant conditioning is formal operational. d. Classical conditioning evokes involuntary responses; operant evokes voluntary responses.

d

34. People born after the year 1976 in America are commonly referred to as: a. Baby Boomersb. Baby Bustersc. Generation X d. Millennials

d

39. Which of the following pairs does not represent two of John Holland's six personality types? a. Realistic and Investigativeb. Artistic and Socialc. Enterprising and Conventional d. Exploratory and Directive

d

4. Intervention performed with three or more clients at a time is known as: a. Group cohesion b. Group practice c. Group dynamics d. Group therapy

d

44. Which of these is true of quantitative research?a. This kind of research tends to use naturalistic observation of individual behaviors.b. This kind of research tends to use impressions, feelings or judgments of researchers. c. This kind of research has as its primary goal the description of the nature of reality. d. This kind of research tends to investigate with a goal of finding causal relationships.

d

46. Which of the following is true of either inductive or deductive research? a. Deductive research is practical and begins with the real world.b. Inductive research originates from previously established theory.c. Deductive research is descriptive, correlational, and historical. d. Inductive research often tends to lead to the building of theory.

d

51. In the landmark 1976 Tarasoff case, the California court ruled that failure to warn an intended victim is professionally irresponsible. Out of what event did this ruling come?a. A university psychologist by the name of Tarasoff was murdered by one of his clients.b. A client named Tarasoff, under the care of a university psychologist, was murdered. c. A university psychologist murdered his client, Tatiana Tarasoff, and her family sued. d. A client of a university psychologist murdered Tatiana Tarasoff and her family sued.

d

52. Developmental changes occur in all but which of the following broad areas? a. Physical developmentb. Cognitive developmentc. Psychosocial development d. Sociocultural development

d

54. You meet a group of people that includes the following subgroups or categories: Members of racial, ethnic, and religious minorities; women; single parents; divorcé(e)s; elderly persons; people with disabilities; gay men; lesbian women; poor people; children; and young adults. Of all these categories, to which does the term cultural pluralism refer? a. Only the members of racial, ethnic, and religious minoritiesb. Racial, ethnic, and religious minorities and the gays and lesbians c. Racial, ethnic, and religious minorities and people with disabilities d. The term cultural pluralism refers to all of the individuals listed

d

61. _____________ is often the result of efforts to defend against existential guilt. a. Anxietyb. Psychosisc. Regression d. Depression

d

71. There is a distinction between group content and group process. An example of group process would be:a. Sarah monopolizes the group by continuously talking and doesn't allow other participants to contribute to the discussion.b. Joe says, "I think today's topic should be what to do on a first date."c. Randy rolls his eyes every time Karen says something.d. both A and C.

d

72. What are the four levels of data measurement used to determine the statistics used? a. Nominal, random, stratified, clusterb. Ordinal, purposeful, cluster, nominalc. Ratio, random, cluster, interval d. Nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio

d

74. What are some signs to look for in assessing the risk of suicide in a client? a. A lifting of depression due to the relief of having made a decisionb. An unnatural sense of gaiety as all responsibilities are discardedc. Frequent explosions of hostility or rage directed at other people d. Establishment of a definite plan and having the means available

d

95. Which of the following sources of information about tests would probably provide the best information about sources and trends in testing and assessment?a. Test critiquesb. Journal articles c. Test manualsd. All of the above

d. All of the above

93. Which is not one of the types of Analysis of variance (ANOVA)? a. One-wayb. Factorialc. Multivariate d. Covariate

d. Covariate

85. If a group has co-leaders, which of the following is true?a. Both co-leaders should always have the same amount of group experience.b. It is better if both co-leaders are the same sex (two males or two females).c. Co-leaders with different theoretical orientations create a better dynamic.d. Different reactions from co-leaders can help stimulate group energy and discussions.

d. Different reactions from co-leaders can help stimulate group energy and discussions.

86. Which of the following is the least supported technique for dealing with resistance in a group? a. Confrontationb. Modelingc. Discussion d. Extinction

d. Extinction

97. The role of the professional career counselor involves all of the following EXCEPT: a. facilitating self-awarenessb. teaching decision-making skillsc. teaching employability skills d. None of the above

d. None of the above

91. Which of the following is correct regarding either norm-referenced tests or criterion-referenced tests?a. Norm-referenced tests show what knowledge an individual has.b. Criterion-referenced tests show an individual's rank in the group. c. Criterion-referenced tests compare an individual's score to others. d. Norm-referenced tests compare an individual's score to others.

d. Norm-referenced tests compare an individual's score to others.

78. Gilbert Wrenn's term "cultural encapsulation" refers to all except: a. Replacement of reality with model stereotypesb. Ignoring cultural variations for a universal truthc. Technique-oriented use of the counseling process d. Remaining isolated within one cultural context

d. Remaining isolated within one cultural context

98. Systematic desensitization and "flooding" are ___________ therapies. a. behavioralb. psychodynamicc. reality d. Adlerian

a. behavioral

12. Patterson operationalized many of the theoretical concepts of Bandura's social learning theory. Which of the following is not an intervention in behavioral therapy?a. token economiesb. use of narrative c. contingency contracting d. time out

b

14. According to Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma's developmental theory, occupational choice passes through three periods. Which is not one of the main periods they identified?a. Fantasyb. Tentative c. Transition d. Realistic

b

21. Which of these is not a common role for a member of a therapy group? a. Facilitativeb. Autocraticc. Maintenance d. Blocking

b

23. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross identified five stages that dying people experience. Which of these accurately identifies these five stages?a. Shock, Panic, Sorrow, Depression, Acceptanceb. Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance c. Depression, Fear, Bargaining, Stoicism, Acceptance d. Fear, Withdrawal, Bargaining, Resignation, Peace

b

25. Which of the following is most likely to be used by person-centered therapists? a. modification of cognitive distortionsb. reflectionsc. assessment tools d. word association

b

27. Which of the following neo-Freudian theorists most strongly believed that behavior can be understood best in terms of social interactions and interpersonal relationships?a. Erich Frommb. Harry Stack Sullivan c. Wilhelm Reich d. Karen Horney

b

29. Which of the following best represents the beliefs and practices of Carl Rogers?a. The psychoanalyst is directive and in charge of giving advice, teaching, and interpreting. b. The focus of counseling is based on the client's phenomenological world and feelings.c. The therapeutic process is holistic, focused in the present, and it is existentially based. d. The counseling process is focused upon helping clients to gain insights into themselves.

b

35. Which is most accurate regarding homogeneous vs. heterogeneous therapy groups? a. Homogeneous groups are too much alike to experience effective group dynamics.b. Heterogeneous groups may have more difficulty being able to relate to each other.c. Heterogeneous groups are not as similar to the real world as homogeneous groups. d. Homogeneous groups are more likely to simulate interactions among the members.

b

37. Which is true of open vs. closed therapy groups?a. In an open group, anyone is allowed to join the group. b. In an open group, members who leave are replaced. c. In a closed group, only certain members may join.d. In a closed group, members who leave are replaced.

b

38. In Donald Super's developmental approach to careers, which vocational developmental task did Super associate with the period of ages 18 to 21?a. Crystallizationb. Specification c. Implementation d. Stabilization

b

43. Which of the following is true about the correlation coefficient?a. A perfect correlation coefficient can be a positive one but cannot be negative.b. A correlation coefficient shows the relationship between two sets of numbers.c. A correlation coefficient shows a cause and effect relationship between variables.d. With a strong correlation, knowing one score will not help to predict another score.

b

47. Which of the following tools/methods are characteristic of experimental research designs? a. Survey questionnaires and interviewsb. Control groups and randomizationc. Use of the correlation coefficient d. Use of numbers to describe groups

b

49. When did the State of Virginia pass the first general practice counselor licensure law? a. 1954b. 1976c. 1981 d. 1962

b

5. Which of the following is known for person-centered counseling? a. Rollo May b. Carl Rogers c. Fritz Perls d. Aaron Beck

b

57. How did Albert Ellis view "self-talk" in his theory? a. As the source of our emotional disturbancesb. As the symptom of neurosis or even psychosisc. As a therapeutic technique for solving problems d. As a kind of mental chatter that is to be ignored

b

64. Styles of group leadership have been described as all but the following: a. Autocraticb. Effectivec. Democratic d. Laissez faire

b