Nutrition Test 2

Essential Amino Acids

Complete proteins like those found in eggs contain all nine essential amino acids. Incomplete proteins such as grains lack one or more of the nine essential amino acids.

Polysaccharides

Complex carbohydrates are called polysaccharides, and include starch, glycogen and fiber.

Complex carbohydrates

Complex carbohydrates are called polysaccharides, and include starch, glycogen and fiber. Polysaccharides are composed of hundreds of molecules of glucose hooked together.

Denaturation

Denaturation DenaturationDenaturation, the process by which the shape of a protein is altered, occurs when proteins are exposed to heat, alcohol, acids/bases or agitation. For example, once the bacteria in yogurt have produced enough acid to unravel and precipitate some of the milk protein, the product solidifies and is irreversibly denatured.

How much protein (amount per pound or Kg of body weight) do we need every day?

. If you are an adult and not pregnant, compute the number of grams in your recommended dietary allowance for protein by multiplying your body weight in pounds by 0.36 or weight in kgs by 0.8.

Amino Acids

The building blocks of proteins are amino acids.

set point

The set point theory of weight states that every individual has a unique, relatively stable adult weight

What happens to all the excess protein we eat (do we store it?)

There's no point to eating excess protein because we cannot store it in our muscles or organs. And it is possible to eat too much protein.

What distinguishes one amino acid from another (what part of their molecular structure)

What distinguishes one amino acid from another is the side chain which can be positively charged (+), negatively charged (-), or neutral. Charged amino acids are hydrophilic, which means they are attracted to water; neutral amino acids are hydrophobic or repelled by water.

side chain

What distinguishes one amino acid from another is the side chain which can be positively charged (+), negatively charged (-), or neutral. Charged amino acids are hydrophilic, which means they are attracted to water; neutral amino acids are hydrophobic or repelled by water.

Glucagon

When blood sugar starts dropping too low, say you don't eat for long periods of time, the hormones epinephrine and glucagon are secreted to stimulate liver glycogen stores to break down and dump glucose into blood.

Lactose

is one glucose and one galactose. It has almost no taste and is only 1/6th as sweet as sucrose. This compound is often called milk sugar and is naturally found in milk and milk products likef cheese, yogurt and ice cream. Lactose improves the absorption of calcium and possibly magnesium. However, 70 percent of the world's population is lactose intolerant meaning they lack sufficient amounts of lactase, the enzyme that splits lactose into its constituent monosaccharides, galactose and glucose.

know that polysaccharides are...

complex carbohydrates

Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes

e.g. know that type 1 is an autoimmune disease, and that insulin medication is needed. Know that type 2 is a disease associated with overweight and that lifestyle changes are the first line of treatment.

Know the types of obesity (abdominal vs gynecoid) associated with greatest health risks

generally found in men, excess fat is stored primarily in the abdominal area. Abdominal fat is metabolically different than fat at other sites. It's more easily mobilized so men have an easier time losing weight. But fat leaving abdominal cells dumps directly into the portal vein where it's transported to the liver and this leads to metabolic disturbance. refers to a condition where excess fat is stored primarily in the buttocks and thighs; generally found in women. Gynecoid fat stores are predominantly subcutaneous — just below the skin — and are not easily mobilized or lost.

Know that _________________ is the preferred source of fuel for the body, especially the nervous system and brain.

glucose

the brain and nervous system relies on______________ for energy.

glucose

know the names of each of the monosaccharides

glucose, fructose and galactose

know the types of polysaccharides (such as glycogen and fiber, and their function)

glycogen- fiber- starches-

Review the health risks associated with obesity

he foremost hazard of obesity is early HEART DISEASE. Another hazard is HYPERTENTION or high blood pressure. It also causes significant cardiovascular stress. TYPE II DIABETES is associated with obesity, and in some cases, will be cured or go into remission when the extra weight is lost. Some CANCERS and GALLBLADDER DISEASE are other complications that are possible with obesity.

EPA

important for brain function

DHA

important for fetal brain development

Maltose

is composed of two glucose molecules and does not occur in large amounts in nature. It is produced as an intermediate product of starch digestion and in the fermentation of grains.

know that a polysaccharide is composed of...

many monosaccharides, primarily glucose molecules

What causes denaturation of a protein.

occurs when proteins are exposed to heat, alcohol, acids/bases or agitation.

know that soluble fiber can...

reduce blood cholesterol levels

know the names of each of the disaccharides and what monosaccharides make up each disaccharide

sucrose, lactose and maltose Lactose- one glucose and one galactose Sucrose-molecule of glucose attached to a molecule of fructose. Maltose-two glucose molecules

Carbohydrate functions, how much carbohydrate is needed to spare body protein?

we need 50-100 grams Protect or spare body protein Spare dietary protein Avoid ketosis Provide cheap energy

What adaptations occur in starvation that allows the brain and body to survive for weeks or months?

About 75 grams of protein, or the equivalent of 10 ounces of body tissue is catabolized each day for this purpose. If we were to continue to lose protein at this high of a rate, we would be dead in three weeks. In fact we can survive for up to 62 days on water with no food because an adaptive mechanism kicks in and we start using ketones as a source of energy.

know that accounts for the biggest proportion of energy expended for most people

BMR accounts for most of the body's total energy output. Roughly 1,400 kcalories a day are used to keep the body temperature at 98.60F, to breathe and contract the heart muscle.

know what foods are major sources for the di and monosaccharides (example: milk products contain lactose)

Di-sugar beets, sugar cane, molasses and in small amounts in some fruits. Granulated, powdered sugar and brown sugar are all 97 to 99 percent sucrose. Mono-most fruits, berries and honey and is 170 percent sweeter than white table sugar

Diabetes

Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is a disease in which blood sugars run too high.

Basal Metabolic Rate

Energy output is determined by an individual's basal metabolic rate (BMR), degree of physical activity and the amount of energy burned digesting, metabolizing and storing food.

Enzymes

Enzymes are specialized proteins that catalyze or speed up the body's chemical reactions including the breakdown of food in digestion.

Fiber

Fiber is also made of hundreds of glucose molecules linked together in such a way that they cannot be attacked or digested by intestinal amylase so fiber passes through the gut intact; it is not absorbed. Fiber has a number of functions that have everything to do with the fact that it leaves the body in much the same condition as it entered. By adding bulk to waste in the colon, fiber helps maintain GI tract muscle tone by giving these muscles something to push against. Fiber softens waste by attracting water into the gut. It also reduces the transit time of food. Fiber promotes regularity. The typical American eats about 8 to 12 grams of fiber a day but we should eat between 20 and 35 grams of fiber every day.

know the benefits of fiber

Fiber is also made of hundreds of glucose molecules linked together in such a way that they cannot be attacked or digested by intestinal amylase so fiber passes through the gut intact; it is not absorbed. Fiber has a number of functions that have everything to do with the fact that it leaves the body in much the same condition as it entered. By adding bulk to waste in the colon, fiber helps maintain GI tract muscle tone by giving these muscles something to push against. Fiber softens waste by attracting water into the gut. It also reduces the transit time of food. Fiber promotes regularity. The typical American eats about 8 to 12 grams of fiber a day but we should eat between 20 and 35 grams of fiber every day.

Fructose

Fructose is found in most fruits, berries and honey and is 170 percent sweeter than white table sugar

Galactose

Galactose is not found free in nature but is linked with a glucose molecule to form lactose, the simple sugar in milk. Galactose is the least sweet of all the sugars — it tastes more like flour.

Glucose

Glucose is a monosaccharide found circulating in the blood

know what glycogen is and know that it is stored in the muscle (2/3 of total stores) and liver (1/3 of total stores).

Glycogen is the animal storage form of starch. Glycogen is made of glucose linked together but is more branched than food starch so it provides many ends from which glucose can be split for quick energy release in the body. We can only store about 1,800 calories of glycogen. One third of glycogen stored in the body (400 calories) is kept in the liver and used to maintain blood sugar levels. The rest (1,400) is found in the muscles. This glycogen is used for exercise and work. The ability to sustain muscular work depends almost entirely on glycogen stores. When glycogen stores become depleted, work stops. Glycogen stores in muscles are impacted by diet. A high protein diet yields fewer grams of glycogen per gram of muscle than a high carbohydrate diet. The higher the glycogen stores, the longer

Glycogen

Glycogen is the animal storage form of starch. Glycogen is made of glucose linked together but is more branched than food starch so it provides many ends from which glucose can be split for quick energy release in the body. We can only store about 1,800 calories of glycogen. One third of glycogen stored in the body (400 calories) is kept in the liver and used to maintain blood sugar levels. The rest (1,400) is found in the muscles. This glycogen is used for exercise and work. The ability to sustain muscular work depends almost entirely on glycogen stores. When glycogen stores become depleted, work stops. Glycogen stores in muscles are impacted by diet. A high protein diet yields fewer grams of glycogen per gram of muscle than a high carbohydrate diet. The higher the glycogen stores, the longer you can work out. This is illustrated below:

know the difference between insoluble and soluble fiber and what foods are high in the two types of fiber

Insoluble fiber such as cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose are found in foods like wheat bran and brown rice. These fibers are stringy or fibrous, don't dissolve in water and are responsible for all the functions we just listed. Soluble fibers such as pectin, gums and mucilages are more gummy than they are fibrous. They dissolve or swell in water and can be metabolized by gut bacteria. Soluble fibers are found in ripe fruits, carrots, oats and beans.

Insulin

Insulin then enables body cells to absorb this blood glucose, store it as glycogen in muscles, or metabolize it into energy.

Ketone bodies—under what circumstances are ketons produced?

Ketosis is the condition of having high levels of ketones in the blood. Ketones are acids in the blood and are intermediate by-products of incomplete fat metabolism. The accumulation of ketones will lead to nausea, fatigue and worsen dehydration. Ketosis is avoided by intake of carbohydrates because fat breakdown requires the presence of carbohydrate.

Kwashiorkor

Kwashiorkor occurs when calories from carbohydrates are available, but protein is absent or insufficient in the diet. Blood sugar climbs after starchy foods are eaten; insulin is secreted. Amino acids are taken out of the blood and stored in the muscles. Therefore, muscle protein and fat stores are not wasted, but blood protein decreases. This trend is harmful because those amino acids could be used to replace more metabolically important proteins like liver protein or blood proteins. Blood proteins aren't protected by insulin and as they are lost, immunocompetancy is sacrificed, and edema creates a false look of obesity. The liver and other organs are also not protected by insulin, and as these tissues break down they are not replaced. Fats that are synthesized in the liver cannot escape since no protein is available to make a lipoprotein, so the liver becomes filled with fat, develops fibrosis, and ultimately cirrhosis. As the liver shrinks and hardens, fluids seep out of the liver and accumulates in the abdomen. The abdomen becomes huge, but it's fluid not fat. By the time death occurs, about one-third of the liver protein is lost along with its many important functions. In fact, the metabolic consequences of Kwashiorkor are so severe that they are usually impossible to reverse in refeeding.

Lipids

Lipids must be associated with protein to travel through body fluids as lipoproteins. In malnutrition, fats manufactured in the liver are unable to transport out if protein is not available to make lipoproteins.

lipoprotein

Lipids must be associated with protein to travel through body fluids as lipoproteins. In malnutrition, fats manufactured in the liver are unable to transport out if protein is not available to make lipoproteins.

Review the components of an effective weight loss program

Make good, healthy food selections Read labels and avoid the empty calories from sodas, energy drinks and juice drinks. Exercise. Exercise is essential, but should be done everyday or almost everyday for one hour or however long it takes to walk three miles. Exercise is positive, enhances self esteem and reduces pessimism. Self-monitoring. The act of writing down what we eat keeps us attentive, makes us conscious of our intake and helps us plan for the next meal.

Marasmus

Marasmus is simple starvation. No protein is eaten but no kcalories are available either. Since little carbohydrate is consumed, no insulin circulates, so muscle tissue is broken down freely, releasing amino acids for more essential organs and for blood protein synthesis. Edema is uncommon and few metabolic abnormalities arise until the late stages of starvation. Fat stores are also broken down. Recall that fatty acids, when metabolized in the absence of carbohydrate, create ketones. Strangely, in marasmus, ketosis is good, because after a few weeks of starvation, certain body organs begin using ketones for fuel. So people with marasmus actually fair better and can be rescued more successfully than those individuals with Kwashiorkor.

What happens to fat cells when we lose weight?Do they disappear or simply empty of their fat stores?

Once a fat cell is created, it exists for life. If you lose weight you can shrink the size of a fat cell, but it will not dissapear. If you have an abnormally high number of fat cells, you'll have to shrink most of them until empty to attain ideal body weight. This is abnormal for fat cells, since they exist to be full of fat. The fat cell theory of obesity says that this biologically abnormal state pressures the formerly over-fat person to fill these depleted cells by overeating again. This means that those who had childhood obesity are at a disadvantage and are likely to regain any weight they lose.

Proteins

Proteins make up about 15 percent of our body weight. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, as well as sulfur. Protein is the

nitrogen

Proteins make up about 15 percent of our body weight. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, as well as sulfur. Protein is the only kcalorie providing- nutrient that contains nitrogen.

Simple Carbohydrates

Simple carbohydrates include monosaccharides (glucose, fructose and galactose) and disaccharides (sucrose, lactose and maltose).

What happens when you starve or severely restrict kcals (what kind of body tissue is lost and why).

Starvation When all glycogen stores are used up (this takes about one day), muscle tissue is broken down and converted into glucose for the brain and nerves to survive.

Sucrose

Sucrose is a molecule of glucose attached to a molecule of fructose. Sucrose is found naturally in sugar beets, sugar cane, molasses and in small amounts in some fruits. Granulated, powdered sugar and brown sugar are all 97 to 99 percent sucrose.