Organisms Found Around The Globe
Fleshy Algae Life Cycle
(a) Haplontic or Monogenetic Type: The algae are always haploid (n) and gametophytes as they are produced sexually by gametes. After gametic union zygote is produced which is (2n). The zygote nucleus undergoes reduction division and gives rise to 4 haploid nuclei, of which three are disintegrated. From the single functioning nucleus haploid plant is produced. Examples: Spirogyra, Zygnema, etc.In the case of Oedogonium, Ulothrix, etc., the diploid zygote nucleus, by meiosis, gives rise to four zoospores, which germinate into four haploid plantsThus, it is seen that in both the cases the haploid gametophyte generation is predominant, but the diploid or sporophytic generation is represented only by the zygote. No true alternation of generations is found in this case. (b) Diplontic Type: The plant is always diploid (2n). The nuclei in the gametangia divide by meiosis and form haploid gametes. The zygote formed after gametic union is diploid (2n), which gives rise to a diploid plant. Thus, it is seen that in such cases the diploid generation is predominant and it is multicellular. The haploid generation is represented only by the gametes. Examples:Fucus, Sargassum, etc. (c) Haplodiplontic or Digenetic Type: In such cases, the diploid zygote instead of germinating into a new plant gives rise to a new sporophytic generation. It bears sporangia and its nucleus undergoes reduction division and gives rise to spores. The spores germinate into new haploid gametophyte plants. Thus, it is seen that in such cases, the two generations are equally prominent and multicellular. The sporophyte bears spores and gametophytes gametes. Distinct alternation of generations is not seen such cases. If the plants belonging to both the generations are structurally the same, they are isomorph (e.g., Dictyota) but if different, heteromorphic (e.g., Laminaria). (d) Diplohaplontic Type: In such cases both generations are equally prominent, but the sporophyte is more complicated and extended.
snapper life cycle
Adult snapper typically spawn their eggs in areas of highly productive waters, adjacent to estuaries and harbours. The Hauraki Gulf (a large embayment) is an important area for snapper spawning.Spawning takes place between October and March, during which time adult snapper will likely spawn several times. Each adult fish is capable of spawning millions of small (0.8-2 mm) eggs during a season. These eggs hatch after around two days.How impacts such as climate change and its associated increasing ocean acidity affect snapper eggs and larvae, which are likely the most vulnerable to this form of influence, is as yet unknown.
triton feeding habits
Adult tritons are active predators and feed on other molluscs and starfish. The giant triton has gained fame for its ability to capture and eat crown-of-thorns starfish, a large species (up to 1 m in diameter) covered in venomous spines an inch long.
Banded Coral Shrimp General Ecology
Adults are usually found in pairs and remain in the same area for days, months or even years. It has never been observed to move a distance greater than half a meter unless disturbed, and even then, the paired individuals attempt to stay together.If claw arms break, they regrow, but end up unequal in size. Nocturnal reef dweller, rocky bottoms and sponge pockets. They are found in 2 to 4 meters of water, usually beyond the turbulent zone, but have been observed as deep as down to 130ft (40m). They are occasionally found in undercut mats of rhizomes of Thalassia or discarded man-made objects. Act as cleaners, attracting fish by waving the long antennae and uses its three pairs of claws to remove parasites, fungi and damaged tissue from the fish
Crown Of Thorns Starfish Life Cycle
After the gametes (eggs and sperms) and hormones (which stimulate other individuals to release gametes) of A. planci are shed into the seawater they have a short amount of time to become fertilised before they become unviable (Madl, 1998). After fertilisation, the zygote develops into a larvae. After drifting around for two to three weeks, the 0.5mm small larvae starts to morph and eventually settles and attaches itself to the sea floor where it completes its metamorphosis (Madl, 1998). Larval life may last longer than three weeks if conditions are unfavourable (Birkeland and Lucus, 1990, in Benzie, 1999). Various substrates, particularly crustose coralline algae with bacterial surface films, induce Acanthaster's planktonic larvae to settle and metamorphose (Johnson and Cartwright, 1996). One group of scientists found that thyroxine accelerates development in Acanthaster through larval stages (Johnson and Cartwright, 1996). After settlement, the larva metamorphoses into a juvenile starfish, a process which takes about two days (Moran, 1997). Initially the juvenile starfish has only five rudimentary arms, but additional arms develop rapidly as the starfish begins to feed on encrusting algae (Moran, 1997). At the end of six months, the starfish is about 1cm in size and begins to feed on corals (Moran, 1997). Individuals are able to reproduce after two years (Lucas, 1973, in Babcock and Mundy, 1992). Being a rapid grazer of coral polyps, it takes only three to four years for the coral-feeding starfish to reach a reasonable size of 30-35cm (Madl, 1998). After three to four years, it is thought to go into a senile phase where growth declines dramatically and reproduction is low (Moran, 1997
Crown Of Thorns Starfish Feeding Habits
After the gametes (eggs and sperms) and hormones (which stimulate other individuals to release gametes) of A. planci are shed into the seawater they have a short amount of time to become fertilised before they become unviable (Madl, 1998). After fertilisation, the zygote develops into a larvae. After drifting around for two to three weeks, the 0.5mm small larvae starts to morph and eventually settles and attaches itself to the sea floor where it completes its metamorphosis (Madl, 1998). Larval life may last longer than three weeks if conditions are unfavourable (Birkeland and Lucus, 1990, in Benzie, 1999). Various substrates, particularly crustose coralline algae with bacterial surface films, induce Acanthaster's planktonic larvae to settle and metamorphose (Johnson and Cartwright, 1996). One group of scientists found that thyroxine accelerates development in Acanthaster through larval stages (Johnson and Cartwright, 1996). After settlement, the larva metamorphoses into a juvenile starfish, a process which takes about two days (Moran, 1997). Initially the juvenile starfish has only five rudimentary arms, but additional arms develop rapidly as the starfish begins to feed on encrusting algae (Moran, 1997). At the end of six months, the starfish is about 1cm in size and begins to feed on corals (Moran, 1997). Individuals are able to reproduce after two years (Lucas, 1973, in Babcock and Mundy, 1992). Being a rapid grazer of coral polyps, it takes only three to four years for the coral-feeding starfish to reach a reasonable size of 30-35cm (Madl, 1998). After three to four years, it is thought to go into a senile phase where growth declines dramatically and reproduction is low (Moran, 1997).
Fleshy Algae Feeding Habits
Algae are plants, so they "eat" much the same things as other plants - CO2, light, and chemical nutrients from their environment. These nutrients include compounds of elements such as phosphorus and nitrogen, which contribute to algal blooms when fertilizer leaches into waterways.
Moray Eel feeding habits
Although starved individuals may show predatory behavior, Diadema antillarum are generally herbivorous, consuming mainly algae or detritus and sediments (Ogden). A total of 14 genera of red, green, brown, and blue-green algae plus diatoms of red and blue-green algae were found in the guts of 6 D. antillarum from different locations along a transect taken along the barrier reef in St. Croix (Ogden 1973). Species of algae were not identified. These urchins often feed in Thalassia (turtle grass) beds, feeding on various algae and plants (Ogden 1973). It is uncertain whether or not urchins can efficiently digest the cellulose in Thalassia (Ogden 1973). However, Thalassia beds support a rich flora of epiphytic algae and diatoms
Long spined black sea urchins feeding habits
Although starved individuals may show predatory behavior, Diadema antillarum are generally herbivorous, consuming mainly algae or detritus and sediments (Ogden). A total of 14 genera of red, green, brown, and blue-green algae plus diatoms of red and blue-green algae were found in the guts of 6 D. antillarum from different locations along a transect taken along the barrier reef in St. Croix (Ogden 1973). Species of algae were not identified. These urchins often feed in Thalassia (turtle grass) beds, feeding on various algae and plants (Ogden 1973). It is uncertain whether or not urchins can efficiently digest the cellulose in Thalassia (Ogden 1973). However, Thalassia beds support a rich flora of epiphytic algae and diatoms (Ogden 1973).
lobster life cycle
An adult female will carry thousands of tiny fertilized eggs on the underside of her tail near her feathery swimmerets, located on her abdomen, for approximately 10 to 15 months. When she feels the eggs are ready to hatch, she releases them by fanning her swimmerets. The eggs will hatch into tiny bug-like larvae with feathery legs to help them swim. They don't look at all like their parents when first hatched.The little swimmers will stay near the surface of the ocean for about one month before they start to mature and resemble what we know as a lobster. During this time the larvae will shed their exoskeletons, referred to as molting. Unfortunately, the majority of larvae are subject to flying and swimming prey as a major food source. The ones who survive will molt a fourth time where they move from larval stage to resembling an adult and are able to swim well. At this stage there may be only 1 or 2 surviving lobsters of all the eggs hatched from one female.Young LobstersAfter the surviving babies have molted for a fourth time, they will start to move toward the floor of the ocean or bay in search of a protective place to live. During the lobster lifecycle they will again molt a fifth time and will spend about a year hiding from predators near rocks, reefs, and dense seaweed. It may take another 4 years before an adolescent is adventurous enough to swim about freely and hide less. According to the Gulf of Maine Research Institute, juveniles will live on tiny shrimp and other little creatures like sand fleas that drop to the ocean floor. The lobsters will weigh less than 1 pound during this time and will have molted up to 25 times.Adult LobstersAfter 5 to 8 years of molting and growing, lobsters have reached adulthood and are likely to weigh a pound at this stage. A one-pounder, or "chicken lobster," is considered ready for market. An adult female will molt every 2 years from this point forward, while a male will molt once a year. This molting pattern slows the growth of the adults. These crustaceans can grow to 3 feet long and weigh several pounds toward the end of the lobster life cycle.Harvesting for MarketAlthough one pound is considered table ready, the Maine lobster legal size also depends on the size of the carapace. The carapace is the back shell just above the joint between the back and the tail. The carapace must measure 3-1/4" to be considered market size, according to the University of Maine. Adult males might weigh more than females of the same size due to their larger claws.
Butterfly Shrimp Feeding Habits
Butterfly fishes are generally diurnal. This means that they feed during daylight and rest in their coral habitat at night. A good number of butterfly fish species feed on plankton located in the water, sea anemones, small crustaceans and corals. The species of butterfly fish that feed on plankton are the small species. They usually cluster in large groups unlike the adults that prefer to cling to their mating partner.
Butterfly Shrimp General Ecology
Butterflyfish, with their amazing array of colors and patterns, are among the most common sights on reefs throughout the world.Coloring and Bands.Although some species are dull-colored, most wear intricate patterns with striking backgrounds of blue, red, orange, or yellow. Many have dark bands across their eyes and round, eye-like dots on their flanks to confuse predators as to which end to strike and in which direction they're likely to flee.Behavior.There are at least 114 species of butterflyfish. They have thin, disk-shaped bodies that closely resemble their equally recognizable cousins, the angelfish. They spend their days tirelessly pecking at coral and rock formations with their long, thin snouts in search of coral polyps, worms, and other small invertebrates.Some butterflyfish species travel in small schools, although many are solitary until they find a partner, with whom they may mate for life.
Crown Of Thorns Starfish General Ecology
Crown of Thorns Starfish, Acanthaster planci, are the second largest starfish in the world and can grow to be over half a meter wide. They almost exclusively eat coral as adults - and they eat a lot of it. A single COTS can devour 10 square meters of coral a year. Covered in venomous spines (from which the starfish gets its name), COTS have few natural predators. They also happen to be extremely fecund, capable of producing 50 million eggs in the course of a breeding season, leading to outbreaks when the right environmental conditions occur
Hard Coral Life Cycle
Corals can reproduce either asexually by budding or sexually by releasing gametes (sperm and eggs). Budding is the replication of new individuals and is the method by which coral colonies grow. But where did the first coral polyps, from which the others were budded, originally come from? This first individual is the product of sexual reproduction. Like all animals, corals will take time to reach sexual maturity. Massive hard corals such as brain corals., grow slowly and it will take about 8 years before they are sexually mature. Since branching corals grow faster, they reach sexual maturity a few years earlier. The individual coral polyp can be male, female, both or may not be reproductively active at all. If a polyp is just of one sex then it is termed gonochoric. A polyp that is both male and female is known as a hermaphrodite. The coral colony is made up of many of these individual coral polyps (or modules). Therefore, the sex of a coral is described at both the polyp and the colony level. A coral colony may be comprised of all female or of all male polyps, thereby being of one sex, or gonochoric. Some colonies, however, are made up of both individual male and female polyps, or of hermaphroditic polyps, and so the colony as a whole is a hermaphrodite.A coral polyp's reproductive organs are contained inside the body cavity and lie on the mesenteries (or septa). Fertilization of the mature eggs by male sperm may take place within the female coral polyps (internal fertilization) or may be external, occurring in the water column. These are two major contrasting modes of reproduction and have many implications in reproductive ecology. A coral that releases all of its gametes into the water so that fertilization occurs externally is known as a broadcaster. Internal fertilization is achieved by only the male gametes of the species being liberated from the polyps. These mature sperm swim through the water and find a polyp of the same species that has ripe eggs within it. The sperm then enter the polyp via the mouth to fertilize the eggs internally. A coral adopting this strategy is known as a brooder.
pencil urchin life cycle
Females release eggs and males release sperm into the water simultaneously, where they will join and become fertilized. Females can produce thousands, or even millions, of eggs in one go. Once hatched, these tiny urchins start out their lives as larvae and take roughly two years to reach their full adult size.
Hard Coral General Ecology
Hard corals grow in colonies and are the architects of coral reefs. Hard corals—including such species as brain coral and elkhorn coral—create skeletons out of calcium carbonate (also known as limestone), a hard substance that eventually becomes rock. Hard corals are hermatypic, or reef-building corals, and need tiny algae called zooxanthellae (pronounced zo-zan-THEL-ee) to survive. Generally, when we talk about coral, we are referring to hard corals.The variety of coral shapes and sizes largely depends on the species. Some corals form hard and pointed shapes, while others form soft and rounded shapes. The shape of coral colonies also depends on the location of the coral. For example, in areas with strong waves corals tend to grow into robust mounds or flattened shapes. In more sheltered areas, the same species may grow into more intricate shapes with delicate branching patterns.
Lobster General Ecology
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Crustacea Order: Decapoda Family: Nephropidae Genus: Homarus Species: americanus.Lobsters are actually closely related to insects! It's hard to believe that these beady-eyed, clawed-clothed marine animals could be closely related to a mosquito or a grasshopper, but indeed they are. Lobsters, like insects, belong to the invertebrate phylum Arthropoda. Besides lobsters and insects, spiders and snails belong to this group as well. These animals are closely related because of two main characteristics that they share: they all have an exoskeleton (outer skeleton) and they all have jointed appendages. Lobsters are further categorized into the class Crustacea, along with other marine organisms like crabs and shrimp. These crustaceans are distinguishable from other Arthropods with hard exoskeletons, like mussels and clams, because their shell is softer and more flexible. Because lobsters have ten legs they belong to the order Decapoda (derived from the Latin word, ten feet).Also called the American lobster, the Atlantic lobster or the true lobster, Homarus americanus belongs to the family Nephropidae. Another kind of edible lobster found in the order Decapoda is the family Palinuridae. These lobsters are called spiny lobsters or rock lobsters. Unlike the American lobster they lack large claws, have spines all over their bodies, and live in subtropical and tropical oceans. .Physiological processes and body systems:digestive, excretory, respiratory, circulatory and reproductive systems of the lobster are located within the cephalothorax, below the carapace. These systems are quite similar to other species found in the order Decapoda.The digestive system of the American lobster consists of three stomachs, the foregut, midgut, and the hindgut. The first stomach, the foregut, contains a gastric mill, a set of grinding teeth that can grind food into fine particles. The particles then pass into the midgut glands where the particles are further digested. The midgut glands are actually the tomalley, the yummy green stuff that so many lobster lovers enjoy! Material that is too large to be absorbed is eventually passed into the hindgut and then through to the enlarged rectum and out the anus at the tip of the lobster's tail.The excretory system removes toxic byproducts of protein metabolism and tissue breakdown. Wastes are eliminated via excretory organs located at the base of the lobster's antennae. Urine is also released from this area through the neuropores. Wastes can also be eliminated through the gills, the digestive glands or can be lost when the lobster molts.Twenty pairs of gills located within the branchial chambers on either side of the cephalothorax are what comprise the respiratory system. These gills are made up of numerous feathery like filaments situated around a central rod and are protected within the gill chamber of the carapace. Water passes up through openings between the lobsters legs, over the gills and up towards the head. Every few minutes this current of water is reversed the other way so that debris can be flushed out of the chambers. An important part of this "gill current" is that when it is flowing forward towards the head it can project urine forward. It is thought that the urine of the lobster contains important information about the sex of the lobster, and it's physiological state.A lobster does not have a complex circulatory system like we do. Instead of a four-chambered heart it has a single-chambered sac that consists of muscles and several openings called ostia. Their heart lies above the stomach on the upper surface of the animal (but still below the carapace of course!) A lobster's circulatory system is known as an "open" system whereas our system is known as a closed system. The heart of an adult lobster beats 50-136 beats per minute.Coloring:Live lobsters are not red like the cooked ones you've bought at the store or restaurant. The colour of a live lobster does vary among individual lobsters, but most lobsters are either olive green or greenish brown. Orange, reddish, dark green or black speckles are commonly found adorning a live lobster and a bluish colour is often found at the joints of the lobster.The major pigment in a lobster's shell is astaxanthin, which is bright red in its free state. In a live lobster astaxanthin is chemically bound to proteins that change this colour to a greenish or bluish colour. When a lobster is boiled the heat from the water breaks the bonds that hold this pigment to these proteins and astaxanthin is released in its free state. Thus a cooked lobster is bright red and not dark green. HabitatThe Northwest Atlantic is where the American lobster calls home. From Labrador to North Carolina this lobster is found eating, breeding and roaming the ocean floor. Lobsters prefer to make their homes in rocky areas where they can hide in the crevices from predators. However, young lobsters that have just settled on the bottom may not be able to find gravelly material so they burrow in pebble, sand or clay. In the first few years of a lobster's life home is really where the hiding place is. A young lobster that has just settled on the bottom must hide away so as not to be eaten by predators, but older juveniles and adult lobsters that are larger and better equipped for protecting themselves can wander away from their burrows to explore. How far can these older lobsters actually travel? Studies done in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence in Atlantic Canada, have concluded that the 15,000 lobsters that had been tagged and released had moved an average of 10-15km from their release points. Similar studies done in other parts of Atlantic Canada have observed the same trends. With their large claws an adult lobster can dig away sand and gravel from under a rock, making a tunnel that they can call home. Some of the larger extensive burrows may house two or three lobsters of different sizes. Lobsters may be found from the low tide mark out to depths of approximately 400m. Although lobsters can be fished in deep waters, high concentrations are found closer to shore in shallower water, like in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence at depths ranging from 1-40 meters.
lobster feeding habits
Lobsters are not fussy eaters. Although they prefer fresh food they will eat basically anything that they can get their claws on, even if it's dead. (As is evident in their desire to get at the bait in the lobster traps!). The main diet of a lobster is crab, mussels, clams, starfish, sea urchins and various marine worms. They are also known to catch fast moving animals like shrimp, amphipods (also known as "sand fleas") and even small fish. Lobsters eat mostly animals, but if these resources are scarce, as they are sometimes in the spring, a lobster might eat plants, or sponges to get energy. In the Northumberland Strait, an area making up a great part of the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence, a main dish for a lobster in the fall is a newly settled crab. Lobsters in this region can get up to 50% of their energy requirements from crabs.
Fleshy Algae General Ecology
Macroalgae are multicellular marine plants that are easily observed by the unaided eye and whose "thallus" (plant body) is characterized by holdfasts for attachment, and by "laminae," reproductive "sori," gas bladders, and/or stripes. They lack the various structures that characterize higher plants, such as true leaves, roots, and encased reproductive organs.Macroalgae ("seaweed") belong to either one of three groups of eukaryotic algae: the Rhodophyta (red algae), Chlorophyta (green algae), and Phaeophyceae (brown algae) or to the prokaryotic colony-forming Cyanobacteria/Cyanophyta (blue-green algae). These four groups do not have a common multicellular ancestor (i.e., collectively they are polyphyletic); although, their chloroplasts - common to all - appear to have had a single blue-green algal (Cyanobacteria) origin. The presence of chloroplasts and subsequent
Banded Coral Shrimp Life Cycle
Males and females pair off to mate, possibly pairing off as juveniles and remaining together for years. Mating behavior occurs in the following sequence: antennule contact, erection of female body, grasping, mating and spawning. Nine larval stages have been described. After being laid, the eggs hatch 16 days later (at 28 deg C), and usually at night. Teleplanic larvae may be able to delay metamorphosis until reaching suitable habitat. Depending on diet and temperature, adult banded coral shrimp molt every 3 to 8 weeks
Hard Coral Feeding Habits
Most reef-building corals have a unique partnership with tiny algae called zooxanthellae. The algae live within the coral polyps, using sunlight to make sugar for energy. This energy is transferred to the polyp, providing much needed nourishment. In turn, the coral polyps provide the algae with carbon dioxide and a protective home. Corals also eat by catching tiny floating animals called zooplankton. At night, coral polyps come out of their skeletons to feed, stretching their long, stinging tentacles to capture critters that are floating by. Prey are pulled into the polyps' mouths and digested in their stomachs.
sweetlips life cycle
Oviparous, distinct pairing during breeding
parrotfish general ecology
Parrotfish are full grazers in every sense of the word as it is applied to terrestrial mammals. They develop a strongly calcified beak of fused teeth that is used to scrape calcified algae and other calcified surfaces that have plants growing in pores. Depending on the species and the location, some parrotfish also scrape coral. While to some degree this makes them carnivores, it must be remembered that coral is richly endowed with an algal symbiont (Chapter 19). Most parrotfish also browse to some extent, and some species spend much of their time in this mode of feeding. However, when this is the case, the plant involved is typically a tough seagrass or calcified alga. As with most marine and aquatic grazers, presented with the opportunity to capture small invertebrates, parrotfish will also take animal food.In addition to the obvious rasping/scraping apparatus, parrotfish also possess a pharyngeal mill consisting of internal molar-like teeth that are used to grind up the mixture of carbonate and algae or coral tissue delivered to it from the beak. The effectiveness of the beak/mill combination is such that parrotfish are one of the major degraders of reef hard structure as well as being important suppliers of the resultant fine carbonate silt. In a model system, without sufficient wave and current or settling traps that are the equivalent of lagoons, the supply of fine sediment defecated by parrotfish can be a serious problem for corals, which must expend considerable energy to constantly slough off the sediment.Many parrotfish also develop behavioral patterns that adapt them to a grazing mode of life in reef environments. Most species operate in schools and graze in roaming "herds." The herds consist mostly of females and different-colored secondary males and have a hierarchical social structure that includes a dominant female and a single brightly colored terminal or "super male." Social grazing tends to confuse and disperse territorial reef species like damselfish, allowing the parrots access to plants they would otherwise be denied. Likewise, as with a terrestrial herd, the schooling behavior makes predation by larger fish more difficult
Long spined black sea urchins general ecology
Sea urchin grazing is important to the structure and diversity of benthic communities. In areas where its predators have been eliminated, Diadema antillarum may increase in numbers and come to occupy a position near or at the top of the food web. In order to support high concentrations of D. antillarum, the substrates on which they live must have fairly high productivity in order to support the nutritional needs of the urchins. In his study on urchin populations in St. Croix, Ogden (1973) found that biodiversity, based on the diversity of algal species, was greater in the patch reef with predation by urchins. In contrast, the patch reef lacking a Diadema population was dominated by several species, mainly Padina sanctae-crucis with Dictyota spp. and Turbinaria sp. of secondary importance. Padina is a fast-growing algae that may outcompete or shade out other species, ultimately reducing biodiversity.
Moray Eel general ecology
Sea urchin grazing is important to the structure and diversity of benthic communities. In areas where its predators have been eliminated, Diadema antillarum may increase in numbers and come to occupy a position near or at the top of the food web. In order to support high concentrations of D. antillarum, the substrates on which they live must have fairly high productivity in order to support the nutritional needs of the urchins. In his study on urchin populations in St. Croix, Ogden (1973) found that biodiversity, based on the diversity of algal species, was greater in the patch reef with predation by urchins. In contrast, the patch reef lacking a Diadema population was dominated by several species, mainly Padina sanctae-crucis with Dictyota spp. and Turbinaria sp. of secondary importance. Padina is a fast-growing algae that may outcompete or shade out other species, ultimately reducing biodiversity.
pencil urchin general ecology
Sea urchins feed mainly on algae, so they are primarily herbivores, but can feed on sea cucumbers and a wide range of invertebrates, such as mussels, polychaetes, sponges, brittle stars, and crinoids, making them omnivores, consumers at a range of trophic levels.[24]Mass mortality of sea urchins was first reported in the 1970s, but diseases in sea urchins had been little studied before the advent of aquaculture. In 1981, bacterial "spotting disease" caused almost complete mortality in juvenile Pseudocentrotus depressus and Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus, both cultivated in Japan; the disease recurred in succeeding years. It was divided into a cool-water "spring" disease and a hot-water "summer" form.[25] Another condition, bald sea urchin disease, causes loss of spines and skin lesions and is believed to be bacterial in origin.[26]Adult sea urchins are usually well protected against most predators by their strong and sharp spines, which can be venomous in some species.[27] The small urchin clingfish lives among the spines of urchins, such as Diadema; juveniles feed on the pedicellariae and sphaeridia, adult males choose the tube feet and adult females move away to feed on shrimp eggs and molluscs.[28]Sea urchins are one of the favourite foods of many lobsters, crabs, triggerfish, California sheephead, sea otter and wolf eels (which specialises in sea urchins). All these animals carry particular adaptations (teeth, pincers, claws) and a strength that allow them to overcome the excellent protective features of sea urchins. Left unchecked by predators, urchins devastate their environment, creating what biologists call an urchin barren, devoid of macroalgae and associated fauna.[29] Sea otters have re-entered British Columbia, dramatically improving coastal ecosystem health[30]Wolf eel, a highly specialized predator of sea urchin.A sea otter feeding on a purple sea urchin.A crab (Carpilius convexus) attacking a slate pencil sea urchin (Heterocentrotus mammillatus)A wrasse finishing the remains of a damaged Tripneustes gratillaThe flower urchin is a dangerous, potentially lethally venomous species.The spines, long and sharp in some species, protect the urchin from predators. Some tropical sea urchins like Diadematidae, Echinothuriidaeand Toxopneustidae have venomous spines. Other creatures also make use of these defences; crabs, shrimps and other organisms shelter among the spines, and often adopt the colouring of their host. Some crabs in the Dorippidae family carry sea urchins, starfish, sharp shells or other protective objects in their claws.[31]Pedicellaria[32] are a good means of defense against ectoparasites, but not a panacea as some of them actually feed on it.[33] The hemal system defends against endoparasites.[34]Sea urchins are established in most seabed habitats from the intertidal downwards, at an extremely wide range of depths.[35] Some species, such as Cidaris abyssicola, can live at depths of several thousand metres. Many genera are only found in the abyssal zone, including many cidaroids, most of the genera in the Echinothuriidae family, and the "cactus urchins" Dermechinus. One of the deepest-living families is the Pourtales Iid,[36] strange bottle-shaped irregular sea urchins that live only in the hadal zone and have been collected as deep as 6850 metres beneath the surface in the Sunda Trench.[37] Nevertheless, this makes sea urchin the class of echinoderms living the least deep, compared to brittle stars, starfish and crinoids that remain abundant below 8,000 m (26,250 ft) and sea cucumbers which have been recorded from 10,687 m (35,100 ft).[37]Population densities vary by habitat, with more dense populations in barren areas as compared to kelp stands.[38][39] Even in these barren areas, greatest densities are found in shallow water. Populations are generally found in deeper water if wave action is present.[39] Densities decrease in winter when storms cause them to seek protection in cracks and around larger underwater structures.[39] The shingle urchin (Colobocentrotus atratus), which lives on exposed shorelines, is particularly resistant to wave action. It is one of the few sea urchins that can survive many hours out of water.[40]Sea urchins can be found in all climates, from warm seas to polar oceans.[35] The larvae of the polar sea urchin Sterechinus neumayeri have been found to use energy in metabolic processes twenty-five times more efficiently than do most other organisms.[41] Despite their presence in nearly all the marine ecosystems, most species are found in temperate and tropical coasts, between the surface and some tens of meters deep, close to photosynthetic food sources
sponge feeding habits
Sponges are filter feeders. Most sponges eat tiny, floating organic particles and plankton that they filter from the water flows through their body. Food is collected in specialized cells called choanocytes and brought to other cells by amoebocytes
sponge general ecology
Sponges are strictly aquatic organisms as you may expect considering that their feeding mechanism is based on the filtration of inflowing water from the environment. Almost all sponge species are found in the ocean with the exception of about 150 freshwater species. Sponges can be found throughout the marine world, in both cold polar waters and warmer tropical regions and at both great depths and in shallower areas. Because sponges generally require a solid support for attachment, they are often found in rocky marine areas or on the ocean floor. Sponges are critical components of the ecosystems of coral reefs, where they provide shelter for a variety of organisms including shrimp, crabs, and algae. They are also a source of food for many sponge-eating fish species. Many sponge species form large colonies or aggregates of individual organisms.Symbiosis of SpongesSponges form symbiotic relationships with a variety of microorganisms, including bacteria and algae. A symbiotic relationship between organisms is a close ecological association between two species that may be mutually beneficial or may benefit one partner at the expense of the other. In the case of sponges, the benefit for the microorganisms may be a sheltered surface area on which to grow, and the benefit for the sponge may be nutrients provided by the metabolism of the microorganisms. Although most sponges are filter-feeders that consume microorganisms or obtain nutrients by symbiosis, there is one family of sponges that is actually carnivorous. These sponges capture and consume small crustaceans using their spicules. One such sponge, Chondrocladia lyra, has been called the "harp sponge," because its structure resembles a harp or lyre turned on its side.Human Use of SpongesThe term sponge is commonly used to refer to a porous cleaning or scrubbing tool. An example of bath sponges made from actual sponge organisms is shown in Figure below. It is the combination of the extensive pore system and the relatively soft spongin skeletal structure that has made some species of the class Desmospongia useful to humans as cleaning or bath sponges.Nowadays it is rare for us to use a cleaning sponge derived from an actual organism. Most cleaning sponges are made of synthetic materials, but the porous structure is modeled after the bodies of these animals. The commonly used bath accessory called a loofah looks similar to a natural sponge, but it is actually made from a plant species.Another aspect of sponge biology that is of great use to humans is their chemical defense mechanisms. As sessile animals, sponges are vulnerable to a variety of predators. The pointed sponge spicules function as one method of defense against predators. Sponges also defend themselves by producing chemically active compounds. Some of these compounds are antibiotics that prevent pathogenic bacterial infections, and others are toxins that are poisonous to predators that consume the sponge. Many of these chemicals have been isolated and studied by scientists. A number of them have been found to have beneficial uses in humans; for example, some can be used as anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer drugs.
sponge life cycle
Sponges in temperate regions live for at most a few years, but some tropical species and perhaps some deep-ocean ones may live for 200 years or more. Some calcified demosponges grow by only 0.2 mm (0.0079 in) per year and, if that rate is constant, specimens 1 m (3.3 ft) wide must be about 5,000 years old. Some sponges start sexual reproduction when only a few weeks old, while others wait until they are several years old.
Grouper General Ecology
The 159 species of grouper (Family Epinephelidae) that occur world-wide are extremely important ecologically and many of them are important economically wherever they occur. They include many of the top-level predators in warm-temperate & tropical ecosystems, associated with deep-water and shallow hard bottom reefs, following pleistocene shorelines of the continental shelf and shelf edge. Their relationships with the places they live are so striking in some cases that they appear to be acting as keystone species and ecosystem engineers-- species which by their very presence or behaviors enhance the complexity of the habitat and thus the diversity of the communities within which they live.
sweetlips feeding habits
The Clown Sweetlips is a nocturnal carnivore and can be a finicky eater (especially as a juvenile) when first introduced to an aquarium; they should initially be fed live brine shrimp, black worms and ghost shrimp (in order to trigger a feeding response). Once they are eating well and are comfortable within an aquarium, they can then be introduced to frozen or freeze-dried foods such as vitamin enriched brine shrimp, mysis shrimp, chopped krill, and various prepared carnivore pellets and flake foods
sweetlips general ecology
The Sweetlips are a family of fish easily identified by their big, fleshy lips. The family is a large one with 120 species found around the world in tropical and temperate seasJuvenile sweetlips generally look quite different from the adults, and often live solitary lives on shallower reef sections. During our fish surveys on the house reef of Gili Lankanfushi here in the Maldives, this particular individual caught our attention.This species of sweetlips is native to the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean and juveniles display a striking contrast of black, white, yellow and red. As the fish develops, these patterns and colors will change into the horizontal black and white striped body of the adult.Many species of sweetlips go through these dramatic color changes during growth. Juveniles are often boldly spotted or striped, whilst adults are usually plain with spots or have more and thinner lines. Some juveniles have especially long tails and swim by undulating their body sideways, giving the impression of a swimming flatworm.
Banded Coral Shrimp Feeding Habits
The banded coral shrimp is omnivorous, which means that you can feed it a variety of food. It simply devours anything, right from dry and frozen food to dead fish, shrimp, pellets, and flakes. The sinking pellets are ideal for feeding this decapod. In addition to these, it can eat polychaete worms as well. The ideal method of feeding is to place the food in front of it with the help of a feeding stick.
parrotfish life cycle
The development of parrotfishes is complex and accompanied by a series of changes in sex and colour (polychromatism). Most species are sequential hermaphrodites, starting as females (known as the initial phase) and then changing to males (the terminal phase). In many species, for example the stoplight parrotfish (Sparisoma viride), a number of individuals develop directly to males (i.e., they do not start as females). These directly developing males usually most resemble the initial phase, and often display a different mating strategy than the terminal phase males of the same species.[27] A few species such as the Mediterranean parrotfish (S. cretense) are secondary gonochoristic. This means that some females do not change sex (they remain females throughout their lives), the ones that do change from female to male do it while still immature (reproductively functioning females do not change to males) and there are no males with female-like colors (the initial phase males in other parrotfish).[28][29][30] The marbled parrotfish (Leptoscarus vaigiensis) is the only species of parrotfish known not to change sex.[9] In most species, the initial phase is dull red, brown, or grey, while the terminal phase is vividly green or blue with bright pink, orange or yellow patches.[9][31] In a smaller number of species the phases are similar,[9][31] and in the Mediterranean parrotfish the adult female is brightly colored, while the adult male is gray.[32] In most species, juveniles have a different color pattern from adults. Juveniles of some tropical species can alter their color temporarily to mimic other species.[33] Where the sexes and ages differ, the remarkably different phases often were first described as separate species.[31] As a consequence early scientists recognized more than 350 parrotfish species, which is almost four times the actual number[27]Most tropical species form large schools when feeding and these are often grouped by size. Harems of several females presided over by a single male are normal in most species, with the males vigorously defend their position from any challenge.As pelagic spawners, parrotfish release many tiny buoyant eggs into the water, which become part of the plankton. The eggs float freely, settling into the coral until hatching.The sex change in parrotfishes is accompanied by changes in circulating steroids. Females have high levels of estradiol, moderate levels of T and undetectable levels of the major fish androgen 11-ketotestosterone. During the transition from initial to terminal coloration phases, concentrations of 11-ketotestosterone rise dramatically and estrogen levels decline. If a female is injected with 11-ketotestosterone, it will cause a precocious change in gonadal, gametic and behavioural sex
snapper feeding habits
The feeding habits of the mutton snapper change during their life history. Larval snappers feed on plankton near the surface of the water. As they settle out into the shallow grass beds, they begin to feed on larger plankton and small invertebrates. The diet then switches to shrimp, snails, crabs, and small fish such as mullet and small grunts.The primary feed behavior of this species is "picking" at food items during the entire day. Midwater strikes occurred during the morning and evening hours. Body coloration is dependent upon feeding mode, with dark barred color patterns associated with feeding along the bottom substrate while there was no change in coloration during midwater feeding.
Moray Eel life cycle
The fertilized egg has two forms: the blastula and gastrula. These swim close to the surface of the water with the aid of cilia, and can be dispersed quite far, depending on currents. These larvae are known as the echinopluteus, and can remain in the larval stage for an average of 4-6 weeks. As the larvae mature, a vestibule is created in what will be the oral side of the urchin. Tentacles grow from this opening, on which suction areas eventually emerge. When the tentacles have suckers, they are primary poda, which serve as locomotive tools when the larva sinks to the ocean floor. At this point the skeletal plates begin to develop. When the 5 ambulacral plates are developed and the terminal plate lies next to the genital plates, the urchin is fully developed, though it will continue to grow for the rest of its life
Long spined black sea urchins life cycle
The fertilized egg has two forms: the blastula and gastrula. These swim close to the surface of the water with the aid of cilia, and can be dispersed quite far, depending on currents. These larvae are known as the echinopluteus, and can remain in the larval stage for an average of 4-6 weeks. As the larvae mature, a vestibule is created in what will be the oral side of the urchin. Tentacles grow from this opening, on which suction areas eventually emerge. When the tentacles have suckers, they are primary poda, which serve as locomotive tools when the larva sinks to the ocean floor. At this point the skeletal plates begin to develop. When the 5 ambulacral plates are developed and the terminal plate lies next to the genital plates, the urchin is fully developed, though it will continue to grow for the rest of its life.
triton general ecology
The giant triton is an active predator and is known to aggressively chase its prey, which it detects with its excellent sense of smell. Though the chase may seem slow to human observers, the giant triton is known for relatively high speeds, especially for a snail. It prefers to eat other snails and sea stars, most notably the crown-of-thorns starfish. Large outbreaks of the crown-of-thorn starfish, which feed on reef-building corals, are known to threaten the health of coral reefs. The giant triton is one of the only natural predators of that starfish. For that reason, this species is considered by the Australian government to be extremely important to reef health and is given legal protection in that country and others. Once the giant triton chases down a snail or starfish, its venomous saliva paralyzes the prey.
triton life cycle
The giant triton reproduces through internal fertilization, and the female lays her sticky eggs on the sand, where they quickly become covered with sand and other material, offering them camouflage and protection from egg predators.
Grouper Life Cycle
The grouper starts first as a planktonic larvae then turns into juveniles in shore, then that moves to a fall egress, and then into the final stage that move to offshore. Groupers reproduce externally by laying eggs inshore. The adult grouper carry larvae that are transported inshore to spawning sites that lasts around 40-60 days; then lay their eggs inshore on seagrass beds. The larvae spawns as small juveniles and remain that way inshore for about 2-5 years depending on the species. Then, once they mature they move offshore to join other adult population. Spawning occurs in various numbers, size, and location. For example, the Nassau grouper has large aggregations that occur in a specific site around full moons of December. Then there is the Scamp Grouper that form small aggregations for only about two months that lay eggs wherever they want inshore. The main similarity is basically where the eggs are placed which is inshore. This happens because it is the safest environment for the new baby groupers because the dangerous predators live in open ocean offshore.
snapper general ecology
The northern red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus) is a species of snapper native to the western Atlantic Ocean including the Gulf of Mexico, where it inhabits environments associated with reefs. This species is commercially important and is also sought-after as a game fish.[2]The northern red snapper's body is very similar in shape to other snappers, such as the mangrove snapper, mutton snapper, lane snapper, and dog snapper. All feature a sloped profile, medium-to-large scales, a spiny dorsal fin, and a laterally compressed body. Northern red snapper have short, sharp, needle-like teeth, but they lack the prominent upper canine teeth found on the mutton, dog, and mangrove snappers. This snapper reaches maturity at a length of about 39 cm (15 in). The common adult length is 60 cm (24 in), but may reach 100 cm (39 in). The maximum published weight is 38 kg (84 lb),[3] and the oldest reported age is 100+ years.[2] Coloration of the northern red snapper is light red, with more intense pigment on the back. It has 10 dorsal spines, 14 soft dorsal rays, three anal spines and eight to 9 anal soft rays. Juvenile fish (shorter than 30-35 cm) can also have a dark spot on their sides, below the anterior soft dorsal rays, which fades with age,[2]The northern red snapper is found in the Gulf of Mexico and the southeastern Atlantic coast of the United States and much less commonly northward as far as Massachusetts. In Latin American Spanish, it is known as huachinango, pargo, or chillo.This species commonly inhabits waters from 9-60 m (30-200 ft), but can be caught as deep as 90 m (300 ft) on occasion. They stay relatively close to the bottom, and inhabit rocky bottoms, ledges, ridges, and artificial reefs, including offshore oil rigs and shipwrecks. Like most other snappers, northern red snapper are gregarious and form large schools around wrecks and reefs. These schools are usually made up of fish of very similar size.The preferred habitat of this species changes as it grows and matures due to increased need for cover and changing food habits.[4][5] Newly hatched red snapper spread out over large areas of open benthic habitat, then move to low-relief habitats, such as oyster beds. As they near one year of age, they move to intermediate-relief habitats as the previous year's fish move on to high-relief reefs with room for more individuals. Around artificial reefs such as oil platforms, smaller fish spend time in the upper part of the water column while more mature (and larger) adults live in deeper areas. These larger fish do not allow smaller individuals to share this territory. The largest red snapper spread out over open habitats, as well as reefs.
Butterfly Shrimp Life Cycle
They exhibit a unique and interesting mating behavior. This is because they form mating pairs to remain with throughout their lifetime. Butterfly fish lay their eggs on water which later become an integral part of plankton. That is why, majority of the eggs of the butterfly fish end up as meals for other sea creatures that live on plankton. After hatching, the fry (baby butterfly fish) are protected by armored plates which develop on their bodies. These armored plates gradually disappear as the armored fish gets older and they live for up to 10 years
pencil urchin feeding habits
They generally come out at night to feed, moving around and using their hard, horned teeth to scrape algae and other plant matter off rocks and corals. However, they'll also eat sponges, barnacles, mussels and dead fish or other sea creatures.
Grouper Feeding Habits
They habitually eat fish, octopuses, and crustaceans. Some species prefer to ambush their prey, while other species are active predators. Reports of fatal attacks on humans by the largest species, the giant grouper (Epinephelus lanceolatus) are unconfirmed.
parrotfish feeding habits
parrotfish are herbivores that graze the reef, using their beaks to scrape plants and algae from the reef surface. Oftentimes, this habit involves ingesting corals and other animals as well, but they are primarily herbivorous. Through their feeding strategies, parrotfishes create much of the sand around a reef. Upon eating some species of calcareous algae (i.e., algae with a hard skeleton), parrotfishes digest the soft parts and pass the hard parts, which essentially take the form of sand. Through their constant grazing, queen parrotfish serve an important ecological function on coral reefs. By removing algae, they open up space on hard surfaces for corals to attach and grow.
