Parenting Test Chapters 8-15

Which age groups seems to fare better or worst in divorce situations.

Children from stepfamilies fare neither better nor worse than children from single-parent families. It depends on the quality of parenting in the household.

Same sex marriage trend

-Internationally, about 2 dozen countries have legalized same-sex marriages. •Legal marriage for same-sex couples has found acceptance and been sanctioned in ever increasing contexts, reflecting greater societal acceptance. This in turn lowered suicide rates amongst this young and potentially vulnerable group.

The corner stones of parenting

-Structure and Nurture Are Two Cornerstones of Good Parenting Behaviors that provide structure and nurture: • Affirming developmental achievements appropriately. • Providing a safe and loving environment. • Encouraging appropriate and safe exploration of the environment. • Modeling respectful and gender-equal behavior. • Modeling good communication in the marital relationship. • Encouraging the expression of feelings. • Providing developmentally appropriate information. • Providing appropriate feedback with regard to behaviors. • Explaining the consequences of behaviors. • Communicating clearly—no guilt trips! • Being consistent. • Being respectful of the child. • Listening attentively. • Having space in one's life for a child.

What contributes to brain development in adolescence.

According to cognitive neuroscience, the adolescent brain continues its neurological development toward maturity, and changes in several cortical regions occur gradually ( Choudhury et al., 2012 ). Teenage decision making is thought to differ from that of adults. It can be impulsive, focused on the immediate, lacking consideration of longterm detrimental outcomes, and lacking the anticipatory judgment required to think through consequences. Sadly, some decisions can have lifelong effects; for example, binge drinking, substance abuse, texting while driving, and reckless driving can all have dire consequences. Car insurance for young drivers, particularly young males, is expensive because they lack extensive driving experience and may not always exhibit the better judgment that is supposed to come with maturity. On the other hand, a number of adolescents are responsible and mature beyond their years, defying the stereotypes. Cognitive neuroscience indicates that the adolescent brain is not yet fully mature, which explains some of the irresponsible behavior and the sense of invincibility

Adolescence and LGBTQ issues

Adolescence - the stage of the lifespan that represents a transitional period between childhood and adulthood. Begins at age 13 and extends through 18. Early adolescence - encompasses puberty and involves various physical changes associated with sexual maturation. Late adolescence - involves several psychological changes as individuals seek increasing autonomy and independence. Families supporting the coming-out of a family member identifying as L G B T, do well to foster an environment in which gender authenticity is encouraged and emotional support is demonstrated. Being informed concerning heteronormativity is an important step in becoming more inclusive and promoting equalities in our society. Support groups for parents who have children identifying as L G B T are important resources to strengthen entire family systems. This benefits all involved. All family members should be supported and accepted for who they are, including their sexual identity. Children and young adults who come-out, need the support and affirmation of accepting friends and peers. This crucial aspect allows for ongoing relationships that are sustaining and encouraging. It supports the young person in developing a strong and confident self concept. Peers need to be aware of the power of constructive empathy and support. Children and young adults who are bullied, shamed or not accepted for their unique expression of gender identity, are at greater risk for self harming behavior, including suicide. Legal marriage for same-sex couples has found acceptance and been sanctioned in ever increasing contexts, reflecting greater societal acceptance. This in turn lowered suicide rates amongst this young and potentially vulnerable group A child's disclosure of his or her sexual orientation acts as a stressor event for the family system, which most likely produces a crisis reaction.

The important developmental aspects of the preschool years such as sharing, reading, language, and climbing. These are vehicles for socialization and reaction.

An environment filled with rich language contributes to a more verbal preschooler, and ultimately a more successful adult. By actively talking and listening to a preschooler, parents enlarge the child's vocabulary and encourage positive communication skills that could last a lifetime. The process of appropriate self-regulation requires constructive socialization and guidance of children by their parents. As children struggle to develop self-control, parents must apply healthy strategies to support the unfolding of the child's unique personality.

How methods of child rearing could shift with developmental stages

As children become verbally more skilled, parents react by shifting from physical methods of child rearing to those that are more verbal and psychological in nature. Parents who believe in permissive and authoritative methods of child rearing may begin to use increased reasoning and verbal direction in interacting with preschoolers.

STUDY Different types of families such as bi nuclear and blended families formed after separation and divorce.

Blended family - (reconstituted family). This type of family brings together children who may have had different families of origin, and/or adults who have been previously partnered or married, or have children from previous relationships. Binuclear refers to children who have access to two families, usually as a result of parental divorce

Boundaries in adolences

Boundaries become blurred as the relationships and roles between mothers and their children change. Family systems headed by custodial fathers are increasing. Typically better educated than single-parent mothers and earn higher incomes. Can experience role strain as they add childrearing to their other responsibilities. Men gain custody of children after divorce because they actively seek it or because the mother has forfeited her rights by not being a responsible parent. Some positive outcomes that may be accomplished in single-parent families, depending on individual contexts, are gender equality and resilience. When parents are separating in preparation for divorce, it is important that they maintain open lines of communication to resolve their differences. Children are inevitably a part of the matters discussed. To avoid the feelings of anger, frustration, and guilt that can accompany these discussions, divorcing parents might limit the topics to the health needs and educational concerns of the children, and sharing time with the children ( McHale & Lindahl, 2011 ). When these new rules and boundaries are followed, additional rules, patterns, and boundaries can be shaped to redefine the relationship between each individual parent and the children. Boundaries also outline what are acceptable and unacceptable behaviors within this relationship. serve to establish limits that distinguish a family system from all others and differentiate among the persons who are members of a particular family system. Parenting adolescents presents challenges that have not been encountered previously. One of the more difficult challenges of parenting adolescents is the fine line that parents walk between being supportive of a teen's efforts to individuate and maintaining certain limits and boundaries regarding appropriate behavior. Adolescents need to learn how to make personal decisions, but sometimes their decisions can have drastic consequences. Family systems become unhealthy when there is a demand for complete conformity among all members, when everyone is expected to adhere to the same beliefs, values, and behaviors. Although parents and adolescents must agree on rules and other family patterns, this agreement ideally develops through negotiation and input from all concerned.

Consideration and custody decision making

Children should be sheltered from custody battles between divorcing parents because encounters are often hostile. Continued strife of parents in conflict, is very disrupting to children. •Parents who share joint custody are more involved with parenting responsibilities, have more contact with their children, and use parenting resources extensively. -Involved fathers who have joint custody, are more likely to be financially responsible towards the children, preventing a poverty-level existence. •Lack of education, poorly paying jobs, lack of work experience, and inadequate alimony all contribute to the likelihood that more custodial mothers have family incomes at or below the poverty level. The feminization of poverty. -Causes role strain. When divorcing parents consider custody issues, five factors frequently favor one parent over the other 1. The preferences of the child 2. Whether or not a parent wants custody 3. The perceived need to place a child with the samesex parent 4. The perceived need to keep a child with the mother because she may be the socially appropriate person for custody 5. A parent's ability to provide stable, continued support in the same residence or geographical area

Gender identity concerns

Encouraging Positive Gender-Role Development. An important aspect of an individual's self-concept is gender identity , the knowledge that humans are either male or female. An individual's biological sex immediately predicts a variety of reactions from others at birth. Children first learn gender or sex roles according to parents' interpretations of masculinity or femininity. In early childhood, parents and other caregivers use reinforcement to shape gender identity. These become modified and refined in middle childhood and adolescence. The result of such socialization experiences is that individuals make personal interpretations of masculinity and femininity at later ages. Gender-role development has both cognitive and behavioral aspects ( Kendrick & Luce, 2000 ). Gender roles appear to vary from one culture to another in some respects. For example, the practice, in some cultures, that women and girls are allowed to eat only after the males in the family have eaten is obviously a cultural factor. On the other hand, the fact that males tend to exhibit more aggressive behaviors than females regard. -The concept of gender includes cultural ideas of masculinity and femininity that are used to organize identities, behaviors and social rules. Gender expression is how gender identity is exhibited or enacted, and this can change over a lifespan. The meaning a family assigns to gender identity will facilitate family acceptance, which is crucial to ensure healthy emotional development.

Patterns that contribute to higher incidents of one child families. Why are we having fewer children today

Family resources are varied: Include interpersonal, social, economic, civic, educational, spiritual, health, and others. -Important consideration in family outcomes. -Interacts on different systemic levels, such as those within the family embedded within a society at large. •American families currently typically consist of two children, as opposed to historically larger families during and before the times of our grandparents. •Only children face unique challenges which parents can combat by creating networks of socialization and support. •Advances in medical care, much lower infant mortality, and changes in social norms have played contributing roles. •Challenges abound in all families, irrespective of size.

The different systems theory Family systems theory Social learning theory Attachment theory Pshysocial developmental theory

Family systems theory predicts that when one family member experiences change in some manner, all other members of the system are also affected to some degree Social learning theory -Explains how learning may occur when there is no visible reinforcer or reward.-Individual responds to complex stimuli by forming associations between appropriate and inappropriate behavior.-Conscious thought assists in shaping behavior and actions. Attachment Theory -focuses on the connection between an infant's early bonding experiences with a parent or caregiver and their ability to form trusting and loving relationships later in life.-Having consistent, loving parents or significant reliable caregivers allows development of trust and is the foundation for attachment.-Interruptions may be caused by absent or inadequate parenting and elicit separation anxiety.-Instinctive attachment is a biological need.-Strengthened by care and responsiveness. Psychosocial development Mental change as a process throughout the lifespan (extension of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytical approach covering the lifespan).-Each stage of life has its own 'crisis' which ideally needs to be resolved.-Significant others assist or inhibit the developmental progress at each stage.-How well a person meets and masters a particular stage can be reflected in psychosocial attitudes and feelings.-Reciprocal interaction within the family is seen as a key component.

Teen pregnancy trend and what contributes to those.

Increased incidence of sexual activity among adolescents ■ Lack of adequate contraceptive knowledge and use ■ Social and peer influences ■ Personal, family, and community attitudes about teen pregnancy. A variety of factors contribute to teenage pregnancy. The most obvious relate to the failure to use contraceptives among those who are sexually active. Increased frequency of sexual intercourse at earlier ages. ■ Social influences that decrease the negative stigma of teen pregnancy. ■ Lack of adequate knowledge of contraceptives and their use by sexually active teenagers. ■ Personal attitudes about sexuality, pregnancy, and parenthood.

Successful programs for adolescence parents and what that includes.

The Harvard University: Center for the Developing Child (2016) has found core principles to inform policymakers and facilitate program development in order to improve the outcomes for young people. They include: -Building caregiver skills. -Match interventions to sources of significant stress. -Support the health and nutrition of children and mothers before, during, and after pregnancy. -Improve the quality of the broader caregiving environment. -Establish clear goals and appropriately targeted curricula. In essence, sex-education programs that address both abstinence and contraceptive use comprehensively have been found to help teens delay becoming sexually active, reduce their numbers of sexual partners, and increase their use of contraceptives when they do become sexually active

The impact of divorce on children at different ages.

Parental divorce affects children in a number of ways. -Age of the child at the time of divorce is an important factor. •Parents fear the harmful outcomes of divorce on their children. -Researchers generally find divorce as disruptive, yet most children adapt and adjust in resilient ways if appropriate support systems are in place. •The way that adults continue to fulfill their roles as parents and form a constructive working relationship as coparents, is an important factor in determining outcomes. The child's age at the time of the parental divorce seems to be one of the driving factors in how a child reacts and adjusts. Regressive behaviors, such as temporary loss of toilet training; increased aggression; fretting; and negative attention-getting behaviors, such as whining or destroying toys, may be observed among preschoolers whose parents are divorcing. School-age children may fear abandonment or rejection by their absent parent and experience a drop in school performance, adverse interactions with peers, or boundary shifts with their mother during or following parental divorce. Adolescents may manifest similar feelings, which can present as delinquency and negative actingout behaviors, heightened conflicts with their parent, decline in school performance, and depression

During middle childhood

Parents are charged with the responsibility to teach their children emotional regulation and coping mechanisms. Co-regulation- parents guide the children towards control of emotions in socially appropriate ways. Supports self-regulation by the child. Self-efficacy- the ability of the child to manage certain tasks independently and age appropriately. The influence of peers becomes increasingly important as children seek acceptance and create deeper bonds with other school-age children. Through continuous open communication, parents can help children develop healthy mindsets and values on topics such as friendship, and peer pressure, sexuality, religion and spiritual values. Parents should continue to put great effort into the health and well-being of their school-age children. Puberty- the beginning of the journey towards sexual maturation. Shared family meals support appropriate eating patterns. Both food insecurity and obesity are problems plaguing this age group, either as a result of poverty or poor parental lifestyle choices. Overall health care, including vision, dental, prevention of head injuries and concussions, and yearly check-ups, continue to play an important role in a child's healthy development. School-age children rely heavily on the opinions of their peer group. Peer group- subcultures formed in the middle years of childhood. Help children learn social lessons and can exert a mutual influence on members. It's important for parents and teachers to counter the negative effects of bullying and harassment through awareness and possible intervention. Cyberbullying- the relentless harassment, intimidation, humiliation, and tormenting of an individual over the Internet or via social media. Bullying- teasing/harassment that occurs predominantly during the school-aged years. Psychologist Jean Piaget (1967)referred to cognitive development during middle childhood as a period of concrete operations . By the time that children reach their school-age years, they can understand and utilize certain principles or relationships between events and things. In using and comprehending these relationships, children interact with objects, symbols, and concepts. Between the ages of 6 and 12, children in middle childhood further develop their cognitive and social skills, with the assistance of parents, peers, and the educational system.

Common personality traits of adolescence.

Resilience- a process that engages personality traits, personal resources, and other aspects from the larger ecological system by: Reducing whatever will cause the impact. Interrupting the chain of risk. Preventing or blocking the risk or harm. . A major challenge to parents is adjusting to a developing child whose behavior and personality traits are rapidly emerging. Preschoolers are adventurous, curious, and quickly learn many things. Parents enjoy their preschool-age child while also experiencing conflict as the child tests the limits and boundaries set by adults. A healthy sense of self is promoted when children are helped to understand the extent of their personality traits, their collective strengths, and their weaknesses. A habit may be formed at this time in life when the feedback, especially the negative kind, may be overwhelming. By not knowing any different, it is only natural for school-age children to agree with the criticism and negative input about themselves that they hear from others their own age. Some children at this age can be very cruel in their comments and actions toward others who they wish to discount. For some children, crafting a positive personal self-concept occurs when others are discounted and ridiculed. When this is discovered by parents and teachers, it is possible for the adults to help these children construct a realistic sense of self.

What are sandwich generation and boomerang generation concepts.

Sandwich generation- the middle generation who care for their own children, as well as for their aging parents. Experience role strain and possibly burnout, especially if they are also juggling career obligations and partnerships/marriages. ■ Changes take place in the family system; adult children leave the nest and occasionally return during times of personal crisis. These boomerang children may return as a result of difficulties related to finances or a change in marital status. Many young adult children, mostly males, return to the parental home to live there temporarily; these adult children are described as boomerang children

Homestatis that equalibirum

The family system has to redistribute its power and all the remaining family members pool their resources to find a new homeostasis or equilibrium.

Feminization of poverty and what it entales.

The higher incidence of single-parent families headed by women among minorities is a major factor in the differences in family income among racial groups. Two trends among those affected by poverty continued to be observed in recent years: (1) the feminization of poverty, as noted by the increasing number of women and children who are poor; and (2) an increase in the number of working poor, or those who may work one or more jobs earning low wages with few or no benefits. In addition to these factors, inflation has continued to erode the buying power of the American dollar, affecting those earning minimum wages the greatest. Lack of education, poorly paying jobs, lack of work experience, and inadequate alimony all contribute to the likelihood that more custodial mothers have family incomes at or below the poverty level. The feminization of poverty.

Learning how to facilitate language development with preschoolers

Young children learn through modeling and observation of others and increasingly comprehend their parents' expectations and instructions. As young children acquire a number of physical and social skills, they become more oriented toward others rather than being largely self-oriented. This important change in perspective enables a developing child to capitalize on a wide range of experiences as he or she learns to cope with and master the environment. As children develop, an appropriate balance of nurture and structure contributes to optimal parent-child relations. Affirm developmental achievements appropriately. Provide a safe and loving environment. Model respectful and gender-equal behavior. Encourage the expression of feelings. Provide appropriate feedback with regard to behavior. Communicate clearly. Be respectful of the child Have space in one's life for a child. A lack of either nurture or structure could facilitate behavioral, emotional, or social difficulties. The behavior of preschoolers is enhanced by parents who are responsive to changes in their children's needs. Parents find that their need to be needed by their children changes as well. Children, in effect, assist in shaping and modifying the parenting behavior of adults. Parents learn that their growing preschoolers also recognize the changes in their own maturity and resist being treated as if they were younger. Preschoolers need developmentally appropriate toys and play equipment to encourage acquisition of physical, psychosocial, and mental skills.

Rubin hills "ABCX" models of stress

factors such as the type of stressor, availability of family resources, and perception of the stressor or crisis event all affect how the family functions following the stressor. -A= the stressor event. -B= the resources available to the family. -C= the family's perceptions of the stressor. -X= the likelihood of a crisis.

How to provide a high level of social confidence, leadership, and problem solving abilities.

forming a secure attachment during infancy and early childhood. the quality of the attachments that a child develops in infancy has long-term consequences. There are many benefits to acquiring secure attachments in infancy and early childhood, including higher levels of social competence and self esteem, the ability to function independently, empathy, leadership skills, and problem-solving abilities

The Aces study How the average childhood experience is studied.

launched by the C D C and Kaiser-Permanente found that Adverse Childhood Experiences can be foundational in a chain of interacting factors that can contribute to more negative outcomes, including earlier death. factors can facilitate conditions that disrupt neurodevelopment, which in turn can pave the way for social, emotional, and cognitive vulnerability. These in turn can lead to the adoption of risky lifestyle choices. •Mediating factors such as positive familial relationships could play an important role in interrupting the cycle of negative experiences; thus slowing down, ameliorating and even halting the progression.

Attachment style outcomes

manifests itself in relationships that a child develops with significant others and parents. •Several attachment disorders, including R A D and D S E S, have been linked to adverse caregiving environments reflecting insufficient care and social neglect. •Many children who were not able to form secure attachments in early childhood, experience the negative outcomes growing up, and may benefit from supportive and possibly therapeutic intervention.

Trends in Remarriage

may occur at a time when the necessities and tasks of the lifespan of the blended family are incompatible with the developmental needs and tasks of the adults. Increases in the number of divorces were accompanied by a rise in the number of remarriages and blended families. By the end of the 20th century, diversity in family forms and structures became the norm rather than the exception Remarriage is likely to occur among individuals who have divorced or who were widowed. Individuals who remarry are generally young adults. The median interval between divorce and remarriage is about 3 to 5 years. Ethnic background influences remarriage; for example, Caucasians are more likely to remarry than African Americans. Remarriages are characterized by the difference in developmental levels of the adults at the time of remarriage in comparison with those during their first marriage. Remarriage is more likely to occur if an adult has been divorced rather than if they were widowed. The probability of remarriage is highest among Caucasian divorced women and least likely among African American divorced women. Remarriage is more likely to occur among those who leave a first marriage via divorce

Ecological systems theory

offers a way to understand family functioning against the backdrop of increasingly larger social systems. explains how individuals and families are affected by a variety of interacting environments in a bidirectional manner. leads our attention to the role of different environments and how these affect individual and family functioning, including parent-child relations.

The valent study

offers valuable insight into the connection between parent-child relationships and adult functioning, further displaying how childhood experiences greatly influence the entire life story.

Self regulation

requires constructive socialization and guidance of children by their parents.

Different parenting styles The four styles: And how it impacts the outcomes of children at different ages.

•Democratic (authoritative) styles, tend to elicit more positive interactions. •Authoritarian styles generate more conflict, partly attributable to the adolescent's attempts at individuation. May elicit rebellious behaviors. Permissive parenting avoids excessive control, does not enforce obedience to externally defined standards, and allows children to regulate their own activities. High nurture and low structure. Uninvolved parenting is an emotionally absent or disengaged parenting style providing minimal input. In an extreme form, it can be a variation of neglect. Low nurture and low structure.