Parenting: The Role of Mothers and Fathers

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1960s changes in research emphasis

Attachment/bonding literature showed strong relationship of fathers in socialization, shift in family structure (unavailable mother), fathers more active/vocal, direct interaction with mothers less frequent than expected, amount of time spent doesn't = influence, infants aren't passive recipients

Parenting advice regarding sleep

Changed as we learned about child development, cultural variations with co-sleeping, sleep difficulties reflect attachment problems or developmental shifts

Differential roles

Fathers = physically stimulating and playful interactions, joking, teasing...cultural? instumental (mastery, competence) Mothers = conventional play and caretaking, expressive (relationships, emotional support)

Achievement and intellectual development

Fathers involvement = mixed results, middle class boys with nurturing fathers excel, highly involved ones have marked impact on daughters cognitive development, encourage more achievement in boys, encouragement/rejection influences achievement, low expectations and close relationships to daughters inhibits performance

Primary caregiver fathers (PCF's)

Fathers who stay home have lower gender stereotypes, more friendly/sympathetic, find parenting enriching, kids raised by them are active/competent, good at problem solving/social adaptation

Father-child relationship investigated

Identify when infant forms relationships with fathers and the similar/unique qualities of father-child relationships, mothers/fathers show same responses, fathers activate babies/alternate strategies, tolerate more frustration, rough and tumble play

Children learn through parental dyad interactions

Learn how to behave in the social world, hostile-competitive co-parenting = more aggressive, cooperative = positive social-emotional development

Emotional development

Maternal reactions impact feelings of self-consciousness, moms who emphasize the negative by being critical of failures had kids with high levels of shame/little pride after success, ones who praise success have kids that show pride in accomplishments/less shame when failing

Gender identity (Maccoby and Jacklin)

Men's language and physical handling style shift for boy/girl infants and children, men more likely to touch/vocalize with infant sons and play on floor

Pederson and Robson's reunion behavior findings

Most infants attached to both parents by 8 months, no parental preference in stress-free situations, go to present parent when stressed, maternal preference when hungry/tired/afraid

Altruism

Most powerful predictor of empathy in childhood and adulthood = how much time child's father spent with them, sensitive/caring fathers = child grows up that way

Children's perceptions of parents

Mothers = nurturing, seek more information from them, promote verbal/intellectual skills Fathers = playful, threatening, demanding, encourage independence, increase resileince

Display rules

Mothers and fathers teach their children about the ways to express and suppress emotions, kids show limited ability to hide feelings by age 3, girls more motivated/skilled at display rules

Lamb's caution regarding mothers and fathers

Mothers do play but it's not as proportionate to other things they do, when fathers are supportive/encouraging mothers are patient/flexible/emotionally responsive/sensitive/available

Social referencing

Parents' emotional expressions and reactions to ambiguous information provide a guide to a response, children learn about themselves and ways they should react to the world

Bi-directionality

Set of interactive processes whereby parents and children react to each other/influence each other, e.g. kids with difficult temperaments or behavior problems provoke coercive responses

Social competence

Warm father-son relationships = greater social competence/self-esteem/adjustment Warm father-daughter = self-esteem and positive male-female relationships Direct influence of men's childcare for kid's prosocial development among 3 year olds


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