Parenting: The Role of Mothers and Fathers
1960s changes in research emphasis
Attachment/bonding literature showed strong relationship of fathers in socialization, shift in family structure (unavailable mother), fathers more active/vocal, direct interaction with mothers less frequent than expected, amount of time spent doesn't = influence, infants aren't passive recipients
Parenting advice regarding sleep
Changed as we learned about child development, cultural variations with co-sleeping, sleep difficulties reflect attachment problems or developmental shifts
Differential roles
Fathers = physically stimulating and playful interactions, joking, teasing...cultural? instumental (mastery, competence) Mothers = conventional play and caretaking, expressive (relationships, emotional support)
Achievement and intellectual development
Fathers involvement = mixed results, middle class boys with nurturing fathers excel, highly involved ones have marked impact on daughters cognitive development, encourage more achievement in boys, encouragement/rejection influences achievement, low expectations and close relationships to daughters inhibits performance
Primary caregiver fathers (PCF's)
Fathers who stay home have lower gender stereotypes, more friendly/sympathetic, find parenting enriching, kids raised by them are active/competent, good at problem solving/social adaptation
Father-child relationship investigated
Identify when infant forms relationships with fathers and the similar/unique qualities of father-child relationships, mothers/fathers show same responses, fathers activate babies/alternate strategies, tolerate more frustration, rough and tumble play
Children learn through parental dyad interactions
Learn how to behave in the social world, hostile-competitive co-parenting = more aggressive, cooperative = positive social-emotional development
Emotional development
Maternal reactions impact feelings of self-consciousness, moms who emphasize the negative by being critical of failures had kids with high levels of shame/little pride after success, ones who praise success have kids that show pride in accomplishments/less shame when failing
Gender identity (Maccoby and Jacklin)
Men's language and physical handling style shift for boy/girl infants and children, men more likely to touch/vocalize with infant sons and play on floor
Pederson and Robson's reunion behavior findings
Most infants attached to both parents by 8 months, no parental preference in stress-free situations, go to present parent when stressed, maternal preference when hungry/tired/afraid
Altruism
Most powerful predictor of empathy in childhood and adulthood = how much time child's father spent with them, sensitive/caring fathers = child grows up that way
Children's perceptions of parents
Mothers = nurturing, seek more information from them, promote verbal/intellectual skills Fathers = playful, threatening, demanding, encourage independence, increase resileince
Display rules
Mothers and fathers teach their children about the ways to express and suppress emotions, kids show limited ability to hide feelings by age 3, girls more motivated/skilled at display rules
Lamb's caution regarding mothers and fathers
Mothers do play but it's not as proportionate to other things they do, when fathers are supportive/encouraging mothers are patient/flexible/emotionally responsive/sensitive/available
Social referencing
Parents' emotional expressions and reactions to ambiguous information provide a guide to a response, children learn about themselves and ways they should react to the world
Bi-directionality
Set of interactive processes whereby parents and children react to each other/influence each other, e.g. kids with difficult temperaments or behavior problems provoke coercive responses
Social competence
Warm father-son relationships = greater social competence/self-esteem/adjustment Warm father-daughter = self-esteem and positive male-female relationships Direct influence of men's childcare for kid's prosocial development among 3 year olds