Pathophysiology: Module 1 & 2
Hypolipidemia
A blood lipid deficiency
Hypertonic solution
A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration than a body solution.
One third of the body's fluid is ___________________.
Extracellular. Two thirds of the body's water is intracellular; one third is extracellular. Two components of the extracellular compartment are interstitial and intravascular. TBW is approximately 60% of body weight.
Which of the following cellular processes occurs during apoptosis? a. cell lysis b. cellular swelling c. cleavage of key cellular proteins d. activation of inflammation
c. Cleavage of key cellular proteins Apoptosis results in the rapid killing of a cell through nuclear shrinkage and the activation of proteases that neatly cleave key cellular proteins.
Tattooing and stippling occur with which of the following types of injuries? a. asphyxial injuries b. blunt force injuries c. gunshot injuries d. infectious injuries
c. gunshot injuries Tattooing and stippling are caused by gunpowder and occur on the skin surrounding the entrance wound.
The most common cause of hypoxic injury is: a. free radicals b. malnutrition c. chemical toxicity d. ischemia
d. ischemia Hypoxic injury results from a lack of oxygen. The most common cause of this type of cell injury is ischemia, a decrease in blood flow to the tissue.
Injury to the endoplasmic reticulum due to hypoxic injury results in: a. sodium accumulation. b. a decrease in protein synthesis. c. the release of enzymes. d. lactic acid production.
B. a decrease in protein synthesis. Ribosomes are the primary site for protein synthesis. Hypoxic injury and cellular swelling result in dilation of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, causing the ribosomes to detach. Loss of the site for protein synthesis results in decreased protein production.
metaplasia
Refers to a mature cell type being replaced by another sometimes less mature cell type.
Hypernatremia is defined as levels above: a. 147 mEq/L b. 5.5 mEq/L c. 105 mEq/L d. 8.5 mg/dl
a. 147 mEq/L Hypernatremia is defined as serum levels above 147 mEq/L. Hyperkalemia is defined as serum levels above 5.5 mEq/L, and hyperchloremia is defined as serum levels above 105 mEq/L. Hypocalcemia occurs when serum calcium concentrations are less than 8.5 mg/dl.
Which statements are true regarding apoptosis? (Select all that apply.) a. An active process of cellular self-destruction b. A process that deletes cells during embryonic development c. Local cell death after severe and sudden injury d. Nuclear and cytoplasmic shrinkage of a cell
a. An active process of cellular self-destruction b. A process that deletes cells during embryonic development d. Nuclear and cytoplasmic shrinkage of a cell Apoptosis is programmed cell death. It is an active process of cellular self-destruction that is implicated in normal embryonic development, as well as in rapidly proliferating cancer cells. Apoptosis affects single cells by causing nuclear and cytoplasmic shrinkage, followed by the fragmentation of the cell membrane. Necrosis is accidental cell death that occurs to local cells after a severe and sudden injury.
Which treatments are appropriate for hyperkalemia? (Select all that apply.) a. Calcium gluconate b. Treating the contributing cause c. Administering glucagon d. Sodium bicarbonate
a. Calcium gluconate b. Treating the contributing cause d. Sodium bicarbonate Calcium gluconate, treating the contributing cause, and sodium bicarbonate are all appropriate treatments. Calcium gluconate can be administered to restore normal neuromuscular irritability when serum potassium levels are dangerously high. Glucose, which readily stimulates insulin secretion, or the administration of glucose and insulin for those with diabetes, facilitates cellular entry of potassium. Sodium bicarbonate corrects metabolic acidosis and lowers serum potassium. Glucagon is administered to treat beta-blocker overdose or hypoglycemia.
Which of the following are clinical manifestations of hypokalemia? (Select all that apply.) a. Carbohydrate metabolism is affected as a result of decreased insulin secretion. b. Renal function is impaired. c. Neuromuscular excitability is decreased. d. Skeletal muscle is affected with increased contractility.
a. Carbohydrate metabolism is affected as a result of decreased insulin secretion. b. Renal function is impaired. c. Neuromuscular excitability is decreased. Carbohydrate metabolism is affected by depressing insulin secretion and alters hepatic and skeletal muscle glycogen synthesis. Renal function may be impaired with a decreased ability to concentrate urine, and renal tubular atrophy and fibrosis may occur. Neuromuscular excitability is decreased causing skeletal muscle weakness, smooth muscle atony, and cardiac dysrhythmias. Hypokalemia causes the skeletal muscle to be weak.
Why is carbon monoxide exposure a life-threatening condition? a. Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin and prevents normal oxygen transport to tissues. b. Inhalation of carbon monoxide interferes with oxygen diffusion in the lungs. c. Carbon monoxide causes the release of toxic amounts of iron from the tissues. d. Carbon dioxide removal from the tissues is inhibited.
a. Carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin and prevents normal oxygen transport to tissues.
What are the primary factors contributing to oncosis from hypoxic injury? a. Decrease in ATP production and sodium movement into the cell b. Injury to the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus c. Increase in ATP production and potassium movement out of the cell d. Accumulation of lipids and pigments in the cell
a. Decrease in ATP production and sodium movement into the cell Failure of the sodium-potassium pump due to decreased ATP availability causes the accumulation of sodium in the cell, followed by an accumulation of water, which is called oncosis.
A collection of blood that is located between the skull and the dura is called a/an: a. Epidural hematoma b. Contusion c. Subdural hematoma d. Subarachnoid hemorrhage
a. Epidural hematoma Epidural hematomas are a collection of blood between the inner surface of the skull and the dura. A contusion is a bruise or bleeding into the skin and underlying tissue. A subdural hematoma is a collection of blood between the inner surface of the dura and the surface of the brain. Subarachnoid hemorrhage is a condition in which a cerebral arterial aneurysm ruptures.
Which of the following are functions of a protein? (Select all that apply.) a. Pores or transport channels b. Enzymes that drive pumps c. Cell surface markers d. Synapses for cells
a. Pores or transport channels b. Enzymes that drive pumps c. Cell surface markers Proteins may act as transport channels, pores, cell surface markers, enzymes that drive pumps, catalysts, and cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), or they may act as the key components of ATP synthesis. Synapses are the connections between two nerve cells.
Which term describes oxygen failing to reach the blood? a. Suffocation b. Strangulation c. Drowning d. Petechiae
a. Suffocation Suffocation occurs when oxygen fails to reach the blood. It is a subgroup of asphyxial injuries. Strangulation is caused by compression and closure of the blood vessels and air passages by external pressure on the neck. Drowning occurs when water or fluid alters the delivery of oxygen. Petechiae are found on the neck of a victim who has been strangled. It is the result of compression of soft tissue and the breakage of blood vessels.
The postmortem decrease in body temperature is called: a. algor mortis b. gangrene c. liver mortis d. rigor mortis
a. algor mortis Algor mortis is the postmortem reduction in body temperature.
Metaplasia involves the replacement of normal cells by: a. another type of cell b. abnormal cells of the same tissue type c. scar tissue d. cancer cells
a. another type of cell Metaplasia is the replacement of normal cells by another type of cell.
Which of the following blunt injuries is most likely to result in severe external hemorrhage a. avulsion b. contusion c. stab wound d. abrasion
a. avulsion A laceration that results in tissue avulsion can cause damage to large blood vessels, resulting in severe hemorrhage.
Liquefactive necrosis typically occurs after severe hypoxic injury to which of the following organs? a. brain b. heart c. adrenals d. pancreas
a. brain Hypoxic injury to the brain results in liquefactive necrosis because the central nervous system contains little connective tissue.
Which of the following molecules is likely to accumulate in any dead or dying tissues? a. calcium b. protein c. uric acid d. melanin
a. calcium When calcium pumps fail due to mitochondrial injury, calcium accumulates in the cytoplasm and contributes to irreversible cellular injury and cell death.
The population group most vulnerable to lead poisoning is: a. children b. pregnant women c. male adolescents d. the elderly
a. children Children are most vulnerable to lead poisoning because they absorb lead through the intestines more rapidly than adults, and their nervous systems are still developing.
Movement of a solute molecule from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration is called: a. diffusion b. filtration c. osmosis d. hydrostatic pressure
a. diffusion Diffusion is the movement of a solute from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Osmosis is the movement of water down a concentration gradient from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration. Filtration is the movement of water and solute through a membrane because of a greater pushing pressure on one side of the membrane than the other. Hydrostatic pressure is the mechanical force of water pushing against a cell membrane.
Which of the following organs is affected by Gaucher disease? a. liver, spleen, bone marrow b. CNS and eyes c. Heart, peripheral arteries, long bones d. Stomach, esophagus, and small intestines
a. liver, spleen, bone marrow Gaucher disease is caused by the accumulation of a fatty substance called glucocerebroside in the spleen, liver, and bone marrow. It also affects the lungs and brain.
Free radical injury can be caused by all of the following factors except: a. tissue damage by antioxidants. b. radiation injury. c. tissue reperfusion following ischemia. d. enzymatic metabolism of chemicals.
a. tissue damage by antioxidants. Mechanisms of free radical damage include absorption of energy (as in radiation injury), redox reactions (as in reperfusion injury), and enzymatic metabolism of chemicals. Antioxidants protect against injury by free radicals.
In compensatory hyperplasia, growth factors stimulate cell division in response to: a. tissue loss b. decreased hormonal stimulation c. ischemia d. puberty
a. tissue loss In response to tissue loss, surrounding cells are stimulated to replace the lost tissue.
It is true that a eukaryotic cell: a. Is smaller than a prokaryotic cell. b. Contains structures called organelles c. Lacks a well-defined nucleus. d. Does not contain histones.
b. Contains structures called organelles Eukaryotic cells contain organelles and histones, they have a well-defined nucleus, and are larger than prokaryotic cells.
Common causes of edema formation (increased filtration of fluid from capillaries and lymph into surrounding tissues) include which of the following? (Select all that apply.) a. Decreased hydrostatic pressure b. Decreased plasma oncotic pressure c. Increased capillary membrane permeability d. Lymphatic obstruction e. Sodium retention
b. Decreased plasma oncotic pressure c. Increased capillary membrane permeability d. Lymphatic obstruction e. Sodium retention The five common causes of increased edema are: (1) increased hydrostatic pressure, (2) decreased plasma oncotic pressure, (3) increased capillary membrane permeability, (4) lymphatic obstruction, and (5) sodium retention.
Which statement best describes a desmosome? a. A desmosome is a barrier to diffusion. b. Desmosomes hold cells together by continuous bands. c. A desmosome is a communicating tunnel. d. Desmosomes function as a zona occludens.
b. Desmosomes hold cells together by continuous bands. The desmosome is a type of cell junction. The other two types include tight junctions and gap junctions. Desmosomes hold cells together by forming a continuous band of epithelial tissue or belt (or button like) points of contact. They are also a source of structural stability. Tight junctions serve as barriers to diffusion and prevent the movement of substances through transport proteins. Gap junctions are clusters of communicating tunnels.
Which statement describes the function of a second messenger? a. Extracellular ligand that binds with membrane-bound receptors b. Intracellular enzyme that once will trigger a cascade of intracellular events c. Chemical messenger that opens specific channels in the cell membrane d. Chemical messenger that blocks a membrane-bound receptor signal
b. Intracellular enzyme that once will trigger a cascade of intracellular events The binding of a ligand to a cell surface receptor triggers the activation of intracellular second messengers. Second messengers activate signal transduction pathways in the cell that can initiate different intracellular events. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and calcium (Ca++) are the two major second-messenger pathways. First messengers are the extracellular ligands that bind to cell surface receptors. Binding of first messengers can result in the opening or closing of specific cell membrane channels or the activation of second messengers.
Lead poisoning affects nervous system function by which of the following mechanisms? a. Lead blocks oxygen delivery to the brain by binding with hemoglobin. b. Lead interferes with neurotransmitter release. c. Lead causes nervous tissue necrosis. d. Lead inhibits fatty acid oxidation in the brainstem.
b. Lead interferes with neurotransmitter release. Lead interferes with neurotransmitter release and blocks normal neuron function.
An organelle that is responsible for the metabolism of cellular energy is referred to as a/an a. Golgi complex b. Mitochondrion c. Endoplasmic reticulum d. Nucleolus
b. Mitochondrion Mitochondria play a role in cellular metabolism, cellular respiration, and energy production. The Golgi complex is responsible for processing and packaging proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum, where they are synthesized. The nucleolus is a small, dense structure that contains the ribonucleic acid (RNA), DNA, and DNA-binding proteins.
Which statement is true regarding hypokalemia? a. Hypokalemia occurs when the serum level is below 135 mEq/L. b. One cause of hypokalemia is diabetic ketoacidosis. c. Dietary causes of hypokalemia are common. d. Diuretics do not cause hypokalemia.
b. One cause of hypokalemia is diabetic ketoacidosis. Hypokalemia is low potassium. Therefore hypokalemia is defined as a serum level less than 3.5 mEq/L. It is often caused by diuretics. Diabetic ketoacidosis does cause hypokalemia. Potassium is shifted out of the cell in exchange for hydrogen and then excreted. The serum level may remain within a normal range, but then when insulin is administered, potassium is shifted back into the cells and a deficit occurs. Potassium balance is especially significant in the treatment of conditions requiring insulin administration, such as insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (type 1). Dietary causes are uncommon.
Which statement regarding altitude and illness is true? a. Caisson disease occurs when descending too quickly while diving. b. Pulmonary edema as the result of hypoxia and increased pulmonary hypertension. c. Gas emboli are caused by oxygen bubbles. d. Altitude sickness occurs from blast injuries.
b. Pulmonary edema as the result of hypoxia and increased pulmonary hypertension. High altitude causes hypoxic injury. This hypoxia causes shunting of blood from the periphery to vital organs including the lungs and results in pulmonary hypertension. Caisson disease is often called the bends and occurs when divers ascend too quickly, resulting in a gas embolism. Gas emboli are formed when carbon dioxide and nitrogen, which are normally dissolved in blood, bubble out of solution. Blast injuries cause significant injury through the collapse of the thorax, the rupture of internal organs, and widespread hemorrhage.
Which of the following is a form of metaplasia that can occur in the human body? a. Epithelial cells of the bronchial lining are replaced with collagenous connective tissue. b. Squamous epithelial cells of the esophageal lining are replaced by glandular cells similar to those lining the stomach. c. Liver cells are replaced by squamous epithelial cells. d. Adipose cells are replaced by cells that cannot store lipids.
b. Squamous epithelial cells of the esophageal lining are replaced by glandular cells similar to those lining the stomach. Metaplasia in the distal esophagus, as a result of acid reflux, involves replacement of squamous epithelium with gastric mucosa cells.
Which statement describes acidemia? a. State in which the pH of arterial blood is greater than 7.45 b. State in which the pH of arterial blood is less than 7.35 c. Systemic decrease in hydrogen ion concentration d. Systemic excess of base
b. State in which the pH of arterial blood is less than 7.35 Acidemia is a state in which the pH of arterial blood is less than 7.35. Alkalemia is a state in which the pH of arterial blood is greater than 7.45. A systemic increase in hydrogen ion concentration or loss of base is termed acidosis. A systemic decrease in hydrogen ion concentration or an excess of base is termed alkalosis.
The possible diagnosis of shaken baby syndrome is supported when an infant brought to the emergency department is found to have which type of cerebral hematoma? a. Epidural b. Subdural c. Subarachnoid d. Avulsion
b. Subdural A subdural hematoma is associated with blows, falls, or sudden acceleration or deceleration of the head, such as the sudden movements that occur with shaken baby syndrome. Epidural hematomas are the result of a torn artery, often associated with a skull fracture. Subarachnoid hemorrhage is a condition in which a cerebral arterial aneurysm has ruptured. An avulsion is a tear or rip in the skin, resulting when tensile strength of skin or tissue is exceeded.
Cellular atrophy involves: a. an increase in cell size b. a decrease in cell size c. an increase in the number of cells d. a decrease in the number of cells
b. a decrease in the number of cells.
Free radicals directly injure cells by each of the following mechanisms except: a. DNA fragmentation. b. activation of lysosomal enzymes. c. lipid peroxidation. d. alteration of proteins.
b. activation of lysosomal enzymes. Free radicals cause tissue injury by three primary mechanisms including lipid peroxidation, alterations of proteins, and alterations of DNA. Activation of lysosomal enzymes is not involved in free radical injury.
A laceration in which the subcutaneous tissue is torn loose is called a. a contusion b. an avulsion c. a hematoma d. an incision
b. an avulsion An extreme laceration in which a wide area of tissue is torn is called an avulsion.
The process by which cells program themselves to die is called: a. karyolysis b. apoptosis c. pyknosis d. necrosis
b. apoptosis Apoptosis is a process by which cells program themselves to die under conditions of significant cell injury or harmful DNA mutations.
Which of the following is an example of an energy-releasing process? a. anabolism b. catabolism c. substrate-induced reaction d. second messenger system
b. catabolism Catabolism is an energy-releasing process. The energy-using process is anabolism. A substrate is a specific substance that is converted to a product in the reaction. A second messenger is a "pass-it-on signal." This occurs when a first messenger activates a receptor that then triggers a pass-it-on signal.
Tissue ischemia and a decrease in mitochondrial oxygenation result in: a. cellular dehydration b. decreased ATP production c. calcium accumulation outside the cell. d. increased protein synthesis.
b. decreased ATP production A decrease in oxygen delivery results in a decrease in ATP production.
Chronic infection of the cervix by the human papillomavirus results in cervical: a. atrophy b. dysplasia c. metaplasia d. hormonal hyperplasia
b. dysplasia Chronic infection or inflammation is a common cause of cervical dysplasia.
Which of the following molecules accumulates in liver cells as a result of alcohol abuse? a. water b. fat (lipids) c. protein d. iron
b. fat (lipids) Alcohol injury results in the accumulation of microvesicular fat, a condition described as alcoholic foamy steatosis.
During strangulation injuries, airway injury can be caused by a fracture of which bone? a. cervical vertebra b. hyoid c. clavicle d. occipital
b. hyoid External pressure on the neck can fracture the hyoid bone, causing airway damage.
In response to an increased workload, such as that caused by high blood pressure (hypertension), myocardial cells in the left ventricle will adapt through the process of: a. atrophy b. hypertrophy c. hyperplasia d. dysplasia
b. hyperplasia In response to the increased workload of hypertension, myocardial cells will hypertrophy in order to pump harder.
The major mechanism of injury in drowning is: a. electrolyte imbalances. b. hypoxemia c. absorption of fluid from the lungs d. free radical injury.
b. hypoxemia.
Ethanol (alcohol) causes cell injury by which of the following mechanisms? a. hypoxic injury b. lipid accumulation in hepatocytes c. cellular dehydration d. intracellular sodium loss
b. lipid accumulation in hepatocytes Ethanol metabolism causes lipid accumulation in hepatocytes that decreases liver function and may result in liver cirrhosis.
A direct result of anaerobic metabolism during hypoxic cell injury is: a. increased ATP b. metabolic acidosis c. tissue ischemia d. all of the above.
b. metabolic acidosis When oxygen is not available, cells switch to anaerobic metabolism, which yields an acid called lactate, or lactic acid.
Adaptive cellular mechanisms function to: a. treat disease b. protect cells from injury c. prevent cellular aging d. speed up cellular death
b. protect cells from injury Adaptive cellular mechanisms help cells adjust to environmental changes, thus protecting them from injury
Heat exhaustion is defined as: a. Chilling or freezing of the cells b. Cramping of voluntary muscles c. Hemoconcentration from salt and water loss d. Significantly decreased blood volume
c. Hemoconcentration from salt and water loss Heat exhaustion is defined by a sufficient salt and water loss that results in hemoconcentration. Hypotension occurs secondary to fluid loss and may cause a collapse. The individual may feel weak and nauseated. Chills or freezing cells are associated with hypothermic injury. Heat cramps are cramping of voluntary muscles, usually the result of vigorous exercise. Heat stroke is a life-threatening condition associated with high environmental temperatures and humidity. Generalized peripheral vasodilation and decreased circulating blood volume are significant.
Which of the following describes an amphipathic molecule? a. Hydrophobic and not Hydrophilic b. Hydrophilic and not Hydrophobic c. Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic d. Nonpolar
c. Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic The amphipathic molecule is both hydrophobic and hydrophilic. A hydrophilic molecule is a charged, water-loving molecule. A hydrophobic molecule is an uncharged or water-hating molecule. A polar molecule is another name for an amphipathic molecule.
When considering water balance, which statement is the correct balance? a. Isotonic fluids cause increased cellular swelling. b. Hypertonic fluid causes increased cellular swelling. c. Hypotonic fluid causes cellular swelling. d. Hypernatremia causes cellular swelling.
c. Hypotonic fluid causes cellular swelling. Hypotonic extracellular fluid (ECF) causes intracellular water gain and swelling. When the ECF is hypotonic, water moves from the intravascular space to the interstitial space, across the cell membrane, and into the cell. This action causes the cell to swell. An isotonic solution is equal to the plasma in concentration of solute molecules. Therefore no net water will move because equilibrium exists. The cell size is unchanged. A hypertonic fluid has excessive solute; therefore water will leave the cell and move into the vascular space to help balance this excess. Water leaving the cell results in cell shrinkage. Hypernatremia can occur with an acute gain in sodium or a loss of water, but generally it does not cause cellular swelling.
Which of the following is the most common cause of cellular injury? a. Free radical-induced injury b. Chemical injury c. Hypoxia D. Mechanical factors
c. Hypoxia Hypoxia is the most common cause of cellular injury and can be initiated by decreased oxygen in the environment, decreased hemoglobin, decreased red blood cells, or cardiovascular collapse. A free radical-induced injury, chemical injury, and mechanical factors are other types of cell injury but are not the most common.
Which term describes a tear or rip of the skin with a jagged and irregular edge? a. Abrasion b. Incision c. Laceration d. Incised wound
c. Laceration Lacerations occur when the tensile strength of the skin is exceeded, resulting in ragged and irregular abraded edges; an extreme example is avulsion, in which a wide area of tissue is pulled away. An abrasion results from the removal of the superficial layers of the skin caused by friction between the skin and the injuring object. An incision is a precise cut with an instrument that leaves regular clean edges. An incised wound is longer than it is deep and has distinct edges without abrasion.
Which chemical interferes with the excretion of urate while affecting the nervous and hematopoietic systems? a. Carbon monoxide b. Carbon tetrachloride c. Lead d. Mercury
c. Lead Lead can interfere with the excretion of urate and thus increase an individual's predisposition to gout; it affects the hematopoietic and nervous systems. Carbon monoxide is a gas that is an asphyxiate and interrupts respiration. Carbon tetrachloride was formerly used in dry cleaning. It damages the liver as it is converted into a highly toxic free radical. Mercury is a heavy metal and can worsen chronic conditions such as Alzheimer disease and multiple sclerosis.
Which of the following describes the term chemotaxis? a. Uses the second messenger system b. Cellular signal affecting the cell of origin c. Movement of cells along a chemical gradient d. Ligands bind with receptors, triggering a second reaction
c. Movement of cells along a chemical gradient Chemotaxis is cellular movement along a chemical gradient caused by chemical attraction. Autostimulation is when a cell releases a signal that actually affects the cell of origin. A pass-it-on signal is a description for a second messenger system. A second messenger system is a means by which a ligand binds with receptors of a membrane system and then triggers a second system or reaction.
Which statement is correct regarding cellular energy? a. Glycolysis is the building of sugar molecules. b. Oxidative cellular metabolism is a single reaction making adenosine triphosphate (ATP). c. Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondria d. Anaerobic glycolysis occurs in the presence of oxygen.
c. Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondria Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondria. This is the mechanism by which the energy produced from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins is transferred to ATP. Glycolysis is a process that breaks down glucose molecules; it produces a net of two ATP molecules. Oxidation is a process during which a pair of electrons are removed and transferred. Oxidative cellular metabolism involves 10 biochemical reactions. Anaerobic glycolysis occurs in the absence of oxygen. Aerobic means in the presence of oxygen.
Which of the following is not an accepted theory of aging? a. Cellular aging results from wear and tear over the course of a lifetime b. Degeneration of extracellular materials such as collagen contributes to aging. c. The process of transcription during protein synthesis becomes more error-prone as a cell ages. d. Genetic mechanisms of aging are programmed in a cell's DNA.
c. The process of transcription during protein synthesis becomes more error-prone as a cell ages. This theory, known as the catastrophic or error-prone theory of aging, is not generally supported by scientific evidence.
Other than the liver, which of the following organs is most frequently affected by ethanol injury? a. heart b. kidneys c. brain d. stomach
c. brain Alcohol directly affects the cells in the liver and the brain.
Accumulation of which of the following molecules results in irreversible cell injury? a. melanin b. lipids c. calcium d. water
c. calcium The accumulation of calcium causes irreversible mitochondrial injury.
Metaplasia occurs in response to: a. increased workload b. growth factor secretion c. cell injury from noxious stimuli d. viral infection
c. cell injury from noxious stimuli Metaplasia occurs in response to repetitive exposure to noxious stimuli.
Tay-Sachs disease results in the accumulation of: a. protein in the kidneys. b. calcium in the liver. c. lipids in the nerve cells of the brain. d. uric acid in the heart muscle.
c. lipids in the nerve cells of the brain. Tay-Sachs disease is a metabolic disorder in which an abnormal accumulation of a particular lipid in the nerve cells in the brain causes progressive neurological deterioration.
The process of muscle hypertrophy involves an increase in: a. cell division b. water accumulation c. protein synthesis d. plasma membrane thickness
c. protein synthesis The process of muscle hypertrophy involves an increase in protein synthesis to produce larger, stronger muscle cells.
Restoration of oxygen to oxygen-deprived tissues results in: a. hypoxic injury. b. chemical injury. c. reperfusion injury. d. establishment of normal cell metabolism.
c. reperfusion injury. Reestablishing oxygen delivery to tissues can result in the generation of oxygen free radicals that cause additional injury.
An individual with damage to the spinal cord may experience atrophy of which of the following organs? a. liver b. brain c. skeletal muscles d. skin
c. skeletal muscles Lack of nerve stimulation to skeletal muscles results in muscle atrophy.
Death by suffocation can occur within minutes when inspired oxygen drops below: a. 80% b. 30% c. 16% d. 5%
d. 5% To be life-threatening, inspired oxygen must drop below the normal level, which is 21%. Although an inspired oxygen level of 16% is dangerous, to be immediately life-threatening the level must drop below 5%.
Which form of necrosis is associated with tuberculous infections? a. Coagulative b. Liquefactive c. Fat d. Caseous
d. Caseous Caseous necrosis is normally found in the lung from tuberculosis. Tissues appear soft and granular and resemble clumped cheese (hence the name caseous) and are surrounded by a granulomatous inflammatory wall; this pulmonary infection is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is a combination of liquefactive and coagulation necrosis. Coagulative necrosis occurs primarily in the kidneys, heart, and adrenal glands and is caused by protein degradation. Liquefactive necrosis commonly occurs in the neurons and glial cells. Fat necrosis occurs in the breast, pancreas, and other abdominal structures. It is cellular dissolution caused by powerful enzymes called lipases.
The function of a histone found in a eukaryote cell focuses on cellular: a. division b. movement c. activities d. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) folding
d. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) folding The histones are binding proteins that cause the supercoiling of DNA into chromosomes and do not affect cellular division, movement, or activities.
Which statement is true regarding potassium balance? a. Potassium is the major extracellular electrolyte. b. During acidosis, potassium shifts into the cell. c. Aldosterone is secreted when potassium is decreased. d. Insulin causes the movement of potassium into the cell.
d. Insulin causes the movement of potassium into the cell. Insulin causes movement of potassium into the cell and is one of the treatments for hyperkalemia. Potassium balance is especially significant in the treatment of conditions requiring insulin administration, such as insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (type 1). Potassium is the major intracellular electrolyte and maintains the osmotic balance of the intracellular fluid (ICF) space. During acidosis, potassium is shifted out of the cell in exchange for hydrogen ions. Aldosterone is secreted when potassium is elevated, resulting in the excretion of potassium by the kidneys.
It is true that hyponatremia: a. Is commonly caused by inadequate sodium intake. b. Can occur with a decrease in total body water (TBW). c. Never occurs with burns, vomiting, or diarrhea. d. Occurs when sodium drops below 135 mEq/L.
d. Occurs when sodium drops below 135 mEq/L. Hyponatremia occurs when the serum sodium drops below 135 mEq/L. It is the most common electrolyte disorder in individuals who are hospitalized. Although inadequate sodium intake can cause hyponatremia, it is uncommon. It can also occur with an increase in TBW or as a result of burns, vomiting, diarrhea, or gastrointestinal suctioning.
It is true that hyperchloremia: a. Occurs with a deficit of sodium. b. Occurs with an excess of bicarbonate. c. Has specific symptoms such as thirst. d. Requires treatment of the underlying disorder
d. Requires treatment of the underlying disorder Hyperchloremia (too much chloride) is usually related to an underlying disorder, and therefore treatment is centered on the underlying disorder. Because chloride usually follows sodium, this condition usually occurs with an increase in sodium and a deficit of bicarbonate. Normally, neither specific symptoms are observed nor treatments are available for chloride excess.
Which statement is true regarding magnesium? a. Hypomagnesemia occurs with a concentration less than 2.5 mEq/L. b. Magnesium is a major extracellular cation. c. Thirty percent is stored in the muscle and bone. d. Symptoms of hypomagnesemia include weakness and depression.
d. Symptoms of hypomagnesemia include weakness and depression. Symptoms of low magnesium include weakness, tetany, increased reflexes, depression, ataxia, convulsions, and irritability. Magnesium level is normal when between 1.8 and 2.4 mEq/L and is a major intracellular cation. Thirty percent is stored in the cells, with 40% to 60% stored in the bones and muscle.
Fetal exposure to alcohol during pregnancy can result in: a. low birth weight b. mental retardation c. death d. all of the above
d. all of the above Fetal alcohol syndrome is characterized by low birth weight, mental retardation, and other congenital abnormalities. Prenatal exposure to alcohol can also result in fetal death.
Pathologic hyperplasia can lead to: a. neoplasia b. dysplasia c. metaplasia d. all of the above.
d. all of the above Pathologic hyperplasia can eventually lead to metaplasia, dysplasia, and neoplasia.
Vitamin E, vitamin C, and beta-carotene are molecules in food that act as: a. poisons b. free radicals c. receptor blockers d. antioxidants
d. antioxidants Vitamin E, vitamin C, and beta-carotene are antioxidants that attract and neutralize unpaired electrons to protect against free radical injury.
Lysosomal rupture during hypoxic injury leads to a. cellular acidosis b. sodium influx c. cellular adaptation d. auto digestion of cells
d. auto digestion of cells Lysosomal enzyme release during hypoxic injury causes autodigestion of cells.
A contusion injury results in: a. tearing of the skin. b. the removal of superficial skin layers. c. entrance and exit wounds. d. bleeding in the skin or underlying tissues.
d. bleeding in the skin or underlying tissues. A contusion injury, also known as a bruise, results in purplish discoloration (ecchymosis) of the skin from vessel bleeding.
Atypical hyperplasia (dysplasia) is characterized by abnormal changes in all of the following except: a. cell size b. cell shape c. cell organization d. cell secretions
d. cell secretions When pathologic hyperplasia is complicated by cells of abnormal size, shape, or organization, it is referred to as atypical hyperplasia, or dysplasia.Cell secretions are not altered in this cellular change.
The process of cellular atrophy may be accomplished through which of the following processes? a. loss of fluid b. decreased cell division c. inhibition of enzyme formation d. formation of autophagic vacuoles
d. formation of autophagic vacuoles Atrophy is accomplished through the production of enzymes in autophagic vacuoles that digest cellular contents.
The primary method by which people in the United States are exposed to mercury is: a. ingestion of paint chips from homes built prior to 1972. b. inhalation of automobile exhaust. c. soil contamination from pesticides and fertilizers. d. ingestion of fish
d. ingestion of fish Mercury used in industries accumulates in the water. Large predator fish have the highest mercury levels, so ingesting fish is the primary method by which people in the Unites States are exposed to mercury.