Pedagogy, Professional Issues, and Technology

Discuss how to extract a bright tone vs. a dark tone from a chorus.

"Bright" and "dark" are descriptions of tonal quality. Tonal quality is independent from pitch, as demonstrated by a violin and a cello, for example. If both were played to produce the same note, their tonal qualities would still differ, with the violin producing a brighter tone. A bright tone emphasizes the partials in the upper midrange. A dark tone, in contrast, will have a tonal balance emphasizing the lower range, with weak high frequencies. In terms of singing, a bright tone is one that resonates father forward inn the face, and is associated with the front vowels [i] and [e]. A dark tone resonates further back, and is associated with the vowels [u], [o], and [a]. In a full chorus, the brightness or darkness of a passage can be adjusted through the manipulation of vowel quality. In general, female vocalists will tend to have brighter tones.

Describe the preparatory education and training necessary for a career in music education.

A career in music education offers musicians the option to teach a wide variety of subjects, from general music classes to orchestra, band, and choir, as well as subjects like music theory and history in a public, private, or parochial school. Music educators should hold a minimum of a bachelor's degree in music education, with the proper state teaching certification. Educators whose goal is to teach in secondary education should specialize in the appropriate area, whether orchestra, band, or choir. Music educators whose goal is to teach in college, conservatory, or university settings should aim for a doctorate or terminal degree in music to be considered for most tenured professorships. There are opportunities to teach in a community college with only a Master's degree, but an applicant will be more competitive with a doctorate or terminal degree.

Describe the ideal features of a classroom computer for music use.

A classroom computer in any music room proves to be an invaluable resource for the twenty-first century music student. With the music technology at hand, a classroom, computer can help to reinforce lesson materials, provide a launching pad for music technology instruction, and offer students a wide array of resources for making music. The classroom computer should have enough RAM and storage to run multimedia programs, be Internet-ready, and have audio input and output features, speakers, and a CD- or DVD-ROM player. The computer should have easy-to-use menu screens and controls so that the students can easily navigate through the programs. The computer should have loudspeakers as well as headphones. The computer should also include MIDI, notation, and sequencing software, as well as electronic instruments with which to experiment and create sound in the DAW software.

Describe the differences in concert length and pacing for a beginning middle school band and an advanced high school concert band.

A concert planned for a beginning middle school band will differ widely from a concert planned for an advanced high school concert band. The beginning middle school band will have had little experience with performances and may still be working through rudimentary techniques and skills on their instruments. Repertoire for the beginning middle school band will focus mostly on easily accessible beginner works. the advanced high school concert band, however, will have at least a few years of experience performing and playing their instruments. Repertoire selection for the advanced concert band will have a wider range of intermediate to advanced works. Endurance is also an issue for the beginning band; concert length will be shorter, with shorter musical works and more frequent changed. The advanced high school band will be able to perform longer works of music with less frequent breaks.

Discuss the use of colleagues, mentor, and conferences and publishers as repertoire resources for a music program.

A conscientious director should be willing to look to a diverse variety of sources for repertoire. By drawing from colleagues, mentors, conferences, and publishers, the director can tap the experience of people of different tastes, ages, background, and musical circles. The suggestions of those with a different approach to choosing repertoire can be particularly valuable, as these suggestions are the most likely to be overlooked by a search undertaken independently. Publishers may be useful due to their access not only to their own catalogs, including back catalog that may have been previously overlooked, but also to the catalogs inn the publisher's extended network. As publishing houses have consolidated and collections have become digitized, repertoire that may have only been available from small boutique publishers has become available for wider circulation.

Discuss techniques to improve a chorus' intonation and vocal technique.

A fundamental element of good choral sound lies in accurate intonation. Without all of the voices sounding in pitch, balance and blend become the least of a choral director's concerns. There are many rehearsal techniques to improve a chorus' intonation. Sometimes, changing the seating arrangement of the chorus can drastically improve intonation. Be sure that all vocal parts can hear each other clearly so that intonation is no longer an issue. If the seating arrangement is not the issue, then the director can take the singers through a problem spot singing every beat vertically, stopping on each harmony for accurate pitches. Directors can also warm up with dominant chords and tonic pedals so that the singers always have a reference pitch to tune to. Singers should practice breathing exercises, vocalizations, and etudes to strengthen their vocal mechanisms and their overall vocal technique.

Describe the mechanisms of a simple sound system following sound from an input transducer to an output transducer.

A simple sound system used for sound amplification consists of an input transducer, signal processing, and an output transducer. The input transducer can take the form of a microphone, which converts the sound that is picked up into audio signals that travel down cables to the signal processor. A signal processor can take the form of a mixing console through which the audio signals are processed in three ways. First, the audio signal goes through a preamplification system inn which the sound that is picked up is amplified up to line level. Then, the audio signal goes through an equalizer in which an audio engineer or console operator adjusts the specific levels of tone quality for the most aesthetically pleasing balance. If necessary, the audio signal undergoes mixing, in which multiple inputs are processed together into one line-level output signal. The output transducer can take the form of a loudspeaker, and the single line-level output signal is amplified and converted back into sound.

Describe the benefit of getting involved in IEPs for students with special needs.

According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, schools must provide students who have learning disabilities with the same educational opportunities as their typically developing classmates. After the initial assessment, a unique educational program is developed for each student with special needs, called the Individualized Education Program (IEP). The IEP outlines educational goals and other services or strategies needed for the student to achieve those goals. As a music educator, involvement with support staff and faculty regarding a student's IEP greatly enhances the quality of music education a student with special needs receives. The more a music educator understands a student's learning disability and techniques to aid musical learning, the more the student can engage in musical development. The music educator can collaborate with music therapists, special education teachers, and school counselors to better design special educational programs and receive consultant, direct service, and in-service assistance.

Discuss instructional activities music educators could use to foster a relaxed instrumental playing approach.

Approaching instrumental playing in a healthy manner requires a relaxed body to prevent injuries and to enhance instrumental tone and resonance. Physical tension in a musician can translate into an unpleasant, thinner, and pinched sound. Music educators can foster a relaxed approach to instrumental playing through daily instructional activities that encourage flexibility and freedom at the instructional activities that encourage flexibility and freedom at the instrument. Rehearsals and music classes that start with physical stretching help students to release any existing tension, while signaling to the body a time for increased blood flow and loose joints. Music educators can implement warm-ups that involve tensing and releasing the shoulders so students can feel the presence and absence of tension in their bodies. Consistent and frequent reminders for a student to relax any tension will also help to make a relaxed approach a habit for the student.

Describe the benefit of attending clinics and conventions as resources in music education.

As a music educator, it is highly beneficial to attend clinics and conventions as resources of music education. Conventions offer ample opportunities to network with fellow music educators, which result in the exchange of teaching ideas, programs, and other helpful pedagogical ideas. Networking also allows the music educator the chance to collaborate with other colleagues, opening the door for inviting guest artists to the music program. Networking also allows the music educator to find a mentor as well as to become a mentor to a new aspiring teacher. Clinics offer a multitude of benefits to both the music educator and to the participating ensemble. Clinics offer a way for ensembles to get an unbiased critique on a performance, while the music educator also gets professional feedback for an ensemble. Clinics allow both music educators and the ensemble to hear many other ensembles perform, giving both the teacher and student a peer review of the quality and level of the student's performances.

Discuss strategies for motivating students in the music classroom.

As a music educator, it is important to provide motivation for students in the music classroom, since motivated students result in higher engagement and better learning. One effective strategy for motivating students is to become a role model for the students; when the students see the excitement and passion for the lesson material, that energy will be transferred to the students. Another strategy is to know the students well; once the students know that the teacher is involved in their education, they will be motivated to do well. Also, the teacher should use positive reinforcement and constructive criticism. These nonjudgemental remarks should motivate students on ways to improve. The music educator should also use frequent activities where the students have the opportunity to demonstrate their achievements, encouraging them to progress to the next level in cooperation. The teacher should also set realistic performance goals, ones that are appropriately challenging but still attainable.

Discuss how to select appropriately leveled, culturally diverse music selections for an advanced high school ensemble.

As a music educator, it is important to select appropriately leveled, culturally diverse music selections to reflect the musical diversity within the global community as well as to challenge the students in a variety of styles and genres. Music directors should select a variety of music that is below, at, and above an ensemble's level to provide opportunities for in-depth expressive growth without technical obstacles, as well as music that challenges the students technically to reach the nest level. Music directors can consult state contest repertoire lists for a general list of appropriate repertoire, as well as published repertoire books. Culturally diverse composers such as Soon Hee Newbold, William Grant Still, Dorothy Rudd Moore, and Yasuhide Ito offer many works that would be appropriate for an advanced high school ensemble.

Describe the risk of long exposure over time to high dB listening experiences.

As a musician, it is extremely important to be aware of the risks of long exposure over time to high dB listening experiences, as high dB listening experiences occur almost daily for some musicians through band practice and rock concerts. When the inner ear is exposed to high dB sound over time, irreversible damage can occur in the nerve fibers and structures of the inner ear. Since damage that occurs over time is a gradual process, a musician may not be aware of hearing loss until it has already occurred. Symptoms include distorted or muffled hearing, difficulty hearing high-pitched sounds such as doorbells, bird chirps, and alarm clocks, pain or ringing in the ear after exposure to excessively loud sounds, and trouble understanding group conversations or conversations on the phone.

Describe how the changes of physical, cognitive, and social development during puberty affects music learning.

As students progress through puberty in ages 10-14 for girls and 12-16 for boys, there are many changes physically, cognitively, and socially that affect their music learning. Students will be going through many growth spurts, and their reference for posture or instrument positioning may need to be adjusted accordingly. Also, voice development will affect vocal students as the larynx enlarges and the vocal chords lengthen and thicken. The physiological changes of the vocal mechanisms tend to affect boys more than girls, evident in the "cracking" of the voice. During puberty, students will have to work towards singing voice production, pitch accuracy, increasing vocal range, and maintaining a positive attitude towards choral singing. Cognitively, students in puberty are increasingly able to process conceptual ideas and should work on self-regulating musical activities and performances. Socially, students in puberty tend to need more opportunities for self-expression, autonomy, and acceptance in their music learning.

Describe the symptoms of adolescent vocal change and techniques to refine vocal development for students.

As students undergo puberty, hormonal fluctuations and growth spurts cause many singers the added challenges of adolescent vocal change. Females typically undergo puberty between the ages of 10 and 18, while males typically undergo puberty between the ages of 12 and 20. Adolescent vocal change occurs in both makes and females, but is most prominent in male singers. During puberty, the vocal tract increases in length and circumference, and the larynx increases in size and density. symptoms include cracking and abrupt register breaks. While the vocal mechanisms are developing in adolescent students, it is important to practice safe and intelligent techniques of singing rather than pushing the vocal mechanisms to damage. The body should be both energetic and relaxed, providing proper support for the breath but never pushing. Equally important during this developmental stage is proper rest for the singing voice; students should never sing too loud or with too much effort, which could injure the vocal mechanisms.

Discuss the role of music education in the growing trend of cultural diversity.

As the United Stated becomes increasingly multicultural and diverse, the role of music education should adjust its aim to encompass music and cultures from around the world. Music education in the United States has been historically focused on music of the Western world, such as that of Western classical music, American band music, and Western folk traditions. As more and more students in the American classroom come from diverse backgrounds, music educators should incorporate world music within its curriculum. Elementary music teachers can use Latin, South African, Indian, Chinese, Japanese music, etc., to illustrate basin arts standards such as singing in groups and learning musical elements. Band, choral, and orchestra directors should include non-Western musical repertoire in concerts, such as those of non-Western composers and arrangers. As the ethnic makeup of the student population diversifies, so should music education diversify to reflect the multicultural aspect of modern society and not the monoculture of the distant past.

Discuss the role of teacher feedback in music rehearsals as formative assessment of student evaluation

Assessments in the music classroom can be a time-consuming activity; thus, it is highly useful and efficient to integrate as many informal assessment techniques as possible throughout the music rehearsal. Informal assessments can take the form of teacher feedback, short on-the-spot quizzes, and informal questioning and discussion. Not only will these informal assessments keep the students accountable for their daily musical progress, they will also give the music educator a formative assessment of the students' progress. When giving short-on-the-spot performance tests, the teacher has the opportunity to gauge the progress of the individual or section; the educator can provide quick succinct feedback on accuracy, technique, or any other issues that arise. Informal questioning and discussion relating to the analysis of the music also allows the teacher to assess and provide the appropriate feedback to help the students' comprehension of the matter. The more feedback the teacher can provide, the more learning opportunities will be provided for the students.

Summarize the music philosophy of Bennett Reimer.

Bennett Reimer was a prominent music educator and philosopher whose influential book, A Philosophy of Music Education, promoted an aesthetic model of music education. For Reimer, music exists as an expressive form, and cannot be limited to intellectual or other non-musical pursuits. Its merit is in connecting people to feelings, and Reimer believed that because music is essentially dynamic sound waves, it is the only art form that can kindle mental feelings. Reimer argued for the integration of music in general education for the overall betterment of society's compassion and empathy. The best form of music education involves listening, examining, and actively participating in only musical works, which to Reimer ought to be expressive. In a music curriculum, performance should not be the focus, since performance itself does not encourage active listening and the development of aesthetic feeling.

Describe the three domains of learning according to Bloom's taxonomy of learning as related to music education.

Bloom's taxonomy refers to the framework for educational goals and objectives for learning as set in the 1950s by Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999) and other educational psychologists. The model outlines hierarchical levels of thinking in three different domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. Objectives for the cognitive domain focus on knowledge; for the affective domain, objectives focus on values; and for the psychomotor, objectives focus on physical motor skills. The model for cognitive domain is most commonly referred to in music education as an assessment tool in forming and evaluating educational goals. The hierarchal levels in order are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. In the knowledge stage, students must remember or recall information. In the comprehension stage, students must understand and be able to explain ideas and concepts. In the analysis stage, students must distinguish between different parts of the concept. In the synthesis stage, students must be able to gather the knowledge acquired to support and justify a decision. In the evaluation stage, students become independent to create and improvise original ideas.

Describe the transportation and instrumental ranges of five to seven brass instruments.

Brass instruments include those wind instruments that are typically made with metal and sounded by the vibration of the player's lips through a mouthpiece. The French horn is typically notated on the treble or bass clefs sounded a perfect fifth lower with a general range of F#2-C6. The trumpet is typically notated on the treble clef with the C trumpet, sounding as written and the Bb trumpet sounding a major second lower, both with a general range of F#3-D6. The tenor trombone is typically notated on the bass, tenor, or alto clefs sounding as written, with a general range of E2-F5. The bass trombone is typically notated on the bass clef sounding as written, with a general range of Bb1-Bb4. The tuba is typically notated on the bass clef sounding as written, with a general range of G0-C5. The euphonium is typically notated on the bass or treble clefs sounding as written on the bass clef or a major ninth lower on the treble clef, with a general range of Bb1-F5.

Compare and contrast career opportunities for musicians in classical performance and popular music performance.

Career opportunities for musicians in classical performance parallel certain career opportunities for musicians in popular music performance. Both types of musicians can hold permanent and semi-permanent posts in performing ensembles, contract gigs, one-time performances, and teaching positions. Many classical instrumentalists can find job jobs with regional symphony orchestras, concert bands, and opera orchestras, while popular music instrumentalists can find jobs with theaters, house bands, jazz orchestras, and studios. Classical vocalists can find jobs with symphony choruses, opera companies, and vocal ensembles. Popular vocalists can find jobs with studios, house bands, and jazz groups. Musicians in both classical and popular performance have union resources that support their members. career opportunities for classical and popular musicians may differ in demand, as the current musical trend favors the popular musician who can contribute to studio productions, whereas the traditional symphonies, operas, and orchestras struggle with general public interest.

Describe repertoire sources for an intermediate middle school chorus.

Choral directors should choose intermediate middle school choir repertoire that is of high quality, teachable, and appropriate for the range, ability level, cultural context, and programming considerations of the ensemble. There are many repertoire sources for the middle school choral director that can assist in preliminary repertoire selections. The American Choral Directors Association publishes multiple repertoire lists including "Tired and True Literature" for junior high choirs, as well as annual honor choir repertoire lists. Donald Roach's Complete Secondary Choral Music Guide includes extensive repertoire lists, music theater sources, and other content that is valuable for the middle school choral director. Music directors can also consult state clinic and contest repertoire lists. Several publishing companies also produce suggested repertoire for intermediate choirs as well as complete compilations of choral works for the middle school choir.

Explain the importance of procedures and routines, and discuss examples of classroom routines.

Classroom procedures and routines are important for structure and organization within a student's day. Daily routines and procedures can also prevent many of the misbehaviors that result from an unorganized schedule and distractions. The lessons will have less interruption from distracted students and will flow much more easily. The music teacher should make sure to establish clear procedures and routines from the first day, taking care to go over each procedure in detail while modeling the procedures to ensure full understanding from the students. The first few weeks may require more time spent establishing procedures and routines, to help the rest of the school year flow more easily. Example classroom routines that are useful in providing structure and organization include how to enter the classroom, beginning work, roll call, announcements, "tardies," absences, teacher's attention signal, leaving one's seat, assignments, supplies, group work, and independent work.

Discuss techniques to correct intonation on brass instruments

Correct intonation on brass instruments is the result of properly forming the entire system flowing from the diaphragm to the end of the instrument. Playing with good posture and breath support allows the player to play at a wide variety of registers and volumes more comfortably, reducing strained intonation that can occur at extremes. Cue the student to think of the airway from the lungs to the throat and the oral cavity as a broad and open passageway. Playing in front of a mirror allows the student to monitor horn placement and embouchure. Mental practice is extremely important. The student should have a clear idea of the tone she wants to produce, and think actively about playing with good tone. Long tones are an excellent tool for developing intonation. Depending on the particular instrument, the student should learn which note fingerings are inherently out of tune and how to adjust the relevant slide to compensate.

Discuss techniques to correct intonation on woodwind instruments

Correct intonation on woodwind instruments is the result of properly forming the entire system flowing from the diaphragm to the end of the instrument. Playing with good posture and breath support allows the player to play at a wide variety of registers and volumes more comfortably. Cue the student to think of the airway from the lungs to the throat and the oral cavity as a broad and open passageway. Playing in front of a mirror allows the student to monitor embouchure. The student should have a clear idea of the tone she wants to produce, and think actively about playing with good tonne. Long tones are an excellent tool for developing intonation. Tuning to the rest of the ensemble, piano, or tuner should be done only after a thorough warm-up, at which point tuning adjustments to the instrument, such as pushing in or pulling out sections, can be made.

Define a DAW, its uses and include three to five popular examples of sequencing software.

DAW stands for Digital Audio Workstation and is a computer-based recording, sequencing, and mixing tool for the modern musician. A complete DAW includes the computer, the digital signal processing, and possibly additional digital audio interfaces. It is important to choose the right digital sequencing software to have the right tools where needed. Avid Pro Tools is a popular DAW software and has become the standard inn recording studios and home studios as well. MOTU Digital Performer is one of the oldest DAWs around and is compatible with both Mac and Windows. Apple Logic Pro is also one of the top DAWs and provides a wealth on interface options but is compatible with Apple products only. Ableton Live is one of the best live recording DAWs and offers many third-party hardware options made especially for the program. FL Studio is a classic DAW for creating loop- and sample-based music.

Describe the music philosophy of David Elliot.

David Elliot is a music educator and philosopher whose book, Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education, presents the praxial philosophy of music education, a direct departure form Reimer's aesthetic philosophy of music education. Elliot endorses a practical, procedural approach to music education, one that puts emphasis on the activity of, rather than the feeling that comes from, music making. To Elliot, musical knowledge is not just about familiarity and appreciation of musical works, but is also about the direct, purposeful skill set involved in making music. Central to Elliot's praxial philosophy is the concept of musicianship - one that encompasses music making and music listening. Curriculum should be based on music practice and should start with music making before students can fully comprehend the art of music making when listening to music. Elliot recommends a student apprenticeship model of education where the teacher plays the role of mentor and expert musician.

Describe the educational value of programming widely diverse repertoire for an ensemble.

Diversity of repertoire is an important and current topic for music directors in the present era of concert programming. Good concert programming will reflect the diversity that the audience experiences in the world around them. Concerts must engage the audience with relevant and fresh perspectives through culturally diverse and new works as well as through the musical standards of the past. Showcasing contemporary new works alongside a traditional classical work can inform and rejuvenate the audience's listening ear. Programming new works along with old works also illuminates the performance practices of the past, where Beethoven and Wagner were featuring works of the present along with the past. Students will have a broader musical perspective by experiencing music from different cultures, genres, and time periods. Widely diverse concert programs can unite audience members of the past, of today, and of the future.

Discuss ensemble rehearsal strategies for practicing technically challenging passages.

During an ensemble rehearsal, there are many rehearsal strategies to take on technically challenging passage is the result of a lack of individual practice. If so, the director should show the students in detail the correct way to practice individually and at home. If the passage still presents technical challenges for the ensemble, the music director should take the ensemble through the passage slowly and rhythmically to identify the probable origin of the difficulty. The the educator will be able to assist the ensemble in note accuracy, technical facility, and fluency in playing. Once the ensemble has the tools to fix the challenging passage, the ensemble should go through the passage slowly in isolation and then slowly speed up the challenging passage until performance tempo has been reached. The ensemble should practice scales, arpeggios, and technical etudes to further develop technical skills.

Describe the Every Pupil Responds instructional technique

Educators use the Every Pupil Responds instructional technique as a way to ensure student inclusion during a lesson. The technique requires students to simultaneously respond to the teacher's question by demonstrating or displaying the appropriate response. This allows the educator to quickly and efficiently check for understanding. The Every Pupil Responds technique can be adapted to fit a variety of situations and keeps students actively involved. Teachers can hand out cards with the answers "yes" or "no," different musical notational signs, or a blank board with which students can write their own responses and hold up. Additionally, teachers can instruct students to point to the correct object or placement on an instrument. If students are seated in pairs, teachers can instruct students to whisper the answer to their neighbor, and then have the entire classroom say the answer out loud.

Describe the types of audiation according to Gordon's Music Learning Theory.

Edwin Gordon developed the Music Learning Theory to describe how students learn music and how it should be taught. The theory centers on the concept of audiation, a term Gordon uses to describe the internalization of music when performing, listening, or composing. Gordon differentiates audiation from aural perception, as aural perception is an involuntary response to sound in the brain, whereas audiation requires cognitive processing in the brain to give meaning to the sound. Gordon delineates eight different types of audiation. Type 1 involves listening to familiar or unfamiliar music; Type 2 involves reading familiar or unfamiliar music; Type 3 encompasses writing familiar or unfamiliar music via dictation; Type 4 involves recalling and performing familiar music from memory; Type 5 deals with recalling and writing familiar music from memory; Type 6 involves creating and improvising unfamiliar music; Type 7 involves creating and improvising unfamiliar music while reading; and Type 8 deals with creating and improvising unfamiliar music while writing.

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of extrinsic motivation in the classroom.

Extrinsic motivation is defined in behavioral psychology as motivation that exists for an individual apart from the activity or task such as an outside pressure or reward, as opposed to intrinsic motivation in which motivation exists in the activity itself. When students are extrinsically motivated, satisfaction lies in an external reward, pressure, or some external prompt. Music educators can facilitate or encourage extrinsic motivation in the classroom, especially when there is a lack of intrinsic motivation. Oftentimes, the classroom structure is based on extrinsic motivation, through rewards such as grades, privileges, and peer esteem. Extrinsic motivation can also exist through a student's sense of future well-being and goals. If the music educator focuses on extrinsic motivators such as tangible rewards or a student's ego, the motivation will disappear when the motivators disappear. Thus, educators should encourage extrinsic motivators such as the student's acknowledgement of the tasks' importance towards a future goal.

Describe the necessity of filtering software for music classrooms.

Filtering software is one method to protect students from obscene, inappropriate, and otherwise harmful websites on the Internet. The filtering software can be set to a variety of levels, from most restrictive to least restrictive. Even at the least restrictive setting, the software blocks pornographic content, obscene subject matter, and other inappropriate websites. The more restrictive settings marginally block more content, but may also block safe educational content through unreliable and inconsistent measures. Some educators have voiced opposition to filtering software, claiming inconsistent and unreliable results, interference of legitimate education websites, and a lack of input across the school district. Opposition also claims that filtering software prevents students from learning how to make their own sound decisions based on real-world knowledge. Despite the challenges of filtering software, it is still a necessary tool in providing a safe and positive learning environment for students.

Describe the software capabilities of Finale, Nightingale, and Overture.

Finale is one of the most widely used notation software packages on the market. It allows music to be input through MIDI-controlled instruments as well as through scanning, and then converts the data onto a staff. Finale features a divers playback instrument library and allows easy sharing between users. Tools like transposition, range checking, production, and sequencing capabilities make Finale an essential tool for the musician. Nightingale notation software is available on the Mac platform only, and offers a simple, basic approach to digital notation. Nightingale offers a PostScript output equal to that of other notation software, with similar features such as MIDI and scanning input, as well as playback, transposition, and orchestration tools. Overture is highly intuitive notation software that features many similar tools such as MIDI and scanning input and diverse editing options, but also includes VST, Virtual Studio Technology, which allows ease of integration between software audio synthesizers, plug-ins, Overture, and other recording systems.

Discuss appropriate jazz standards for a beginning middle school jazz band.

For a beginning jazz band, a director should choose repertoire based on the opportunity it presents to play and experiment in the new idiom, taking advantage of the unique aspects of jazz music in a way that is educational and engaging. These features may include focusing on swing feeling, sectional solos, and other harmonic and structural features. Charts should provide the opportunity for students to take improvised solos, and students on all instruments, including the rhythm section, should be encouraged to experiment with improvisation. Popular publishers with charts for beginning jazz bands include Hal Leonard, Alfred, and Kendor. These arrangements are tailored to beginning musicians and may include sample solos that can be used as teaching tools. The director may wish to consider jazz standards with common chord changes such as "I've Got Rhythm" or a simple 12-bar blues. Over the course of the school year, the director may want to find charts that will allow different soloists to play featured parts.

Describe various aspects to consider when selecting music for an ensemble.

For any conductor, it is his or her final responsibility to select appropriate music for an ensemble. The conductor should consider the ability level of the ensemble; music should not be impossibly hard or too easy, but just challenging enough for the ensemble to be able to play the music as well as to progress musically and technically. The conductor should also consider the strengths and weaknesses of the ensemble. The music should not always cater to an ensemble's strengths, but should also help to develop any weaknesses an ensemble may have. The conductor should also consider the number of players and instruments in the ensemble; minor changes can be made, but it is difficult to rearrange a full instrumentation to a few instruments. When selecting music, the conductor should also take into account the number of rehearsals before the given performance; there should be adequate time to rehearse any given piece. The conductor should also select a variety of music appropriate for the audience and occasion of the performance.

Discuss the benefits of individual student lessons.

For any student in a large group ensemble, there can be many benefits for the student in taking additional individual lessons with a private teacher. Although a student can learn the basics solely through ensemble rehearsals, it is preferable for students to learn the basics with the help of a private teacher. In an ensemble rehearsal, the conductor can only give so much attention to an individual students, as there are many other students who may need help as well. With a private teacher, the student can have undivided help from a focused professional to guide the student's musical education, ensuring that proper technique and musicality are reinforced from the beginning. As the student progresses to a more advanced level, having a private teacher will better assist inn technical challenges and fingering issues that cannot be addressed as easily in a large group ensemble. With a private teacher, a student can advance more quickly to a higher level of playing.

List performance opportunities available for aspiring student musicians.

For aspiring student musicians, there are a multitude of performance opportunities and venues in which to hone their craft. Serious music students who want a deeper music experience may attend a summer music program. Performing art camps provide in-depth lessons, performance opportunities, and practice time, as well as traditional camp activities for social recreation. There are also summer programs on college campuses, which give students a glimpse into life at an undergraduate music college. Other summer programs may be instrument- or genre-specific, such as a jazz summer camp or a summer program for vocalists only. Some summer programs are offered in conjunction with a music festival, in which students immerse themselves in community performances and attend a showcase music festival as well. During the school year, students may audition or compete in local, regional, and national competitions that provide selected contestants with performance opportunities and publicity. Students can also seek out coffee houses that occasionally showcase student musicians.

Discuss the three main multiple mallet techniques used by marimba players.

Good mallet technique for marimba players allows the musicians a free range of color and technical possibilities and starts with one mallet in each hand. Once the two-mallet grip has been learned with a flexible grip, the student usually learns the four-mallet grip next. The three main multiple mallet grips are the traditional crossed grip, the Burton grip, and the Musser/Stevens grip. The traditional grip places the second mallet between the index and middle fingers whole grasping the end of the second mallet with the ring finger and pinky. The traditional grip has a higher rate of tension and less support than the other grips. The Burton grip places the second mallet between the index and middle fingers and the end of the mallet underneath all four fingers. The Musser/Stevens grip places the first mallet between the thumb and index fingers, and the second mallet between the middle and ring fingers so that the mallets are not crossed. The Musser/Stevens provides the most independence of mallet movement.

Discuss the hand-horn technique for French horn

Hand-horn technique, also known as right-hand technique, is placing of the right hand inside the bell of the horn. The technique was derived from early versions of the instrument, which had no valves. In these instruments, notes between the open partials of the harmonic series were played by opening and closing the throat of the bell with the hand. When valves were added, horn players still played with the right hand inside the bell in order to produce a slightly darker tone, more easily control pitch, and perform extended techniques such as stopped horn and echo horn. There are 2 methods for hand placement inside the bell. In the American method, the hand is held flat with the metal touching the back of the hand, with some of the horn's weight supported by the thumb. In the French method, the right hand is held out flat with palm down and the thumb forming a 90-degree angle with the hand, and some of the horn's weight is supported by the first knuckles and the back of the hand.

Compare the style of Impressionism in the visual arts with Impressionism in the musical arts.

Impressionism began as a visual arts movement at the end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century with the works of Edouard Manet, Claude Monte, Edgar Degas, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Berthe Morisot, Camille Pissarro, Alfred Sisley, and Mary Cassatt. The painters of the Impressionist movement sought to move away from the highly defined traditional paintings of the official salons of the day, and to create works that caught the brief, sensory effect of a particular moment through optical effects of light, color, and atmosphere. The painters used soft brushstrokes, abandoning any sharp lines to evoke a sense of have and smoke in their work. The Impressionist movement in the visual arts paralleled the musical movement of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries as well. In the music of Claude Debussy, formal elements such as distinct tonalities, cadences, and line were abandoned, while soft effects such as non-climactic melodies, complex textures, misty instrumental colors, and continuously changing forms all contributed to fleeting moments of color.

Discuss instructional strategies for teaching rhythm to a full elementary class.

In a full elementary class, there are many important instructional strategies to effectively teach rhythm to young students. The students must first experience rhythm; this can be achieved through kinesthetic movement, whether by clapping, swaying the body, or dancing. The music educator can have students mimic certain clapping or dancing patterns so that the students experience the rhythms before labeling the rhythms. Students can also experience rhythms by keeping a beat to music, to help feel for a steady beat. The music educator can refer to a steady beat as a heartbeat, relating it to a familiar internal process. Once students have experienced certain rhythms, the music educator can begin to assign visual and verbal labels to the rhythms. The association between label and rhythms can thus be strengthened, as the students already know the rhythms through experience.

Discuss a comprehensive outline of a regular full ensemble rehearsal.

In a regular full ensemble rehearsal, the conductor or director should prepare a comprehensive plan for the time with the ensemble. Since rehearsal time is usually limited, the conductor should prioritize the musical goals for the session beforehand. The sequencing of the rehearsal goals is up to the conductor, based on the musical works and ensemble, but every rehearsal should have these general components. In the beginning, the ensemble should spend adequate time warming up their instruments and bodies as well as tuning their instruments. This practice helps to develop both the musician's habits as well as listening with awareness. The ensemble should have time with the conducting and playing of various musical works. The ensemble should also spend time refining technically and musically challenging sections. There should also be time for the musicians to develop musicality and sight-reading during the rehearsal.

Describe the philosophy behind non-formal teaching and informal learning in fostering musical self-expression.

In contrast to a formal learning setting in which a music educator introduces educational content to a student, informal training refers to a student's self-led exploration of musical learning with or without an experienced mentor. Non-formal teaching and informal learning can constitute a valuable part of the student's growth as a musician. When students are in charge of their own musical development. they are able to choose the style and direction of their growth. This casual form of learning gives students more autonomy in their education, which encourages them to become more involved in their own learning. Many famous musicians were self-taught, and students can learn what works best for them as individuals, instead of a teacher-dictated method or form. However, educators should be careful about the potential pitfalls of disregarding formal education entirely for non-formal teaching. Since a student is entirely accountable for his or her own musical development, educational outcomes can be highly variable depending on the student. Also students who learn informally tend to practice only those skills that are their strengths, while their weaker skills go neglected.

Describe a sample six-week curriculum and objectives for grades 1-2 in general music instruction.

In grades 1-2, students experience a wider range of musical characteristics, learning more about music by doing. Students should follow a balanced curriculum that includes experiential learning such as playing, singing, and moving to music. In a sample six-week curriculum that focuses on introducing rhythm to students, the first week might include games and songs that introduce the concept of a steady beat to students. In the second week, the concept of a steady beat should be reinforced while associating certain beats with certain counts (i.e., quarter note = 1 count, half note = 2 counts). In the third week, steady beat and notes should be reinforced through movement and songs. Inn the fourth week, the students should compose rhythms of quarter and half notes to music. IN the fifth and sixth weeks, students should continue to reinforce these concepts as well as improvise on the learned rhythms through games, dance, and songs.

Discuss the recent trend of student-led parent-teacher conferences.

In recent years, there has been a trend toward student-led parent-teacher conferences. The rationale behind this method holds that when students step up as a catalyst for parent-teacher communication, students step up as a catalyst for parent-teacher communication, students gain accountability for their educational development, awareness of the importance of open communication, and leadership skills, among other benefits. In the student-led parent-teacher conference model, teachers act as facilitators while students are responsible for answering any teacher or parent questions pertaining to academic achievement, student portfolios, educational development, and grades and assessment. Some teachers have students fill out self-assessment surveys before a conference to help students evaluate their learning, their strengths, weaknesses, skills, and habits, and their social interaction with classmates. This approach to parent-teacher conferences helps parents see their children taking initiative for their own educational process, and helps to transfer that open communication during conferences to the home environment.

Describe the exemptions provided for educators under the "fair use" provision as defined in the 1976 Copyright Act.

In the "fair use" provisions as set by the 1976 Copyright Act, educators are exempt from certain copyright laws, given the appropriate use and distribution of the copyrighted materials. When reproducing materials for use within the classroom, teachers are allowed to make copies of up to 10 percent of the entire work for each student, but cannot reproduce an entire copyrighted work for each student, but cannot reproduce an entire copyrighted work for the classroom. When recording copyrighted materials, educators are exempt from the compulsory license only if the educator makes a single recording. If the educator wants to make more than one copy but fewer than 500, the educator should contact the publisher. To make more than 500 copies of the recording, the educator is allowed to rearrange a musical work inn a reasonable way for educational purposes. The educator is allowed to perform a copyrighted song only if for demonstration in the classroom; all other performances require a license.

Compare and contrast the fixed-do system and the movable-do system.

In the fixed-do system of notational reading, the solmization of pitches refers to a specific pitch, usually where do refers to the C pitch, re refers to the D pitch, mi refers to the E pitch, and so on. In the moveable-do system of notational reading, the solmization of pitches refers to any pitch within a diatonic scale so that do refers to the tonic, re refers to the supertonic, mi refers to the mediant, and so on. In the movable-do system, any pitch can be do, while the rest of the diatonic scale is built upon the relative tonic pitch. The fixed-do system of notational reading focuses on the functional association of the specific pitches to the staff, where do is always recognized as C. The movable-do system of notational reading focuses on the intervallic relationship between the pitches as they occur within the scale.

Discuss instructional activities that aid intervallic reading and understanding.

Intervallic reading is founded on the principle that students who can recognize the relative relationships between pitches will be able to read more quickly and with less mental processing demands than reading note by note. Students who read music note by note must first mentally identify the pitch name, translate that into the fingering or key pattern on the instrument, and then play. Students who read intervallically can forgo the pitch identification step of mental processing and proceed immediately to spatial processing, thus simplifying the reading process. Music educators can use instructional activities that reinforce the concept of spatial distance and direction, such as dictating a tune by note distance and direction only, i.e., 2nd up, 3rd down, making a game out of flash cards, being able to play intervals and directions with eyes closed, and practicing placing notes on a classroom staff.

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of intrinsic motivation in the classroom.

Intrinsic motivation is defined in behavioral psychology as motivation that exists for an individual in the activity itself, as opposed to extrinsic motivation in which motivation for an activity exists apart from the activity such as an outside pressure or reward. When students are intrinsically motivated, there will be satisfaction in the activity or task at hand, partly from a natural curiosity and partly from gratification in doing the task. Music educators can facilitate or encourage intrinsic motivation in the classroom; however, this type of motivation is only effective for those students who already have a natural tendency towards the task at hand. For other students who find no internal satisfaction or curiosity for the task at hand, intrinsic motivation will be useless. Intrinsic motivation, when effective, can foster a high quality of learning and creativity in students.

Discuss instructional strategies to keep students focused and on task.

Keeping students focused and on task is one way to prevent behavior issues. There are many instructional strategies to refocus a misbehaving student. If students are distracted, wait until they are paying attention to continue the lesson. Silence will draw attention to the misbehaving students. If students are distracted, educators can redirect their attention by giving a direction such as "If you hear my voice, clap once." (Teachers may need to continue with clap twice, three times, etc.) Misbehaving students will redirect their attention and try not to be left out. Teachers can also reward good behavior through positive reinforcement. If needed, students should be separated. Establish a quieting signal such as raising a hand, or two fingers. Teachers can also place a misbehaving student next to them so that the student becomes conscious of his or her behavior among his classmates. Another technique is to give the misbehaving student a special task; oftentimes, a distracted student is one who is not challenged by the current lesson. Finally, if students continue misbehaving, the teacher may be talking too much, so adjustments may be needed to keep the students actively focused and involved.

Describe the transposition and instrumental ranges of three to five keyboard instruments.

Keyboard instruments include those instruments whose sound-producing mechanisms are set into motion through a system of levers and keys. The keyboard is generally made up of seven natural and five chromatic keys. The distance between the natural keys are whole steps except for the half steps between E-F and B-C. The modern piano is typically notated on the grand staff sounding as written, with a general range of A0-C8. The celesta is typically notated on the grand staff sounding an octave higher, with a general range of C3-C7. The harpsichord is typically notated on the grand staff sounding as written with a general range of F1-F6. The harmonium is typically notated on the grand staff sounding as written, with a general range of F1-F6. The organ is typically notated on the grand staff sounding as written, with a general range of C2-C7.

Discuss MIDI technology and give examples of its capabilities within music production

MIDI stands for Musical Instrument Digital Interface and provides a standard "language" of MIDI that allows communication between digital keyboards, computers, and even cell phones. MIDI does not record a digital version of a sound recording, but instead stores performance data of a particular performance. MIDI date includes tempo settings, which notes are to be played, and the volume levels of the instruments. Since the recorded data are inherently performance instructions, MIDI-stored performances can be changed to sound on different instruments, in different keys, and in different tempi. MIDI technology has become a staple in the music industry, with its simplicity of recording, compact storage size, and multitude of practical applications in recording, editing, and performing.

Discuss instructional activities to improve rhythmic accuracy in beginner students.

Many times, rhythmic inaccuracy in beginner students results from a lack of basic reinforcement of the concept of a steady beat. Beginner music students will benefit from heavy reinforcement of a steady beat through movement activities such as dancing to the beat of a song, clapping or tapping along to a rhyme, swaying back and forth while counting out loud, or other forms of multi-sensory learning that involve the kinesthetic mode as well as the aural mode. Beginner music students will also benefit from visual aural modeling from the music educator as well as from peers. Peer learning can be a great source of motivation and encouragement to learn, as students will generally want to match the level of their peers. Music educators should also introduce the concept of the heartbeat in practicing a steady beat, relating the abstract concept of tempo and meter to a familiar one of the body.

Discuss the neural bases for mental practice efficacy.

Mental practice has been shown to be a highly effective method of instrumental practicing when access to an instrument is not possible. When musicians practice traditionally on an instrument, the maxim "practice makes perfect" describes the correct pattern-forming process of the brain. Many music educators ascribe instead to the phrase "practice makes permanent," as scientists now know that repeated practicing reinforces the cognitive neural pathway of a particular action, similarly to the way habits are formed. It is therefore important for a musician to make sure to practice passages correctly, or else incorrect technique can easily be habituated by repeated practicing. The concept for mental practicing mirrors the neural processes of physical practice, and helps to reinforce a particular neural pathway even without movement. Mental practice combined with physical practice provides optimal cognitive and motor learning for a musician.

Describe the preparatory education and training necessary for a career in music business, and list example job titles.

Music business covers the legal, financial, ethical, and artistic aspects of managing a music business. For a career in music business, finishing with a B.A. in Music Business. Some students may continue higher education, achieving an MBA in Music Business as well. A degree will help to qualify a student in music business, but it is more important to get hands-on training through an internship and a foot in the door for the highest likelihood of success in the industry. Jobs within music business include artist manager, booking agent, business manager, recording studio owner, music publisher, Internet marketing specialist, media promotion specialist, concert or event promoter, arts and entertainment writer, publicist, product manager, recording studio manager, artist liaison, tour manager, booking agent, independent radio promoter, and music licensing supervisor.

Discuss the practical advantages of collaborating with colleagues in terms of implementing a music curriculum.

Music education cannot exist in isolation. A single instructor, though dedicated and focused in delivering a high-quality curriculum, cannot meet the educational demands of all the students alone. Collaboration is advantageous in music education for various reasons. When collaborating with veteran colleagues, a music teacher can learn valuable educational strategies that only come with long-term experience. Music selection, behavior management, and instructional assessment are all areas that a willing, humble, and open collaboration can enhance. Students will also benefit when music teachers collaborate with instructors from other school subjects, whether math, English, or history. When educational objectives are reinforced within another classroom, learning is heightened, and the students learn that no one subject exists in the world in isolation - everything is interconnected. A music educator can also collaborate with the school librarian in asking for current resources, and the librarian can better understand what materials to best supply the music department. Every individual has a unique set of strengths and talents; by collaborating with colleagues, the music curriculum can become an inspired agent for student transformation.

Discuss the role of the music educator in exercising appropriate professional conduct in situations involving the community and family.

Music educators are entrusted to oversee the development and well-being of students as well as the community and family. The music educator should act in the highest professional manner with a commitment to the music education profession, while understanding his or her influence on the community and family. Music educators should obey all local, state, and federal laws, and should never put students in physical or emotional harm. When the music educator is in a non-school setting, he or she should continue to act with the highest level of judgment, since personal misconduct can lead to public disapproval and thus an interruption in the student's musical development and trust. Also, the music educator should never disclose a student's personal information to any person other than school personnel, for risk of a confidentiality breach. The music educator should always maintain appropriate communication with the family, and never for personal gain or advantage.

Discuss the role of the music educator in maintaining student confidentiality and appropriate professional conduct through communication, transport, and contact with students.

Music educators are entrusted to oversee the growth, development, and well-being of the students, and as such, have certain moral and ethical obligations. The music educator should act in the highest professional manner with a commitment to the music education profession, to the students, to the community, and to the family. Since music educators can be seen as role models to developing a student's musical growth, all boundaries between student and teacher should be honored so that both parties can be held above reproach. The music educator should act in a way to ensure an emotionally and physically safe and healthy environment for the students. When traveling to field trips and concerts, the students must ride in a district-approved vehicle and never in a personal vehicle. When greeting students, the teacher should exercise minimal physical contact, again, to be above reproach.

Discuss how music instructions can be integrated with common core subjects.

Music educators have the unique opportunity of integrating subjects outside of the fine arts with musical instruction. While focusing on musical instruction. The students can be fully immersed in musical learning as well as language arts, history, math, and science. When discussing musical phrasing, music educators can relate questions and answers in music to questions and answers in English. The students can also examine how individual phrases within music reinforce the work as a whole, the same way an individual sentence or paragraph relates to a written text as a whole. Teachers can use repertoire selections to reinforce historical knowledge as well, whether it be the Industrial Revolution during the Romantic era, or the Greek and Roman renewal of the Renaissance era. Basic musical elements require a mathematical understanding such as the division of meters and the relationship of subdivided beats. Concepts in science such as humidity, fluid dynamics, and physics can be integrated with instrument knowledge such as woodwind care and sound wave properties.

Discuss a sample semester assessment plan including both individual and group development.

Music educators should use assessment strategies that include both individual student achievement as well as group ensemble achievement. A comprehensive rubric provides accountability for each student's musical growth within an ensemble setting. A sample semester assessment plan should include individual grading criteria such as performance of technical scales and musical excerpt, correct pitch matching, and correct rhythm matching. Students should be able to demonstrate historical and contextual knowledge of the appropriate music, and should demonstrate thoughtful analysis and evaluation of music. Group grading criteria can include attendance at performances, attendance at local concerts, chamber music participation, and solo/ensemble festival participation. Classroom criteria can include rehearsal preparation and readiness. The weight of each section could be graded as follows: individual performance: 30 percent; ensemble performance: 30 percent; classroom participation: 30 percent; other: 10 percent.

Describe cost-effective strategies to minimize the financial cost of a music program.

Music programs in the current decade face many financial challenges within school districts; when faced with budget cuts, music programs must find ways to minimize the financial impact of their annual operating costs. Loaning music from other programs or libraries can reduce spending on new scores and music. Some movie theaters screen performances of operas, symphonies, and other concerts at a lower cost than a live theater performance. Consider distributing course materials electronically when possible, as printing costs that may seem small in isolation will accumulate over the course of a year. In a grogram that provides instruments that will be shared among students, ensure regular maintenance and instruments. A director should attempt to design performances and outreach efforts in a way that will create value for the community, while creating political and financial support for the school.

Describe the following licensing resources, and their role for music educators: NMPA, MPA, ASCAP, BMI, SESAC, HFA, U.S. Copyright Office.

NMPA stands for the National Music Publisher's Association, which represents many of the music publishers in the United States and helps with copyright holder identification. The MPA, the Music Publishers' Association of the United States, similarly represents many print music publishers in the nation and also assists in copyright ownership issues. The ASCAP (American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers), the BMI (Broadcast Music, Inc.), and the SESAC (Society of European Stage Authors and Composers) all function to exercise appropriate performance licensing and distribution to their publishers and members. The HFA, the Harry Fox Agency, primarily serves as a recording license resource for many of the U.S. music publishers. The U.S. Copyright Office is a part of the Library of Congress and provides general information on copyright laws and issues in the United States.

Describe various notation software and methods for incorporating the software into instructional activities.

Notation software provides an important tool in music education, allowing students to notate compositions electronically, transfer the data to other MIDI instruments, and integrate technology into the music classroom. Using notation software helps to reinforce musical concepts and compositional lessons for the students. Many notation programs will transcribe the music as it is played on an attached keyboard or sung into a microphone. Notes can also be manually input by the mouse. The premier notation software Sibelius features high ease of use, varied input/output capabilities, great editing options, and good technical support. Finale is another widely used notation software and features student versions as well as professional versions. MagicScore Maestro features easy notational input, but does not have controls that are as intuitive as other notation software. Forte Home is a great notation software for the beginner but features nno virtual piano.

Describe factors that affect student participation in a school music program and strategies to counter negative influences.

Outcomes in a student's musical education are the result of a complex interaction of a large variety of variables, both genetic and environmental. The strongest factors impeding positive outcomes are those associated with poverty. Hunger, physical and emotional abuse, and chronic illness can lead to poor school performance, and health-risk behaviors are consistently linked with poor grades and test scores and lower educational attainment. School health programs have been shown to reduce health-risk behaviors and have a positive effect on academic achievement. Supportive teacher-student relationships have also been shown to positively affect social and academic outcomes for students, enabling them to feel secure in the learning environment. Students in high-poverty urban schools may benefit even more than their high-income counterparts from positive teacher-student relationships, given the strong association between poverty and negative outcomes.

Discuss techniques for meaningful parent-teacher conferences emphasizing two-way communication.

Parental involvement is one of the most important factos in student success in school. When parents participate in their children's educational process, children learn from their most important support figures and gain encouragement, self-esteem, and a role model for a lifetime. One-way music teachers can influence and nurture parental support in their students' education through parent-teacher conferences. Many techniques for successful parent-teacher conferences can be used to open two-way communication in helping parents support their student's learning process. First, teachers must help parents be aware of conference dates and goals. Multiple announcements through various mediums and providing information in many different languages will help parents plan for conferences. Flexibility is key in planning sessions so that parents have the option for extended sessions. Teachers can also coordinate free services through the PTA, such as transportation, childcare, and refreshments. Two-way communication can be achieved through providing opportunities for dialogue, flexibility, and an open and receptive attitude.

Describe the career opportunities in performing arts medicine.

Performing arts medicine includes all disciplines that oversee and promote the health of the performing artist. Career opportunities can include medical professionals, artist educators, and administrators who strive to advocate the health of performing artists. Medical health professionals evaluate and treat any medical problems that may occur in dancers, singers, instrumentalists, and actors at all staged of their careers. The medical health professional may suggest physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech therapy, psychological services, or other forms of arts-specific rehabilitation. The focus of manny performing arts medical professionals is to prevent re-injury, and the treatment may also cover technique, repertoire, instrument state, and emotional state adjustments as related to the injury. Career opportunities are also present in the continuing education and advocacy for injury prevention and healthy habits for the performing artist.

Discuss Phyllis Weikart's contributions to modern music education.

Phyllis Weikart has written numerous books on the pedagogical applications of music and movement and is the author of Movement Plus Music, a music education guide for learning through movement for ages 3-7, Round the Circle: Key Experiences in Movement and Teaching Movement and Dance: A Sequential Approach to Rhythmic Movement, among others. She has served on the faculty of the Division of Kinesiology at the University of Michigan and is also the founder of the program Education through Movement: Building the Foundation, a research-based approach to learning though movement and music. In the Weikart method, kinesthetic experiences are broken down into individual units. First, the movements must be isolated and modeled to the students, then the movement may be simplified and built upon, and finally, the students must have a variety of opportunities to use the movements in personal and creative ways. Through her program, Weikart provides a detailed, sequential approach to movement-based musical tasks, and continues the traditions developed by Dalcroze and Orff-Schulwerk.

Discuss instructional activities to improve pitch reading in beginner students.

Pitch reading can be a challenging concept for beginner students, as many mental processes occur from the written visual cue to the symbolic processing, to knowledge retrieval, to the answering output. for beginner students, it is important to have a reference when pitch reading, whether it is middle C or another referential pitch. Students should also understand the spatial relationships requires in note reading, that higher on the staff also means higher in pitch and that lower on the staff also means lower in pitch. The music educator should ensure that the beginner student understands how to play high and low on his or her respective instrument before continuing the lessons into more complex playing. Similarly to language learning, the music educator should also provide ample reinforcement and practice in pitch reading as the student begins to integrate the musical symbols with aural and pitch meaning.

Describe the transposition and instrumental ranges of four to six pitched percussion instruments.

Pitched percussion instruments can include membranophones as well as idiophones that have definite pitches. The timpani is typically notated in bass clef sounding as written with the 30-inch timpani in a range of D2-A2, the 28-inch timpani in a range of F2-C3, the 25-inch timpani in a range of Bb2-F3, and the 23-inch timpani in a range of D3-A3. The xylophone is typically notated in treble clef sounding an octave higher, with a general range of G4-C7. The marimba is typically notated on the grand staff sounding as written, with a general range of C2 or A2 to C7. The glockenspiel is typically notated in treble clef sounding two to eight octaves higher, with a general range of G3-C6. The vibraphone is typically notated in treble clef sounding as written, with a general range of F3-F6. Chimes are typically notated in treble clef sounding an octave higher, with a general range of C4-G5.

Describe principles of sequencing a music curriculum.

Principles of sequencing a music curriculum can ba based on three different techniques: content sequencing, task sequencing, or sequencing of elaboration. When sequencing based on content, the instructor should analyze the content for the main item and then organize the general content into a hierarchal structure. The most general and inclusive content should be presented first, leading the way to more detailed ideas while all the while relating them to former learning content. When sequencing based on a task, the instructor should analyze the skill involved and order the learning progression from simple, more elementary tasks towards more complex skills that build on previous tasks. When sequencing based on elaboration, the students are given an overall view of the knowledge, and then presented with basic content first, progressing towards more detailed information while keeping the organizing overall theme in place.

Describe Laban's theory of movement education.

Rudolf von Laban (1879-1958) was a Hungarian dancer and theorist whose foundational movement theories for dance have been adopted by music educators for moevement-based music education. Laban believed that all people should learn the four elements of movement to develop mindfulness and creativity. These four elements, or "effort" elements, are flow, weight, time, and space. Flow refers to free and tense movements; weight refers to heavy and light movements; time refers to quick and slow movements; and space refers to direct/straight and indirect/arcing movement. Laban also outlined eight basic actions: punch, slash, dab, flick, press, wring, glide, and float. Although these movement theories were originally intended for dance education, music educators have used these ideas to develop curriculum that incorporates effort elements and actions to express and interpret music, as well as in performance. These movements have also been adopted by conductors to convey musical gesture.

Provide sample activities for a Pre-K eurhythmics class

Sample activities for a Pre-K eurhythmics class can include: ~Students dance freely to a teacher's improvisation on the piano that changes frequently in relation to mood, tempo, dynamics, and style. Students must change their dance styles accordingly. ~Students must pass a beach ball around in a circle in rhythm, as defined by the teacher's music. ~Students stomp their feet in rhythm and sway side to side while the teacher recites a children's rhyme. ~Students clap their hands to the tempo of the teacher's improvisation at the piano; the teacher alters the tempo of the music so that students must follow along. The teacher plays a soft melody on the piano while the students more smoothly to the music; for every sudden sfz chord played, students must clap hands with a partner, then resume the quiet music/movement.

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of sectional rehearsals and full ensemble rehearsals.

Sectional rehearsals are an important tool for the rehearsing ensemble. When too much time is spent on an individual section or part during the full ensemble rehearsal, time is wasted and musicians can become unengaged. Sectional rehearsals allow players to fine-tune their parts together and to fix any technical or musical problems apart from the full ensemble. Sometimes the conductor may not be aware of other hidden problems except through listening to sectional rehearsals. However, certain precautions should be taken to ensure the highest efficiency of a sectional rehearsal. Sectionals should be scheduled either immediately before or after a full ensemble rehearsal; that way, the progress made through a sectional can be immediately integrated within the full ensemble for the most improvement. Players should also be aware of clear objectives before beginning any sectional to avoid wasting time within a sectional.

Discuss various strategies to accommodate students with visual impairments in the music classroom.

Since the student with visual impairment will nnot have the visual aspect to aid their learning, music educators should focus on other modalities of learning, i.e., aural and tactile methods, to help the visually impaired student succeed. If the student with visual impairment is learning how to play an instrument, the educator should allow ample time for the student to physically explore the instrument and take it apart if possible. The student should also have the chance to explore other examples of the instrument so the student can fully conceptualize the shape and various aspects of the instrument. Also, the music instructor should use the Braille Music Code for lessons on staff notation; students should not be expected to rely solely on their aural awareness of music, but should be able to learn musical notation as well. When demonstrating instrumental technique and movement, the educator should demonstrate the action by placing his or her hand under the student's hand.

Describe the transposition and instrumental ranges of five to seven string instruments.

String instruments include those instruments whose main vibrating system is a string set into motion by plucking, striking, or bowing. The violin is typically notated in the treble clef sounding as written, with a general range of G3-A7. The viola is typically notated in the alto clef sounding as written, with a general range of C3-E6. The cello is typically notated in the bass, tenor, and treble clefs sounding as written, with a general range of C2-C6. The double bass is typically notated in bass clef sounding an octave lower, with a general range of C2-C5. The banjo is typically notated in treble clef sounding as written, with a general range of C3-A4. The guitar is typically notated in treble clef sounding an octave lower, with a general range of E3-E6. The harp is typically notated on the grand staff sounding as written, with a general range of Cb1-G#7.

Describe appropriate performance competencies for students in Pre-K as outlined in the School Music Program: A New Vision.

Students in Pre-K should experience music as much as possible through listening, feeling, moving, and experimenting with their own vocal pitch and timbre. Children in this age range should be encouraged to freely use their voices in singing, chanting, and speaking along with music accompaniment and on their own. Students in Pre-K should experience a wide range of instrumental sounds and improvise their own melodies and patterns on different instruments. Students should practice relating musical sounds to other objects, symbols, and animals that are familiar to them, to engage their imagination and encourage creative responses. Students in Pre-K should become increasingly accurate in their pitch matching and rhythm matching through their voices or on instruments. Students should experience a wide variety of genres and styles as well as be able to identify basic differences and changes in music.

Discuss appropriate classroom objectives for grades 5-8 as set by the National Achievement Standards.

Students in grades 5-8 should be reinforcing skills acquired in grades K-4, while preparing to achieve the standards set by the National Achievement Standards by grade 8. Students should be able to sing with expression from a variety of styles and genres by memory, on pitch, alone as well as in groups. Students should be able to perform on at least one instrument alone as well as in groups with good technique, posture, bowing or breath, and with good fingering. Students should be able to play simple tunes by ear. Students should also be able to improvise short melodies and simple accompaniment patterns. Students should be able to read treble and bass clefs, and whole, half, quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes and rests in a variety of meters. Students should be able to analyze basic meter, rhythm, intervals, chords, and tonality. Students should also be able to relate music to history, other arts, and disciplines outside of music.

Describe practical teaching techniques to accommodate aural learners.

Students whose primary learning style is that of aural learning need specific teaching techniques to help them succeed. Aural learners learn best by hearing educational content, so teachers should frequently use precise terms when explaining an idea. Aural learners also learn through talking and discussion, so a useful teaching technique is allowing students to discuss ideas and content among themselves. Aural learners may need to question and talk through ideas to help thoroughly comprehend educational content, so teachers should not brush off students' questions, but allow ample time for student questions and answers. Another technique to accommodate aural learners, who need to hear ideas and talk through them, is to have spoken quizzes and tests, to allow aural learners the opportunity to talk through a concept. A helpful technique particularly for aural music learners is to listen to a recording of one's own rehearsals to be able to hear for mistakes and areas for improvement.

Describe practical teaching techniques to accommodate kinesthetic learners.

Students whose primary learning style is that of kinesthetic learning need specific teaching techniques to help them succeed. Kinesthetic learners learn best by doing, and need to integrate movement with the introduction of new educational concepts and ideas. Music educators should implement teaching techniques that require students to move while learning new educational content. Lesson segments should be kept short with frequent breaks to stand up and move. When introducing concepts such as rhythm and meter, the music educator should require students to physically move to the various rhythms and meters to accommodate those who are kinesthetic learners. When teaching specific instrumental techniques, the instructor should make sure that the kinesthetic learner demonstrates the movement or technique, rather than merely verbally or visually explaining the concept. Educators can also implement frequent games, field trips, and seating changes.

Describe practical teaching techniques to accommodate visual learners.

Students whose primary learning style is that of visual learning need specific teaching techniques to help them succeed. Visual learners learn best by seeing educational content. When teachers are explaining educational content or instructions, they should also provide a visual explanation, either through a projector or handouts, or by demonstrating the concepts visually. Educators can also encourage visual learners to make flashcards, a helpful tool to visually learn content. Another practical tool for visual learners are pictures, diagrams, and concept maps. These all allow students to visually integrate the learning content internally. When demonstrating instrumental technique or posture, the educator should make sure that all students can see, to accommodate for those who are also visual learners. Without a visual model, visual learners will have a harder time assimilating the new concepts and skills.

Discuss various strategies to help students with dyslexia understand written musical notation.

Students with dyslexia tend to have difficulty with visual tracking, visual stress, visual-motor comprehension, sound discrimination, and symbol-sound relationships. Without the proper guidance from the music educators, the student with dyslexia may feel alienated from the educational curriculum, as well as from peers and the overall learning process. The music educator should begin by removing any barriers to the student's learning and helping to build on the student's strengths. Musical notation can be enlarged so that visual processing for the student will be easier. The student can also use color-coded overlays to prevent visual stress from an all-white background as well as to highlight certain aspects of the score. The music educator should also use a multi-sensory approach to teaching musical notation, including Dalcroze and Kodály techniques, visual and aural demonstrations of rhythm, visual and tactile demonstrations of notation, technology, pattern learning, and graphics within the notation.

Define tessitura and describe the considerations involved in assigning a voice part to a vocal part.

Tessitura refers to that range within a singer's vocal abilities that resonate the most in an aesthetically pleasing manner. The particular tessitura of a singer's voice type is also usually the most comfortable for his or her timbre. Tessitura differs from vocal range in that the range of a singer's voice refers to the limits of pitches the singer is able to sing; the tessitura of a singer's voice, although he or she may have a wide singing range, may be best described as a high tessitura, or a low tessitura, wherever the voice is able to sustain the most dramatic, comfortable, and pleasing sound. When assigning a voice to a vocal part, it is important to consider the tessitura of a particular voice as well as his or her range, timbre, transition points, and voice weight.

List four to six professional organizations for music educators and describe the focus of each.

The American String Teachers Association is the largest professional organization for string teachers and offers journals, books, posters, and conferences, providing ongoing training for string teachers and promoting orchestra programs in schools and communities. The Association of Teaching Artists is a professional organization for "teaching artists" in all arts disciplines - music, dance, theater, visual arts, poetry, etc. - that provides a network and place for collaboration among all its members. The Jazz Education Network is a relatively new professional organization for jazz teachers, with conferences and festivals throughout the nation. The Music Teachers National Association is a professional organization supporting music teachers across the nation, providing conferences, festivals, and programs. The National Association for Music Education has 50 state affiliates and supports music educators in schools. The American Orff-Schulwerk Association is an organization dedicated to preserving the Orff-Schulwerk approach to music education.

Describe the Comprehensive Musicianship through Performance (CMP) initiative and its elements in a modern music program.

The Comprehensive Musicianship through Performance initiative is a model that prioritizes an inclusive, deeper understanding of music for lifelong model. In the model, the rehearsal becomes a learning laboratory with the teacher acting as a musical facilitator rather than merely as a lecturer or conductor. The chosen musical selection becomes a vessel for musical discovery; as students prepare the selection, the insructor provides a holistic approach for different objectives and different learning styles. The model encompasses a wide possibility of student outcomes, from knowledge of music history, style, and composition, to form, structure, and theory. The five main elements of the CMP educational process are music selection, objectives, analysis, strategies, and assessment. These segments may be used in any order to plan a music curriculum. Analysis involves a deeper understanding of the history, form, and style of a musical selection; strategies for musical discovery and performance are implemented in the curriculum; and the educator assesses students' needs and educational outcomes.

Explain the philosophy behind a Dalcroze eurhythmics approach.

The Dalcroze approach to music education makes use of physical movement as a tool for musical development. Emile Jacques-Dalcroze believed that music should be taught with kinesthetic movement so that sound can be integrated with nerves and muscles, and articulated through bodily motion. Dalcroze theorized that music can be more readily understood through movement than reason, and musical education should start with movement before intellectual concepts can be introduced. In this framework, the body is the instrument, and students discover expression, musicality, tempo, dynamics, style, and phrase structure through inner dialogue with the music. In this way, students develop musicality with a deeper understanding of their physical connection to music and refine their senses of rhythm, coordination, hearing, and creativity.

Describe the Dalcroze method and its impact on modern music education.

The Dalcroze method was developed around 1900 by Swiss composer, musician, and pedagogue Émile Jaques-Dalcroze, who developed a system of music education through movement called eurhythmics, in which students use a kinesthetic approach to experience musical concepts. In the Dalcroze method, the body is seen as the instrument, and students discover expression, musicality, tempo, dynamics, style, and phrase structure through physical dialogue with the music. Without the ability to physically respond to music, Dalcroze believed that no human could be fully musical. The approach uses eurhythmics, solfege, and improvisation to facilitate musical development in children. In a typical eurhythmics class, students will incorporate movement of their feet, arms, and bodies to music that is either improvised by the teacher or played from a recording. This method was brought to the United States in the early 1900s and slowly found its way into mainstream primary-level music education.

List and describe four to six music education journals.

The Journal of Research in Music Education is a major peer-reviewed research journal in the field of music education published by Sage Publications for the National Association for Music Education. The Music Educators Journal is a peer-reviewed journal published by Sage as part of the National Association for Music Education, featuring scholarly and practical articles on music teaching. The international Journal of Music Education is another scholarly peer-reviewed journal published quarterly by Sage as part of the International Society of Music Education. The Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education is an academic journal covering peer-reviewed original research in the field of music education that is published quarterly by the University of Illinois Press for the Council for Research in Music Education. The Journal of Band Research features scholarly articles on band music, history, and methodology, and is the official publication of the American Bandmasters Association.

Describe the Kodály method and its impact on modern music education.

The Kodály method was developed by Hungarian composer, musician, ethnomusicologist, and educator Zoltan Kodály (1882-1967), who believed that music is an innate part of every human's experience and that musical literacy should be an integral part of every child's education. For Kodály, the main goal of musical education is singing; since music belong to every human, and every culture has folk songs, the voice is then the most accessible instrument. To facilitate musical literacy for the masses, Zoltan Kodály advocated the use of the movable-do system, hand signs for solfege syllables, rhythmic syllables, and solfa notation. The use of hands signs provides both a visual and kinesthetic tool for children so that the musical elements of pitch and intervals are first experienced and then identified. The Kodály method uses a five-step instructional sequence: Preparation, Make Conscious, Reinforcement, Practice, and Create, and is foundational in early music education philosophies today.

Discuss the various music performance outcomes according to the National Standards that help to dictate assessment components.

The National Association for Music Education has published Performance Standards of musical outcomes and student abilities by grade level. These Performance Standards should provide a guideline for the music educator for assessment criteria. Students should be able to sing alone and with others, demonstrating correct technical and musical ability and in a wide range of styles. Students should be able to play an instrument alone and with others, demonstrating correct technical and musical ability and inn a wide range of styles. Students should be able to improvise basic melodies and basic accompaniments on their instrument or through singing. Students should be able to compose and arrange music within specific contexts with or without technology. Students should be able to listen to music and then analyze or describe it. Students should be able to evaluate music and musical performances. Students should also be able to relate music to non-musical fields such as history, visual art, literature, and others.

Describe the use of the National Core Arts Standards and list their major categories.

The National Core Arts Standards were developed to provide milestones to attain to on a grade-by-grade level in various forms of art, including dance, media arts, music, theatre, and visual arts. Usually, arts standards are dictated on the state and local level, but the national standards may be helpful in informing curriculum and instruction for a specific grade and art-subject. The National Core Arts Standards can be classified into these categories of artistic thought: creating, performing/presenting/producing, responding, and connecting/ These categories of artistic thought are further subdivided into 11 anchor standards, which inform the grade-level standards.

Describe the activity components of an Orff-Schulwerk lesson plan.

The Orff-Schulwerk approach to music education emphasizes children's natural tendency to play as a key component to musical discovery and development. Students are given the opportunity to explore various rhythms, melodies, and songs, and then imitate, improvise, and create their own rhythms, melodies, and songs. Central activity components of an Orff-Schulwerk lesson include speech, singing, movement, and playing instruments. The Orff approach hold that musical development begins with a child's natural speech; children use common chants and rhymes to explore rhythmic stress patterns. Along with speech, the Orff method uses singing to introduce tonal patterns and strengthen children's singing abilities. Singing activities are most commonly formatted as games and simple songs to encourage students' natural tendency to play. Movement through games is also an important activity component, as music and movement are fundamentally intertwined in the Orff-Schulwerk philosophy. The model Orff-Schulwerk activity is the use of instruments; common instruments include body percussion, hand instruments, and specialized Orff instruments built specifically to facilitate easy access for children. These include the bass, alto, and soprano xylophones and metallophones, and the soprano and alto glockenspiel.

Describe the Orff-Schulwerk method and its impact on modern music education.

The Orff-Schulwerk method was developed by German composer, musician, and educator Carl Orff (1895-19820 and his close collaborator Gunild Keetman (1904-1990), who believed that music should be actively experienced and is best learned through a child's natural tendency to play. In the Orff approach, students explore music through the integration of drama, speech, and movement. Students are encouraged to play an active part in their musical development through improvisation on pitched and unpitched musical instruments. The Orff-Schulwerk method emphasizes rhythm development through chanting and bodily rhythm patterns and movement, and melodic development through improvisation of speaking patterns and specialized Orff instruments. The pentatonic scale is the most common scale used in the method, as it is most accessible on the Orff instruments. The Orff-Schulwerk approach is common in today's elementary music classrooms and is found in schools around the world.

Describe the Suzuki method and its impact on modern music education.

The Suzuki method was developed by Japanese violinist, educator, and composer Shinichi Suzuki (1898-1998), who believed that musical development is best structured through a mother tongue approach, where children hear and learn to play music from an early age, as with speech. The Suzuki method emphasizes substantial parent involvement, an early start, listening, and repetition, similar to a child's language development. Creating an encouraging environment immensely helps a child's musical development. Students typically begin learning music by ear, and after developing competence on an instrument, lear to read music notation. The Suzuki learning sequence follow the language learning sequence, since children learn how to speak before they learn how to read. The Suzuki method offers a sequential repertoire for musical development on a variety of instruments and is found in many schools through use of the Suzuki repertoire, memorization of pieces, repetition, learning by rote, and continual parental involvement.

Discuss music scholarships for junior and senior high school music students.

The United Stated Marine Band, "President's Own," offers a concerto competition to high school woodwind, brass, or percussion students.Winners of the Marine Band Concerto Competition are awarded a performance as guest soloist with the United States Marine Band and a cash prize. The Williams Choral Bacardi Fallon Scholarship Competition offers cash prizes and a performance opportunity to the top contestants of the competition. The Davidson Fellowship offers awards for original student compositions. The VSA Arts International Young Soloists Program gives monetary awards and performances in Washington, D.C., to students with disabilities. The Tri-M Music Honor Society Chapter of the Year Music Scholarships award top student chapters the opportunity for summer music study. The Glenn Miller Birthplace Society Scholarship gives high school winners the chance to perform at the Glenn Miller Festival.

Describe the aesthetic approach to the philosophy of music education.

The aesthetic philosophy for the inclusion of music in the general curriculum emerged during the national education in the U.S., music educators saw the need for a new philosophy of music education beyond what the utilitarian philosophy could provide. Influential theorists of aesthetic arts education include Bennett Reimer, Michael Mark, Elliot Eisner, Charles Leonhard, Robert House, and Maxine Greene. These scholars argued that music ought to be studied in and for itself; only through music and the arts can students develop the sensitivity, feeling, and symbolic communication represented by musical understanding. Any extra-musical benefits pale in comparison to the pure enjoyment and interaction of making music. To supporters of the aesthetic philosophy for the inclusion of music education, no other field of study can develop the musical perception, mental sensations, and the appreciation for beautiful sound except music study itself.

Describe the literary and musical background of the ballade genre.

The ballade refers to a literary and musical form in which words are set to three stanzas with seven or eight lines each. The original literary form of the ballade usually featured a narrative that could be comic, romantic, tragic, or historical. Although ballades have been around since the Medieval ages, renewed interest in the Romantic era helped the genre to flourish in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Poets who often wrote ballades that were then set to music include Goethe, Schiller, Fontane, Heine, Platen, and Chamisso. Notable ballade composers who set literary ballades to music include Schubert, Schumann, Liszt, Wagner, and Strauss. By the middle of the nineteenth century, composers started to write purely instrumental ballades; Chopin wrote four piano ballades, most likely based on poems by Mickiewicz, and both Liszt and Brahms wrote instrumental piano ballades.

Discuss the slight differences in bow position and bow handling of the different string instruments.

The bow position on a violin and viola should have rounded thumb holding the side of the bow with a pinky on top of the bow, with the other fingers comfortably holding the other side of the bow. The fingers should be fairly arched during a down stroke and more elongated during an up stroke. The bow should not be held with any tension but firmly and lightly. The player should be careful not to extend any finger, as this will create tension in the wrist. On the cello and bass, the bow should be held in a similar manner to both the violin and viola bow, but the pinky finger does not rest on top of the bow; instead, the pinky should rest next to the middle and ring fingers. Since both the cello and bass are played upright, the arm does not generally stay above the bow; in fact, bow handling on a cello and bass requires the elbow and arm to lower significantly whether playing near the tip of the bow or near the frog.

Describe the importance of the diaphragm in breathing for vocal music.

The diaphragm plays a central role in the respiratory system, as one of the main acting forces behind inhalation and exhalation. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle that separates the abdomen from the chest cavity. The diaphragm muscle is attached to the lower parts of the rib cage, the spine, and the lower edge of the sternum. As the muscle contracts, it increases the length and diameter of the chest cavity, causing a vacuum in the lungs, inducing air to enter the lungs through inhalation. During exhalation, the diaphragm muscle naturally relaxes, deflating the lungs and expelling the air out from the lungs. When singing, it is important to actively engage the diaphragm during inhalation for a deep supported breath, as well as during exhalation to prolong the supported singing breath as long as possible.

Describe measures musicians can take to protect their hearing.

The ear and its hearing mechanisms provide a unique and essential role for the musician; deliberate measures should be taken to protect hearing and avoid permanent damage that can occur over time when exposed to high dB listening experiences. Musicians should limit band practices to two hours, and the average sound intensity of a band practice is 90 decibels, a potentially hazardous level of sound if experienced frequently over long periods of time. If musicians must practice at high sound levels frequently or for a long period of time, proper hearing protection should be used, such as earplugs and earmuffs. Musicians should also avoid listening to music on portable music devices at high volume levels, or levels above 85 decibels, for a long period of time. Damage that occurs to the inner ear cannot be medically or surgically corrected and constitutes permanent hearing loss.

Discuss kinesthetic theories of rhythm reading that aid musical development.

The kinesthetic theories of rhythm reading hold that rhythm cannot be experienced without having first experiences its movement physically. Since rhythm refers to the flow of movement through space, students should experience rhythm through their bodies first. Once the rhythm has been experienced physically through movement, students will more readily be able to audiate the rhythm mentally during rhythm reading. Phyllis Weikart, a prominent figure in movement pedagogy, advocated the introduction of movement-based learning in early childhood education, so that early gross motor development could better prepare students for more complex rhythmic integration in musical development. Other motor theorists also found that rudimentary motor movements are formed before the age of five, and all other motor movements after the age of five are reinforcements and stabilizations of those fundamental motor movements learned in early childhood.

Discuss military performance opportunities for musicians.

The military offers a wealth of opportunities for the musician. The Army, Navy, Air Force, and Coast Guard all have full-time music ensembles. Ensembles are characterized as either Premier bands or Regional bands. The 10 Premier bands are based in Washington, D.C., or are attached to the academy of the relevant branch. Premier band ensemble members have a guaranteed post, without the potential for transfer to other locations. Regional bands are housed on bases domestically and abroad. Each "band" represents several different performing ensembles. The U.S. Air Force Band, for example, oversees six entities: The Concert Band, Singing Sergeants (chorus), Airmen of Note (jazz ensemble), Air Force Strings, Ceremonial Brass, and Max Impact (rock). Military music careers are some of the most secure jobs in music, and provide extensive opportunities to tour, record, and perform at high-profile ceremonies, as well as college repayment, health care, and other benefits. Downsides relate to the fact that musicians are still military personnel and subject to the same disciplinary, bureaucratic, and legally binding service requirements as other military personnel.

Describe the use of adaptive technology for helping students with disabilities in music education.

The modern music classroom has paved the way for inclusive learning for students with disabilities. The use of adaptive or assistive technology allows students with disabilities and students with injuries the opportunity for music education and achievement. Many iPad applications act as a touch-sensitive synthesizer to convert movement to audio, allowing students with limited mobility or digits to create music. If a visually impaired student must move between instruments, the use of a simple string to guide the student can greatly widen the possibilities for performance. Also, sheet music can be enlarged for students with low vision, or even translated to Braille for students who are blind. For students who have trouble holding an instrument or reaching all the keys, music educators can use adaptive toggles, joysticks, clamps, and other tools to allow the student to be able to play. Students who are hard of hearing can use cochlear implants, hearing aids, or vibration-based technologies to play in an ensemble.

Describe the pyramid model of balance and blend for a large ensemble and how to apply it.

The pyramid model of balance and blend refers to the theory that higher-pitched singers and instruments should play softer than the lowest-pitched singers and instruments, so that an ideal balance exists between the treble and the bass. In this model, the-higher pitched section will also be able to hear the bass for better intonation and blend. In the pyramid model, the bass voices and instruments constitute the bottom rung of the pyramid; the width of the pyramid determines the overall volume of the ensemble. As the pyramid rises, higher-pitched voices and instruments are stacked above the bass section to the tip of the pyramid where the highest treble section is placed. The higher the voice or instrument is on the pyramid, the softer the sound should be. To apply it to an ensemble, the director should have the bass section play or sing a fortissimo, the tenor section a forte, the alto section a mezzo-forte, and the soprano section a mezzo-piano, so that the full ensemble can experience the balance and blend of the pyramid model.

Discuss the characteristics of the reed that influence intonation.

The reed interacts with the player's airflow and vibrations against the body of the instrument in four ways that influence the tone and sound. A reed's response refers to the ability of the reed to maintain a high quality of sound through all registers without splattering or spreading. The reed's resistance refers to the amount of embouchure tension required to keep the reed behaving and sounding with a good tone. A reed that has a low resistance may cause the player to overblow in searching for a fuller tone, while a reed that has a high resistance can cause the player fatigue and difficulty in creating a good tone. A reed's tone quality refers to the resonance and timbre of the reed itself. A reed with only lower partials will sound dull; a reed with only higher partials will sound shrill and thin. A reed's stability refers to the ability of the reed to hold pitch at any dynamic and can influence the sound in sounding flat, stable, wild, sharp, or dull.

Describe the basic administrative duties involved in running a music program.

The responsibilities of a music educator include more than just designing and implementing a music curriculum; they also include the logistical aspects of running a music program. Music educators must be able to balance the budget allotted for the music program through the school. This involves buying and maintaining the appropriate number of instruments and music materials needed for the students without exceeding the program funds. Accurate and thorough bookkeeping combined with a strategic view of inventory maintenance will help a music educator maintain a healthy budget. Music educators must log inventory and keep track of all materials and instruments. Administrative duties also include scheduling student rehearsals, practices, lessons, contests, conferences, and performances. Music educators can use scheduling programs for better organization and delegate students' own scheduling. Contests, conferences, and performances should be planned well ahead of a season's start date so that educators can plan promotional materials, marketing, and performance curriculum.

Compare and contrast rote learning vs. intervallic note reading.

The rote method of note reading refers to teaching a student to read notes from memory. Techniques to teach students to read by rote include mnemonic devices such as the lines of the treble clef ("Every Good Boy Does Fine"), the spaced of the treble clef ("FACE"), the lines of the bass clef ("Good Boys Do Fine Always"), and the spaces of the bass clef ("All Cows Eat Grass."). Intervallic note reading refers to the method of reading by intervallic relationships, i.e., a third up, a second down, a fourth up, etc. Intervallic note reading relies on spatial visualization, while rote reading relies on memorization. While both methods of note reading result in proficient musical skills, pros and cons exist for each. In rote reading, students are more quickly able to identify note names; however, sight-reading may be slightly slower because of the added mental processing of labels. In intervallic reading, students are more quickly able to identify direction and intervals during sight-reading; however, not naming may be slightly more difficult as students must first process intervals.

Discuss the role of the tongue in forming clear diction and vowel formation.

The tongue plays a key role in vowel formation and clear diction, as it directly influences the vocal tract and the larynx. With all other vocal mechanisms fixed, a change in the tongue directly changes the vocal sound, from dull and distorted to tinny and harsh. Clarity in singing requires clear vowel formation for the words to be intelligible to the listening audience. For clear vowels, the tongue should rest forward in the mouth, with the tip of the tongue resting against the bottom teeth for the most space in the mouth for resonance. The back of the tongue should not press against the throat, but should be kept away from the throat for clear and unobstructed delivery of airflow and sound. The tongue should always be kept relaxed and free from tension when singing, to avoid a choked sound and possible injury to the vocal mechanisms.

Describe the various mutes for trumpet and trombone and resulting sounds.

The trumpet and trombone share all the most popular mutes, with a trumpet and trombone version of each of the straight mute, cup mute, bucket mute, wah-wah mute, plunger, and hat. The difference between a trumpet mute and one for trombone is principally one of scale. The straight mute results in a tinny, metallic sound. The cup mute produces a muffled, darker tone and was common in trumpet sections during the classic big band era of the 1930s and 1940s. The bucket mute produces a softer tone and reduces the piercing quality of loud or high notes that can be amplified by other mutes. The wah-wah mute, often known by the brand-name Harmon mute, produces a buzzed tone, and for trumpet is often associated with Miles Davis during his cool jazz period. The plunger and the hat mute are used similarly, with the musician playing with one hand while manipulating the mute over the front of the bell with the other.

Describe the knowledge and skills needed to become a music therapist.

The undergraduate music therapy curriculum contains coursework encompassing a thorough study of music, psychology, the biological, social, and behavioral sciences, and disabilities, in addition to general studies. Through required fieldwork, music therapy students learn to assess client needs, develop and implement treatment plans, and evaluate and document clinical changes. Strong communication and interpersonal skills are absolutely mandatory in order to establish caring and professional relationships with people of all ages and abilities. Successful music therapists will be empathetic, creative, and open-minded, in order to better understand patients and themselves. Students considering a career in music therapy should look to gain experience in allied health through volunteer opportunities or summer work in nursing homes, camps for children with disabilities, and other settings where they can learn to serve the needs of people with disabilities.

Describe the utilitarian approach to the philosophy of music education.

The utilitarian philosophy for the inclusion of music in general educational curriculum stems from the writings of Plato and Aristotle in ancient Greece. Good character, civic responsibility, cultural awareness, and a quality of nobility were only some of the non-musical benefits of music study. For music educators who embrace a utilitarian philosophy of music education, music is a tool to develop extra-musical benefits, whether for other intellectual fields, for the development of character, or for social entertainment. Arguments in favor of this utilitarian philosophy point to the persistence, control, and aural awareness students need in order to develop musical performance skills. Students develop fine motor skills when executing instrumental performance. Comprehension skills are reinforced when students master various levels of musical complexity. Singing helps students develop deep breathing and a strong diaphragm. For supporters of a utilitarian rationale, music is a key component of a comprehensive education.

Discuss proper woodwind embouchure for good tine quality and accurate intonation.

There are two types of woodwind embouchure based on the type of woodwind in question; transverse flute embouchures require the player to blow air across the instrument body, while the reed woodwind embouchure requires the player to enclose the mouthpiece so that the airflow can effectively vibrate the reed in sound production. The transverse flute should be placed against the chin so that the bottom lip is in line and close to the hole. The corners of the mouth should be relaxed, while the upper lip is held firmly against the upper teeth. On a reed woodwind, the mouthpiece should be taken into the mouth only as far as the reed meets the mouthpiece. The bottom lip should be placed slightly over the bottom teeth and against the reed. The upper teeth should rest on top of the mouthpiece while the corners of the mouth are drawn in to create a seal around the mouthpiece.

Describe the various job opportunities within music technology and the knowledge and skills needed.

There are various job opportunities within the field of music technology, as there are many specialized occupations that are constantly growing and changing. Audio equipment technicians oversee the audio and visual equipment for venues as diverse as concert halls, theaters, theme parks, and sporting events. Audio equipment technicians ensure the correct wiring and placement of microphones, soundboards, video screens, projectors, cables, and speakers. Sound engineers produce and edit sound effects, files, and other media for theater productions, art venues, and t=other entertainment scenes. Recording engineers operate sound recording equipment and help in mixing and editing the resulting files for production. Music technology careers also include Internet publishing, multimedia production, music software design, music hardware design, CD audio production, sound design, computer-based education and training, and music publishing.

Describe methods of inputting music into desktop music publishing software.

There are various methods of inputting music into desktop music publishing software. Many programs will notate the music as played by a MIDI instrument such as a keyboards or guitar. Some programs can also notate music that is sung into a microphone. The method allows the most organic processing from live music to notation, but may require some cleaning up after the music has been notated into the program. Another way of inputting music into desktop music publishing software is by manually placing each note and rest through the mouse. This method allows for mote meticulous control of each note placement, but can be highly time-consuming. Some desktop music publishing software can process scanned print music into the proper notational format within the software. This method is highly efficient for multiple pages of sheet music, but will have to be cleaned once the scanned music has been transferred into the program.

Describe the body, arm, and finger position on the drumstick for proper snare drum technique.

To execute proper snare drum technique, full attention must be made to develop the body, arm, and finger position of the player. The body should be in a fully relaxed and comfortable position without allowing the back to slouch or lean in. A seated body position in playing the snare drum should allow the feet to be flat on the floor with the legs spread evenly. The drum set should always be positioned to the player so that the player does not have to adjust unnaturally to the set. The player should be seated facing directly in front of the snare drum and not to the side or from below. The arms should always be relaxed and should hang at the body's side without unnecessary tension. The snare player should grip the drumstick firmly and in a relaxed manner so that each stroke has a flowing yet controlled movement with a full, legato sound.

Describe situations in which a music license is necessary or unnecessary for student recordings.

Under the 1976 Copyright Act, music teachers are exempt from copyright recording laws only if they make a single copy of a student performance of a copyrighted work for educational purposes or for documentation. If a teacher makes duplicates of the recording, then a music license is necessary. In this case, a licensing fee is required for each copy of the recording that is duplicated and distributed. Music educators must contact the Harry Fox Agency to acquire the correct music license for distribution. The licensee must pay a fee to the copyright holder of 9.1 cents per song that exceeds five minutes. This licensing fee applies to each copyrighted work. Although festivals and recording companies may pay royalty fees, it is ultimately the music educator's responsibility to ensure that all royalties are paid to prevent undue consequences from copyright law enforcement.

Discuss the physiology of vocal range development.

Until puberty, a child's vocal mechanisms are not fully developed and do not contain the full range of the adult voice. Infants are born with a very high larynx; the larynx drops slightly when a child reaches the age of three. From age three until about age 10-13, the larynx is not yet fully functional. The vocal folds of a child are much shorter than an adult's vocal folds, and the larynx of a child sits higher than an adult's. The vocal range of a child is relatively limited as compared to an adult; high and low pitches are reached by the lengthening or thickening of the vocal folds. During puberty, a child's larynx grows to its full size, drops, and the vocal chords lengthen and thicken substantially. The fully matured vocal mechanisms acquire a vocal range much larger than a child's, functioning through the complex muscular and cartilage actions within the larynx to produce wide-ranging pitches in different registers.

Describe issues in vocal health and preventative measures one can take to minimize risk.

Vocal health should be a central priority for singers and non-singers alike. As a unique organ and instrument, the voice plays an essential role in daily communication as well as in music making. An unhealthy voice can become raspy, hoarse, strained, or raw, presenting difficulty in singing and in speech. Proper hydration should be maintained to clear the mucus and moisturize the throat. Find alternatives to yelling, such as clapping, ringing a bell, or moving close to the person. Reduce background noise so that the voice does not need to be raised. Make sure to get proper rest for both the vocal mechanisms and the body through inhaling chemical fumes that dehydrate and can damage the lungs. Be sure not to sing loudly on any high pitch that feels strained or uncontrolled.

Discuss various strategies to accommodate students with physical disabilities in the music classroom.

When a music classroom is able to accommodate students with physical disabilities, there are numerous benefits for both the students with disabilities as well as the average student. Inclusion promotes social awareness and acceptance, increased motor development, and higher mental acuity. Music educators can accommodate students with physical disabilities in a number of ways. The music classroom should be ADA-accessible and free from obstacles or other hazards. Also, the instructor can acquire adaptive instruments that allow students with physical disabilities the opportunity to develop motor and aural skills on a real instrument. Instructionally, educators should be sure to include lessons that require minimal physical strength; this inclusive teaching strategy will encourage confidence and self-esteem for students with physical disabilities. Educational goals should be appropriately sequenced to facilitate outcomes that are realistic and achievable.

Discuss the appropriate steps to take when a student exhibits behavior problems.

When a student misbehaves in a classroom setting, it is always important for the music educator to reflect on the misbehavior. If an adjustment in teaching style or lesson sequencing will redirect the misbehavior, then the educator should start there. The teacher should also observe for any learning impairments that may trigger behavior problems. Also, the educator should make sure to set clear limits and boundaries of behavior. If the student is misbehaving regardless of various strategies of engaging teaching techniques and sequencing, then the educator should address the misbehavior, taking care not to condemn the student but rather the behavior. The music educator should make sure not to interrupt the flow of the lesson but to address the misbehaving student with as little verbal response as possible; the teacher can use silence, physical cues, close proximity, and quickly stating the student's name as reminders to focus. If these techniques are not effective, then the teacher should thoroughly address the misbehavior after class.

Discuss considerations when devising a core repertoire list for an ensemble.

When devising a core repertoire list for an ensemble, it is important to take many musical aspects into consideration. A core repertoire list should provide a strong framework of music education for the students, factoring in the students' musical growth and development. A core repertoire list should include a variety of rhythmic features that challenge the ensemble's technical abilities. The harmonic language of the repertoire list should be varied and in a wide range of genres. The melodic lines within the repertoire should exhibit creative writing and expressive interest for the students. The repertoire should also be well orchestrated, providing musical interest in all sections of the ensemble, as well as providing a balance between tutti and thinner textures. The repertoire should provide some works that are deeply expressive, to allow students to expand their musical expressive language. The core repertoire list should be well sequenced in introducing new musical concepts as well reinforcing old ones.

Discuss fingering techniques for keyboard instruments and approaches for injury prevention.

When executing finger technique on keyboard instruments, one must always be aware of relaxed wrists, arms, elbow, and shoulders to prevent overuse injuries. The wrist should be held in line with the hand and the arm, not sagging or raised too high. The elbows should hang comfortably to the side of the body and never tensed. The shoulders should be relaxed and dropped and never tensed. The shoulders should be relaxed and dropped and never raised, as this is a sign of tension. Fingering at the keyboard should use the thumb-tuck technique, to allow a flowing and continuous line of notes when playing. When tucking the thumb under the middle or ring fingers, the keyboardist should ensure that the wrist does not drop during the movement, but that the thumb helps to maintain a healthy wrist position. Players should always drill a fingering section slowly as first, and only increase the playing speed if the passage can be executed without tension.

Discuss proper microphone technique for vocal amplification.

When singing into a microphone, a singer may have immaculate vocal technique but still not sound ideal. Vocal amplification requires proper microphone technique to maximize the aesthetic balance of a loudspeaker. A good sound starts with an ideal fit between the voice and the microphone. A high-pitched voice would fit with a microphone that adds warmth through the mid and low ranges, whereas a deeper and darker voice would fit better with a microphone that lightens the sound with treble and upper-mid prominence. Also, the singer should sing into the center of the microphone, not across the top or at a wrong angle. The singer should not strain to sing into the microphone, but should think of the microphone as an extension of the ears. Singers should sing at a consistent distance away from the microphone, to ensure maximal sound pick-up. If there is a sudden increase in singing volume, however, the singer should back away slightly so as not to blast the sound system.

Discuss certain strategies to prevent student behavior issues in a group setting

When teaching a group of more than 15 students, certain strategies will benefit the educational environment. If there are instructions, they should clear and concise. When students understand instructions for a task, they are more likely to stay focused and on task. Follow the instructions with reinforcement by my modeling the activity, asking the students to repeat the instructions back, or having the students do an example of the activity together, to ensure that students understand and can proceed with the activity. If instructions are not made clear, problems such as student frustration of loss of group control could occur. In addition, always establish rules, awards, and consequences for the classroom. It is essential that students have guidelines to operate within, so that when behavior issues do arise, the educator can act simply and according to guidelines rather than out of emotion.

Describe how to incorporate solfege into regular rehearsals to develop sight-reading skills.

When teaching an ensemble how to sight-read, it is useful to incorporate solfege into rehearsals to teach the relative relationship between pitches as they occur within any diatonic scale. The reinforcement of solfege on a movable-do system trains the student's understanding of relative pitch. As the students learn to sight-read through solfege, they will be able to identify the relative position of the pitch within a scale, without the additional processing of identifying the absolute pitch. Music educators should begin by teaching students all the solfege syllables, with the added hand motions that reinforce the spatial relationships between pitches. The solfege syllables should be reinforced by singing through a number of different keys to train the student's ears to hear the relationships between the diatonic pitches. As the lessons progress, students should be required to sing or play back certain pitch intervals in various keys, such as a do-mi-sol progression.

Discuss methods for establishing classroom rules and ways to manage negative responses to rules.

When teaching music in a group setting, it is always important to establish classroom rules and consequences in the beginning. The music educator should throughly explain expectations for the classrooms, detailing examples of good behavior and class participation. During this discussion, the music educator should also explain the consequences of inappropriate behavior or negative responses to rules so that the students know the system of classroom rules from the first day. Although positive reinforcement should be emphasized in classroom management, the educator may need to use negative reinforcement in certain situations. If a student responds negatively to classroom rules, the educator may try positive reinforcement first. If this is not effective, the teacher may have to remind the entire class of the rules and consequences. If this is not effective, then the teacher may have to talk individually to the student, reinforcing the rules and taking action on the consequences of not following the rules.

Discuss the kinesthetics of octave playing on keyboard instruments and the different schools of thought on physical approach.

When the keyboardist plays an octave passage in either on both hands, the hand is required to stretch to the length of eight keys. The motion should be played and released quickly since the reach of the octave can present unnecessary tension and exhaustion to the arm if not released quickly. One school of thought has the hand play an octave quickly, but releasing the tension as quickly as possible back to a neutral hand position. In a long passage of octave playing, this method requires the quick stretch and release at each octave. Another school of thought has the hand fixed in an octave position and uses the quick movement of a flexible wrist snapping for each motion to play the octave passage as quickly as possible. Yet another school of thought has the hand and wrist fixed in the octave position and used the quick movement of the elbow to play each octave.

Describe the transposition and instrumental ranges of five to seven woodwind instruments.

Woodwind instruments include single reeds, double reeds, and flutes. All woodwind instruments have side holes that are left open on covered to change the sounding length of the tube. The piccolo is typically notated on the treble clef an octave lower and has a general range of D4-C7. The flute is typically notated on the treble clef with no transposition, and has a general range of Bb3-D7. The oboe is typically notated on the treble clef with no transposition and has a general range of Bb3-A6. The clarinet is typically notated on the treble clef with the Bb clarinet sounding a major second lower, the A clarinet sounding a minor third lower, the D clarinet sounding a major second higher, the Eb clarinet sounding a minor third higher, and all with a general range of E3-C7. The bassoon is typically notated on the bass or tenor clefs with no transposition and has a general range of Bb1-Eb5.

Discuss how to identify tunes suitable for the beginning jazz improviser.

once the basics of improvisation have been established, the next step is to apply that learning in the context of a full song. The song will likely follow the standard head/solos/head structure. Full tunes for the beginning improviser should have characteristics that allow a student to focus her attention on a limited number of variables at one time. Songs should have a moderate tempo, a strong tonal center, and preferably no more than three or four different chords. These characteristics will allow the student time to play within each chord, focus on only the notes that are "strong" within the different chords of the song, and appreciate the sound of the same notes inn different chordal contexts. The goal in introducing improvisation within this context is to reduce the number of choices of what note to play, a common hurdle for the beginning improviser, and direct the student's focus to playing with confidence, remaining oriented within the song while improvising, and other aspects of performance - rhythm, dynamics, space that eventually lead to more varied and interesting improvisations.