Physiology

Which of the following is true? A.Facilitated diffusion requires ATP B.Secondary active transport has one type of solute moving against its concentration gradient and a different solute moving with its concentration gradient C.SGLT works through secondary active transport D.B & C but not A E.A, B, and C

D facilitated diffusion uses concentration gradient

body system

groups of. organs form a body system - collection of organs that perform related functions and interact to accomplish a common activity essential to the survival of the whole body ex; digestive system 11 total organ system; circulatory, digestive, respiratory, skeletal, urinary, muscular, integumentary, immune, nervous, endocrine and reproductive

organ level

organ- made up of two or more types of primary tissues to perform a specific function •Organs are combinations of two or more types of tissues that function together •The stomach, for example, contains all four types of tissue!

cytoskeleton

"bone and muscle" all made from free ribosomes •Interconnected system of protein fibers and tubes extending through the cytosol •Aids in cell shape •Helps position organelles and other intracellular structures •Regulates movements •May be a network for transport 1. microtubules- largest; ong slender hollow tubes composed of tubulin molecules; maintain asymmetric cell shapes and coordinate complex cell movements, s specifically serving as highways for transport of secretory vesicles within cell, serving as main structural and functional component of cilia m flagella. fn assembling into mitotic spine •composed of tubulin a small globular protein molecule •maintain shape of cell •form microtubular highway -- motor protein or molecular motor attaches to the particle and uses ATP energy. kinesin is a motor protein that carries secretory vesicles to the end of the axon and always moves to the outermost end. dynein carries vesicle switch debris for degradation by lysosomes and always moves toward the centrosome -transport secretory vesicles - motor neuron; walking type motion down length •movement of cilia (hair) and flagella (whip) •formation of mitotic spindle through the distribution chromosome during cell division -- during mitosis the duplicate sets are drawn aparr to opposite sides of the cell - arises from the centrosome and is associated centrioles; the centrosome or cell center is near the nucleus - position organelles like ER< golgi, lysosomes and mito -maintain shape of asymmetric cells like nerve cells and symmetric axonal extension 2. microfilaments- smallest; intertwined helical chains of actin molecules, composed of myosin also present in muscle cells; role in various contractile systems, muscle contraction and amoeboid movement;l serve as a mechanical stiffener for microvilli •actin (globular shape similar to tubulin but assembles in two strands to form another microfilament) & myosin (not as abundant. muscle cells) •stiffens cellular projections •facilitates movement; amoeboid movement that relies on actin; cell crawling movement with the formation of. pseudopods, continues transfe. of actin from back to front to facilitate movement. without making filament longer (WBCs use this type of movement) - contractile systems -muscle contraction; myosin is a motor protein that has heads that walk along the actin microfilaments sliding and force development are triggered by a complex sequence of events when the muscle cell is stimulated. to contract - cytokinesis- actin pinches the cell into two when creates two daughter cells at the end of mitosis •microvilli; microscopic, nonmotile hair like projections for the surface of epithelial. cells lining the small intestine and kidney. inc surface area for. transfer of material and absorption of nutrients. a core of parallel actin linked filaments for a rigid mechanical stiffener. that keeps the surface. projections. intact; structural dont move and inc SA by 600 fold - celiac disease the gluten peptides disrupt lining of small intestine to attrack inflammatory cells to flatten villi and cant absorb nutrients 3. intermediate filaments- irregular threadlike projections; help resist mechanical stress. intermediate in size. •stable- maintain the structural integrity of the cell •protection from mechanical stresses - neurofilaments- nerve cell axon intermediate filaments - skin cells have intermediate filaments made out of keratin to create a matrix that gives the. skin strength - 85% total protein in nerve cells and keratin cells but 1% total protein. -just. structural

Homeostatically regulated factors

1. concentration of nutrients 2. concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide 3. concentration of waste products 4. ph; chnages in pH effect ECF and adversly effect nerve cell function and. wreak havoc on enzyme activity of all cells 5. concentrations of water, salt, and other electrolytes ; this determines how much water enters or leaves cells . electrolytes perform. the rhythmic beating of the heart because of a constant conc of K in ECF 6. volume and pressure; plasma vol and pressure must be maintained to ensure bodywide distribution 7. temperature- too cold slows function and too hot impairs or destroys enzymatic proteins

What is the ICF (intracellular fluid) volume of a normal (60% TBW) 150 lb male?

150/2.2= 68.2 x.4= 27kg= 27L

cytosol

55% total volume semiliquid portion of the cytoplasm that surrounds the organelles . highly organized gel mass with differences in composition and consistency from one part of the cell to the other 1. enzymatic regulation of intermediary metabolism- large set of chemical reactions inside the cell that involves the degradation, synthesis and transformation of small organic molecules like simple sugars, amino acids, and. fatty acids 2. ribosomal protein synthesis 3. storage of fat, carbs and secretory vesicles

Distribution of water

70 kg 21 y/o male §60% of body weight is water and toher 40% is dry mass §40% is intracellular (about 2/3 total body water) §20% is extracellular (ECF) (about 1/3) -20% of ECF is plasma (plasma in total is 4% (1/5 ECF); fluid portion of blood) * 55% of blood and majority is water -80% of ECF is interstitial (total is 16% (4/5 ECF); lies in spaces between cells and makes exchanges) ICF= fluid within cells ECF= fluid surrounding cells body water is constant because of kidneys but varies between each person -due to: adipose tissue, age, gender **memorize -different for older male or female - adolescents have more body water - as you get older you get drier -women are more dry than men - hard to calc in obese patients because fat is dry * no proper equation for downward adjustment so use numbers for all Large Old Women (LOW) have the LOWEST percentage of water. *how many L in ECF? 70kg x 20%= 14 kg = 14L high body H20= leanness low body H2O= overweight 1 mL water= 1g 1L = 1 kg 1kg= 2.2 pounds

Which of the following will increase the rate of diffusion? •A. Increasing the hydrophobic properties of the solute • •B. Increasing the thickness of the semi-permeable membrane • •C. Halving the area of the membrane • •D. Increasing the molecular weight of the solute • •E. All of these increase the rate

A •Not an either/or situation Hydrophobic-ness roughly equals a solute's lipophilic-ness

Membrane potential

A slight excess of negative charges lined up along the inside of the membrane and a slight excess of positive charges on the outside. The specialization of nerve and muscle cells depend on the ability of the cells to alter their potential on appropriate stimulation.

Which of the following is NOT associated with exocytosis?

A.V snares ● B.Coatomer ● C.Clathrin ** ● D.T snares ● E.All are associated with exocytosis

Symport and Antiport differ in the fact that; A.Symport requires that both solutes being transported both be moving down their concentration gradient B.Symport is characterized by both solutes moving the same direction C.Antiport is characterized by both solutes moving outside of the cell D.A & C, not B E.A, B, & C

B

What method of transport does the Na+/K+ pump use? A.Facilitated diffusion B.Primary active transport C.Secondary active transport D.Passive diffusion More than one of the above

B

Which of the following is false? •A. Osmosis can be described as the movement of water down its concentration gradient •B. If a cell is said to be hypertonic, it has a higher concentration inside the cell than the surrounding fluid •C. Gatorade's tonicity is ~295 mOsm/L. If you drank a whole bottle very quickly your red blood cells would shrink. •D. B & C but not A •E. A, B, and C

B hypertonic- higher in solution causing water to rush out and shrink cell below 300 is hypotonic and cause swelling *** confused on this one hypertonic cell has higher conc inside so cell so it rushes out causing shrinking to stabilize

In facilitated diffusion through a channel, the energy required to move a substance across the membrane comes from A.Phosphorylation of the channel protein by ATP B.The physical structure of the channel protein C.The concentration gradient of the substance D.Phosphorylation of of the substance by ATP E.Nice try, but facilitated diffusion does not require energy

C

vaults

Nonmembranous organelles shaped like octagonal barrels; believed to serve as transporters for messenger RNA or the ribosomal subunits from the nucleus to sites of protein synthesis cellular trucks - role in resistant sometimes displayed by cancer cells by transporting the drugs from the nucleus to sites for exocytosis

centrioles

a pair of cylindrical structures. at right angles tp each other form and organize microtubules during assembly of the mitotic spindle during cell division and form cillia and flagella

Intrinsic or Local controls

built into or are inherent in an organ ex; exercising skeletal muscle serve only one. organ

Which of the following are not contained within the plasma membrane? A.Cholesterol B.Protein C.Carbohydrates D.B & C, not A E.A, B, & C

carbohydrates are "sugar coating" outside of the cell C

organism level

depends on the proper functioning of other system to carry out its specific responsibility -organ systems are structurally and functionally linked as an entity - body. is made up of. living cells organized into life sustaining systems depend on multiple. systems and. arent independent of each other ex; BP regulation

Who has the larger body water percentage?

fat or muscle muscle

what is body weight? total body water?

find L of ECF or plasma by m/v=c multiply by 5 (20% ECF total weight) or 25 (4% plasma total weight) to find total body water in L OR: divide by .2 or .04 convert to kG - ECF is 33% and and plasma 6.6% divide body water in compartment by percent to find total body water

positive balance negative balance

input exceeds losses losses exceed input •Some examples •Water •Salt •H+ •What are the inputs? - input from external enviornment or metabolically produced by the body •How are they excreted? consumed or excreted to external environment •Where are they stored? storage in body, reversible incorporation, and internal pool of body

lymph trancellular fluid

minor categories in ECF - fluid being returned from the intersitial fluid to the plasma by means of the lymphatic system and filtered through lymph nodes for the immune system - secreted by specialized cell into a particular body cavity to perform a specialized function; include CSF, pleural fluids, digestive juices, and synovial fluids these dont affect fluid balance in body

feedforward

respond in. anticipation of a change. in a regulated variable

barrier between plasma and interstitial fluid barrier between ECF and ICF

separated by the walls of blood vessels - H2O and constituents are freely exchanged through a thin capillary wall so plasma and interstitial fluid composition are very similar except interstitial fluid doesnt have plasma proteins - ECF osmolarity= plasma osmolarity plasma membrane surrounds each cell that has selective permeability by passive or active means

exocytosis

sorting signal on proteins and interior surface of golgi has recognition markers that attract specific sorting signals to ensure that the proper cargo is captured and packaged into the secretory vesicle * compartments for water soluble substances coat proteins called coatomer from the cytosol bind with another specific protein on the outer surface of the golgi and cause a bud to form with the cargo inside after budding off the vesicle sheds its coast and exposed the docking markers known as v-SNARES which face the outer surface of the vesicle membrane v-SNARE lonk lock and key fashion with its docking marker accept called a t-SNARE on the targeted membrane or plasma membrane . they fuse and the vesicle opens and empties on target site •Affected by some forms of Botulism toxin because prevent synaptic vesicles from fusing and releasing contents into ECF; if near a muscle cell then could lead to inability to contract muscles •Commonly Ca++ dependent •Active process= ATP dependent

anatomy

study of the structures of the body - physiology mechanisms are possible by the. structural design and relationship of the. various body parts that carry out each of these functions *structure determine function -not perfect way to say form determines function - somtimes function impacts structure ( some function determines form; ex: heart grows with. excercise)

pool

the quantity of any particular susbtance in the ECF is a readily available internal pool to maintain a stable amount of a substance the input must be balanced with an equal output (stable balance) -*balance concept; important in maintaining homeostasis storage of substance in body either a surplus or deficit the storage site can be expanded or depleted

plasma membrane

thin, oily, complex barrier that encloses the contents of the cell and controls the movement of material into and out of the cell. interior of cell contains a combo of atoms and molecules that differ from the chemical in the environment surrounding the cell

graph of simple diffusion and carrier-mediated transport

x axis- conc gradient getting steeper y axis- rate of transport, mol/time; green line as conc inc, pos relationship between rate and will keep rate as conc inc - lipid soluble; Fick's law of diffusion since C is main factor to inc rate dotted line-> water soluble or need carrier - beginning as long as conc inc rate inc - at Tm; no matter how much conc gradient cant transport any more **why such a big deal? what is the determining factor of the max amount of molecules you can transport across a membrane? can you change it? - number of binding sites and yes insulin inc number of carriers * inc. transport maximum only by. inc the amount of carriers of we exceed maximum, the substances not transported are lost. - exceed max of drug so rest could cause side effects

Caveats

§Assumption of normal §If subject is human §If subject is not human, but no information is given about indicator concentrations **use third column §Calculation of values §If subject is not human AND indicator information is given - give indicator and use M/V=C * remember what V is being talked about based on indicator given

Roles of Structures

•Proteins membrane proteins are inserted within or attached to the lipid bilayer. Integral proteins are embedded into the lipid bilayer with most extending through the entire thickness of the membrane in which case they are called transmembrane proteins. Integral proteins have hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions as well. Peripheral proteins are polar molecules that do not penetrate the membrane. The only stud the surface anchored by weak chemical bonds with the polar parts of integral membrane proteins are membrane lipids. Peripheral proteins are found more commonly on the inner then on the outer surface. Proteins account for nearly half of the membranes mass because they are much larger than lipids. The fluidity of the bilayer enables mini membrane proteins to float freely like icebergs in a moving sea of lipids this view of membrane structure is known as a fluid mosaic model in reference to the membrane fluidity in the ever-changing mosaic pattern of the proteins in bedded in the lipid bilayer. - cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) protrude from the outer membrane service and form loops or hooks by which cells grip one another or grasp the connective tissue fibers between cells. An example or cat Hirons which are found on the surface of adjacent cells that interlock in the profession to help hold the cells within tissues and organs together. Integration span the plasma membrane where they serve as a structural link between the outer membrane surface and its extra Siler surroundings and connect the inner membrane surface to the intracellular cytoskeleton scaffolding. Integrated also relay regulatory signals through the plaza membrane in either directions such as signaling cells to grow or in signaling immune system cells to interact with the right kind of other cells and inflammatory responses and wound healing -lipid Rafts are made up mostly of sphingolipid's, extra cholesterol, and an abundance of particular proteins. These are specialized membrane patches and are more highly organized, tightly packed, and a little thicker than the remainder of the plasma membrane. The rafts are thicker because the fatty acid tails of sphingolipid are longer than those of phospholipids. The proteins gathered in the lipid rafts or receptors specialized interact with specific extracellular Chemical messengers or signal molecules in the south environment that dictate specific intracellular responses. An example would be a hormone directing secretion of digestive enzymes by exocrine gland cells of the pancreas and response of food in the small intestine. Cave like indentations in the membrane surface or called caveolae or tiny caves. •Glycoproteins Membrane carbohydrate is located on the outer surface of cells. Short carbohydrate chains protrude like tiny and tennis from the outer surface, bound primarily to membrane proteins in to a lesser extent to lipids. These can be known as glycoproteins and glycolipids respectively and the coating they form is called the glycocalyx. carbohydrates plan important role in self recognition processes and salt cell interactions. •Lipoproteins- lipid attachment found outside cell •Cholesterol contributes to both the fluidity in the stability of the membrane. The cholesterol molecules are tucked between the phospholipid molecules where they can prevent the fatty acid change from packing together and crystallizing. This process could drastically reduce membrane fluidity. Cholesterol molecules help stabilize the phospholipids position and maintain structural integrity - lipids become rigid when cold so cholesterol maintains fluidity •Structures other proteins located on the inner membrane surface serve as docking marker acceptors they bind a lock and key fashion with the docking markers of secretory vesicles. The secretary vesicle subsequently opens up and empties its contents to the outside by exocytosis when the inner surface of the plasma membrane through interactions between these matching labels. Some proteins located on either the inner or the outer cell surface function as membrane-bound enzymes that control specific chemical reactions. How many proteins on the outer surface are receptors which are sides that recognizing vine with specific exercise or chemical messengers in the cells environment. The binding initiates a series of membrane and intracellular events then alter the activity of the particular cell. •Channels some transmembrane proteins form water filled pathways are channels through the lipid bilayer. Water soluble substances small enough to enter channel capacitors in the membrane that means without coming into direct contact with the hydrophobic lipid interior. These channels are highly selective. Given channel selectively admits particular ions such as allowing only sodium ions passed through sodium channels and potassium is your potassium channels. Some channels are leak channels that always promote passage of their selective ion and others are gated channels that may be open or close to their specific ion as a result of changes in channel shape and response to controlling mechanisms. •Transport proteins other proteins expand the membrane or carrier or transport molecules. They transfer across the membrane specific substances that are unable to cross on their own. Each carrier can transfer only a particular molecule a group of closely related molecules. Example; thyroid gland cells are the only cells to use iodine so the plasma membrane of thyroid gland cells have carriers for iodine. Glycocalyx- Carbs Lipid bilayer- fats Channels- proteins lipid soluble freely diffuse - water soluble blocked but not a true water barrier (osmosis) but very slow - ions are large enough where they cant cross membrane without a channel - also substances that can be both lipid and water soluble and not a barrier for those substances

homeostasis

"same standing" OR "stability of ECF in the face of change" the. stable conditions inside the body needed for survival. maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment **. homeostasis is. essential for the survival os each cell, and each cell, through its specialized activities as part of a body system, helps maintain the internal environment shared by all cells - always a continuous threat to homeostasis so counter reactions by body systems move it back to normal ex; cold environment or exercise - not a rigid. or fixed state but a dynamic steady state in which changes that occur are minimized by compensatory physiological reactions - dynamic- continuous change -steady- changes don't deviate far from a constant or steady level - can be. immediate or transiet whilke others are long-term -long-term make the body more efficient at responding to a long term and an ongoing repetitive challenge external environment- surrounding environment internal environment- fluid that surrounds the cells and through which they make life sustaining exchanges. can live and function only if ECF. is compatible with survival, chemical comp and physical state of internal environment must be maintained temperature must stay relatively constant •Control of a physiologic system •Usually, the extracellular fluid (ECF) •Regulated about a setpoint •Correction to setpoint is negative feedback •Gain- sys tightly regulated have a high gain ( pH and osmolarity); BP and temp low gain not as tightly regulated •Systems •Temperature •Hunger = Body Weight •Hydration •pH •Osmolarity •Blood pressure E

endoplasmic reticulum rough ER smooth ER

** think about what they do and what they need to do their job elaborate fluid filled membraneous system distributed throughout the cytosol - protein and lipid producing factory rough ER- consists of stacks of flattened interconnected acs - has ribosomes studded on the outside that produce proteins - "extracellular" protein synthesis - insulin -hormones you inc in nucleus-> rough ER-> ribosomes-> generate precursor-> golgi apparatus vesicles-> wait in vesicles since water soluble * int issues that need a lot of protein •What types of cells have abundant rough ER? Seen most often in cells specialized in protein secretion (like digestive enzymes!) or in Cells that require extensive Membrane synthesis. •What types of cells have a small ER? smooth ER- meshwork of tiny interconnected tubules - no ribosomes - central packaging and discharge site for molecules to be transported from ER with transport vesicles •Detoxification in liver •Stores Ca++ for muscle contraction/ cross bridge cycling in muscle cells in the sarcoplasmic reticulum which is a modified smooth ER •Post-translational modification •Steroid synthesis/ hormonal secretion because of lipid synthesis enzymes in walls - cholesterol for steroid syn found in. ER by process of steroid syn in mito * roles vary by what tissue it is in •A network of fluid-filled tubules and flattened sacs *PACKAGES PRODUCTS FOR TRANSPORT TO GOLGI and not a packaging center for exocytosis CT has more ER and most abundant and developed in tissues destined for export or syn of new proteins of components different in structure in function but are connected so is one organelles no ER? RBCs, energy for maintain Hb so have free ribosomes to keep up with protein synthesis

body system contributions to homeostasis

1.circulatory- heart, blood vessels and blood; transport nutrients, CO2, O2, wastes, electrolytes, and hormones 2. digestive- breaks down dietary food so nutrient molecules can be. absorbed into plasma for distribution. transfers water and electrolytes from external to internal and eliminates undigested food through feces 3. respiratory- O2 and eliminates CO2, maintains pH of internal environment through removal of acid-forming CO2 4. urinary- kidney; removes excess water, salt, acid and electrolytes from plasma in urine and other waste like CO2 5. skeletal- support and protection for soft tissues and organs. storage for Ca. bone marrow is source of all. blood cells 6. muscular system- moves. the bones. enables person to move toward food and away from harm. heat from muscle contraction maintains body temp 7. integumentary- outer protective barrier and prevents internal fluid from being lost and microorganisms from entering. regulates body temp 8. immune- defends against invaders and paves way. for repairing or replacing injured cells 9. nervous system- one of bodys 2 main regulatory. systems., controls and coordinates body activites, detects changes in external environment and responsible for higher functioning 10. endocrine- other main reg system. regulates activites that. require duration rather than speed ( nervous) liek growth.controlling blood conc by adjusting kidney. function and controlling volume and electrolyte. comp of ECF 11. reproductive- not essential for homeostasis or survival

cell structure

200 variation os specialized cells plasma membrane- thin membraneous structure that encloses each cell and is composed mostly of lipid molecules and studded with proteins - seperates the cells cell's contents from its surrounding - ICF is kept inside the cell and away from the ECF - not just a mechanical barrier, proteins selectively control movement of particles from ICF to ECF -controls entry and export, and guards Against unwanted traffic -lipid bilayer with phosphate heads and lipid tails, embedded proteins and carbohydrates -- forms a barrier to water soluble substances -compartmentalizing ** proteins. dedicated to selective control or movement - water soluble kept in membrane , lipid soluble would diffuse out -can you store lipid soluble in complete form? no because will escape and be in the plasma ; why they have a sluggish effect -cell interior nucleus- largest single organized cell component, spherical or oval structure near center of the cell - surrounded by a double layer membrane called the nuclear envelope which seperates the nucleus from the rest of the cell - envelope is pierced with nuclear pores that allow movement of particles between the nucleus and cytoplasm - houses genetic material, DNA and other nuclear proteins that are organized into chromosomes each with a unique set of genes --46 chromosomes into 23 pairs - DNA serves as a genetic blueprint during cell replication and direct protein synthesis - product of gene transcription is protein * more than one nucleus? muscle cells; purpose of nucleus is to make protein so upregulated protein synthesis in muscle cells -Contains DNA •blueprint for cell replication •directs protein synthesis -Largest single organized cell component. -Surrounded by nuclear envelope, pierced by many nuclear pores which allow traffic between nucleus and cytoplasm. -THE NUCLEUS IS REQUIRED FOR THE SYNTHESIS OF PROTEINS -Can you think of a type of cell that doesn't have a nucleus? RBCs *protein allow for repair and division - neutrophils have a nucleolus so cant repair cytoplasm- portion of cell interior not occupied by the nucleus - organelles, cytoskeleton and cytosol - 1/2 total cell volume filled with organelles - each membraneous organelles is a separate compartment within the cell that is enclosed by a membrane similar to the plasma membrane - compartmentalization permits chemical activities that would not be compatible with one another within the cell; chemical activities simultaneously in. cell either because dangerous to rest of cell or disrupt organization of cell - nonmembraneous organelles- not surrounded by a membrane and are in direct contact with the cytosol

Jut for fun, you inject your 70 kg relatively healthy/normal roommate with 3.5 mg of heavy water. what would you expect their concentration of heavy water to be?

70kg= 70L x.6= 42L 3.5/42= 0.083mg/L

Which of the following is TRUE? •A. Tight junctions completely prevent molecules from passing between cells •B. Connexons can allow easy transport of organelles between cells •C. Desmosomes are important for non-elastic bonds between cells •D. The strength of desmosomes is attributed to large, connected plaques on the inside of the cells. •E. These are all false

A- water can get through B- easy transport of small molecules C- anchors with non-elastic D- plaques dont establish strength, cadherins do

Which of the following may the cytoskeleton aid in?

A.Movement of a lysosome to a phagocytized foreign body. B.Projection of pseudopods toward a foreign body C.Positioning of mitochondria within the cell D.B & C, but not A E.A, B, & C**

Which of the following would be true of a beaker full of water that is separated by a membrane permeable to ONLY WATER? (with more solutes on the left side than the right)? •A. Solutes will move from the left to the right until reaching equilibrium •B. Water will move down its concentration gradient. •C. Water will move from Left to right until reaching equilibrium •D. Hydrostatic pressure has no effect on this system. •E. All of these

B move from right to left

Edema is a condition where there is an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the interstitial space. What indicator(s) would you use to calculate the amount of interstitial fluid in a patient? A.Heavy water B.Inulin C.Radioactive albumin D.B & C E.A & B

B and C use in combination and do inlulin- albumin= interstitial fluid **said wording was bad

Primary Active Transport Differs from Secondary In the way that: A.Primary active uses the chemiosmotic gradient as an energy source B.Primary active transports 2 solutes at once C.Primary active directly uses ATP as an energy source D. A & B, not C E.A, B, & C

C primary directly uses ATP secondary- ATP indirectly no use of gradient because against concentration gradient in primary, secondary slightly uses it -secondary transports 2 because symport/antiport

Which of the following will decrease the rate of diffusion across the plasma membrane for a specific solute •A. Increasing the lipophilic properties of the solute • •B. Decreasing the thickness of the semi-permeable membrane • •C. Doubling the area of the membrane • •D. Increasing the molecular weight of the solute • •E. All of these increase the rate

D Ficks Law

Which of the following is/are characteristic of Facilitated diffusion? A.All forms of facilitated diffusion have a transport maximum (Tm) B.Facilitated diffusion involves transporting solutes down their concentration gradient C.Facilitated diffusion requires ATP D.A & B, not C E.A, B, & C

D transport maximums for facilitated diffusion because carrier become too saturated and need a carrier to move it - down conc gradient active transport requires atp, concentration gradient drives facilitated diffusion

absorption and reabsorption

GI- lumen with food and enzymes - nutrients and glucose - whats not absorbed is excreted *absoprtion kidneys - filters blood into lumen of nephron where filtration of blood - what isnt reabsorbed into system before end of distal tubule and collecting duct leads into renal pelvis and bladder to be excreted *reabsorption bloodstream where we desire nutrients/glucose diabetes -SGLT inhibitors inhibit secondary active step because -describe the mechanism of how these drugs may help diabetic individuals? lower the transport maximum of glucose because removing channels. so they. cant absorb or resbsorb - tissue type you would want to target? kidney because dont want to stop absorption of glucose (hypoglycemia risk) and targeting kidney so glucose wont stay in blood and excrete it instead - side effects of these types of drugs? frequent urination (osmotic diarrhetic), UTIs

objective 3

Homeostasis is a misnomer: its incorrect because homeostasis means "stay the same". Homeostasis is really about maintaining stability of an internal variable through negative feedback Negative feedback is the idea of a set point Positive feedback is not widely used Know this very well, like thermostat example, sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

intracellular and extracellular fluid

ICF- fluid contained within body cells ECF- fluid outside the cells but inside the body; internal envrionment - plasma; fluid portion of the blood *most accessible of ECF and how we test these compartments - interstital fluid- surrounds and. bathes cells "that which stands between"; no further than .1 mm from nearest capillary with plasma which is conduit to bring nutrient and get rid of waste - keep in steady state with dynamic internal environment can live in homeostasis * not accessible - homeostais make ECF a stable environment for ourselves, if ECF is okay then the cells are okay exchange from external to internal so that. the internal environment is maintained to support life and. functioning of cells -each body cell must maintain this

•What drives fluid transfer between plasma and ISF compartments? •What drives fluid transfer between ISF and ICF? What are the two major players in maintaining fluid balance?

Plasma & ISF: capillary blood pressure (pushing out to interstitial space) and colloid osmotic pressure (keeping water in due to high concentration of molecules like albumin) - concentration gradient from high to low, pressure inside capillary pushes substances into ISF. ISF and ICF: purely osmotic effect - concentration gradient; not a very large pressure gradient •ECF volume •ECF osmolarity •Why are these two variables so special? How do they go about maintaining fluid balance?

Plasma membrane

Then flexible lipid barrier that separates the contents of the cell from his surroundings. Each cell most exchange materials across the membrane with a homeo statically maintained internal fluid environment that surround to cell. This contain specific proteins which enables selective passage of materials and others are receptors for interaction with specific chemical messengers in the cells environment. it is a mechanical barrier but it also helps determine the cells composition by selectively permitting specific substances to pass between the cell and then some fireman. It also maintains differences an ion concentration inside and outside the cell which are important to the membranes electrical activity. It also participates in the joining of cells to form tissues and organs and also enables the cell to respond signals from chemical messengers in the cells environment; this is important and communication among cells. barrier to water soluble substances so need carriers or channels to get through membrane -phospholipid bilayer

Indicator Dilution in Body Fluids

Total Body water = radio-labeled water indicator (D2O or heavy water) -because it can go in all three compartments because osmosis - same conc as plasma, intersitial and ICF; volume is total body water and not just plasma since it enters there Extracellular Fluid = inulin - biologically inert so don't use, no transporter and medium size so cant diffuse across cell membrane , derivative of onions, medium size carb, get through capillaries in plasma and into interstitial fluid but cant get into cell so stays in ECF Plasma = albumin* (*radioactive) - huge molecule so cant get in interstitial fluid, use radioactive cause lots of regular albumin, cant get past capillaries -albumin common in plasma but not radioactive -protein anion *indicator must be able to get into the compartment, cant normally be there or else you wouldn't be able to tell it apart, and must be biologically inert so it can use up by cell or initiate a response that cause the environment to change easiest access to? PLASMA -inject indicators into plasma and wait to equilibriate or get into equal conc on all sides of the membrane it can cross *dont have indicator for ICF only but we know total body water= ICF + ECF -- total body water- ECF= ICF AND none for interstitial fluid so use inluin to do ECF- plasma= interstitial fluid ICF = TBW - ECF D2O - INULIN ISF = ECF - plasma INULIN - ALBUMIN ** calc ECF since 20% then multiply by 5 to get 100% **???try for albumin ta session 1

Example: 2 g of a substance in an unknown volume yields a concentration of 20 μg/ml

What is the volume? •A known quantity of a substance in an unknown volume in liters yields a concentration •M/V = C •M = 2 g •V = X L •C = 20 μg/ml •2 g = 2,000 mg = 2,000,000 μg •X L = 1000 ml X •(2,000,000 μg)/(1000 ml X)=(20 μg)/ml •(2,000,000 μg)/(20 μg⁄ml )=1,000 ml X •100,000 ml = 1,000 ml X •X = 100

negative feedback

a change in a homeostatically. controlled factor triggers. a. response that seeks. to restore the factor to normal by moving the factor in the opposite direction of its initial change.n corrective adjustment that opposes the original deviation from the. desired level *most common in homeostasis •what we're mainly concerned with. MUCH more common. Why? HOMEOSTASIS ex; room temp control - room temp; is a controlled variable that can vary but is held within a narrow range -thermometer- sensor that monitors the magnitude of the controlled variable -thermostat- has desired set point/range and acts as a integrator or. control center * set point important so it can shut off system once in desired range -furnace- effector that is commanded to bring out the desired effect **two systems to keep in check (physiological antagonist and protagonist systems) ex: HR parasym and sym system afferent pathway-ex; insulin, value higher than set point integrating sensor- efferent/afferent fiber goes into here, send efferent/afferent signal too an effector to bring value back up/down to set point *•Integrator - Basically integrates the sensor and effector. (Control center on the wall, communicating point) efferent pathway- ex: glucagon; value lower than set point effector- - Area commanded to bring about desired effect (AC unit, acts) negative feedback because the furnace shuts off. when reaches. set point -furnace. counteracts or is. negative to the original fall. in temp ex; shivering or sweating Controlled variable: a factor that can vary but is held within a narrow range by a control system. -temperature Sensor: monitors the magnitude of the controlled variable. The sensor typically con- verts the original information regarding a change into a "lan- guage" the control system can "understand." -nerve cells Integrator: compares the sensor's input with the set point and adjusts the heat output of the furnace to bring about the appropriate response to oppose a deviation from the set point. -temperature control center Effector: component of the control system commanded to bring about the desired effect. -skeletal muscle **set point

objective 2

beginning- •Stem cells are versatile cells that are not specialized for a specific function but can divide to give rise to highly specialized cells while maintaining a supply of new stem cells. • •Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) result from the early divisions of a fertilized egg. These ultimately give rise to all mature specialized cells of the body while being self-renewing. ESCs are pluripotent meaning they have the potential to generate any of the more than 200 cell types in the body if given the appropriate cues Hint: Take the time to read the (lengthy) special feature highlighted in green in the middle of chapter one on stem-cell science. differentiation-•All cells arise from embryonic stem cells; •Cells differentiate as time passes to become specialized •Specialization:•Cells of similar structure and related function combine to form tissues •Undifferentiated ESC's give rise to tissue specific stem cells (TSSCs) which become committed to generating highly differentiated specialized cell types that compose a particular tissue. •Some TSSC's remain in adult tissues where they serve as a continual source of new specialized cells to maintain or repair that tissue •Induced pluripotent stem cells are cells that were once specialized but have been converted back to their embryonic state. This gives them the potential to differentiate into any cell type in the body like ESC's. However, they are much less efficient. •Stem cells are highly controversial because they are gathered from aborted fetuses •One issue with organs grown from stem cells is that the body can reject them and the current method of preventing this is immunosuppressive drugs which create other problems in and of themselves

cells plasma membrane cytoplasm nucleus

cells are highly organized, living building blocks of the body - performs basic functions and specialized functions to maintain homeostasis - all body functions depend on the activities of the individual cells that make up the body encloses the cell cytosol, organelles, and cytoskeleton - cytosol is a gel like liquid within where the cytoskeleton and organelles are suspended; many chemical reactions that are compatible together occur here -organelles are structures that carry out specialized functions - cytoskeleton is protein scaffolding that extends throughout the cell and serves as the cells "bone and muscle"; protein fibers and tubes houses the cell's genetic material

tissue

cells of similar structure and specialized function combine to. form tissues. aggregate of various cellular and extracellular components that make up an organ - 4 primary types; muscle, nervous, epithelial, and connective *•Nervous: transmit and process information •Connective: provide support and anchoring. Blood is a connective tissue! •Muscle: contract and relax •Epithelial: Exchange of materials. Endocrine and exocrine glands muscle tissues- cells specialized for contracting which generates. tension and produces movement - skeletal which moves the skeleton -cardiac which pumps blood out. of the heart - smooth which control the movement. of contents through hollow. tubes and organs like food through the digestive. tract nervous tissue- initiating. and transmitting electrical impulses some over long distances. act as signals that relay info. important in communication, coordination and control of the body. found in brain, spinal cord, nerves and special. sense organs epithelial- exchanging material between the cell and the environment. any substance that enters or leaves must go. through an epithelial barrier - 2 types - epithelial sheets- layers of tightly joined cells that. cover and line various parts of the body like the skin or digestive tract. serve as boundaries that seperate the body from the surrounding and from the contents of. cavities that open to the outside like the digestive lumen - lumen- cavity within a hollow organ or tube - selective transfer and type and extent depends on location and function of tissue - secretory glands- formed. during embryonic development by pockets of epithelial tissues that dip inward and develop secretory capabilities secretion- release from a cell in response to appropriate. stimulation of products produced by the cell - 2 types - exocrine- during development if connecting cells between the epithelial surface between the epithelial surface cells and the secretory glands within. the depths of the pockets remain. inact as a duct between the gland and. the surface - secrete through ducts to the outside of the body; ex; sweat glands -endocrine- connecting cells disappear and the. secretory glands are isolated from the surface. lack ducts and. release. internally into the blood. ex; insulin connective tissue- few cells. within an abundance of extracellular material. connects, supports and anchors. loose CT attaches epithelial cells to. underlying structures -tendons attach skeletal muscle to bone -bones give body shape and support and protection -blood transports materials * everyone except blood produce specific structural molecules ex; elastin is a rubber. band like protein that facilitates the stretching and recoiling of structures like the lungs all expect. nervous tissue are ddeemed primary tissues - collection of cells with same specialized structure

differentiation

each human begins with sperm and an egg and untie to form a new cell that multiples and grows through myriad cell division, if cell division were. only process then all humans would be identical. cells undergo differentiation or becomes specialized to carry out a particular function. body is made up of 200 specialized cell types

mitochondria

energy organelles or power plants of th cell that extract energy from the nutrients in food and transform it into usable form for cell activities. 90% of energy that cell needs to survive and function is made by the mitochondria - posses their own DNA distinct from DNA in nucles- mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA ** divide because own DNA •Contain their own DNA •mRNA •Autonomous division tissue or cell with no mito?? enclosed by a double membrane ; the inner membrane that forms a series of unfolding or shelves called cristae which project into an inner cavity with a gel like solution called a matrix which inc SA for energy harnessing proteins - these two layers are separated by the inner membrane space - cristae use O2 to convert the energy in food into a usable form mitochondrial reticulum- network of mitochondria is dynamic and is undergoing rounds of fusion and fission as individual mito add or split from the network depending on the cell's energy needs - aerobic capacity by inc mito in cells also play a key role in apoptosis by snipping enzymes not every tissue has this - tissue with lack of blood supply, cartilage - low O2 use glycolysis

physiology

focus on body functions and how the various components of the. human body function to maintain homeostasis study of the functions of living things one approach emphasizes the purpose while the other emphasizes the mechanism by which the process occurs view body as a machine whose mechanism of action can be explained in terms of cause and effect sequences of physical and chemical processes ex:shivering

homeostatic control. system

functionally interconnected network of body components that operate to maintain a given factor in the internal environment relatively constant around an optimal level must be able to 1. detect deviations from normal in the internal environment factor that needs to be held. within narrow limits 2. integrate info with any other relevant. info 3. make appropriate adjustments in the activity of body parts responsible for restoring thus factor to desired value

fluid balance

homeostasis depends on the balance between the input and output of all constituents in the internal fluid environment, -regulation of fluid balance involves control of ECF volume which circulating plasma is part of and control of ECF osmolarity or solute concentration fluid balance is regulated in the body by ECF volume and osmolarity 1. ECF volume helps maintain blood pressure and maintaining salt balance is important in long term regulation of ECF (kidneys) 2. ECF osmolarity prevents swelling or shrinking of cells kidneys control ECF by maintaining salt balance and control osmolarity by maintaining water balance through the urine -also maintain acid-base balance by adjusting urinary output of H+ and bicarbonate ion. buffer system and lungs contribute to this as well

chemical level cellular level

human body is made up of atoms which are the smallest building blocks of matter - carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen make up 96% of the total body chem and combine to form molecules of life such as proteins, carbs, fats and nucleic acids - these are the inanimate raw ingredients from which all living things arise these nonliving chemical components must be arranged and packaged in precise ways to form a living entity - cell is the fundamental unit of both structure and function in a living being and is the smallest unit capable of carrying out. the processes associated with life.

organisms

independent living entities - single celled like bacteria independent because direct contact to external environment - complex multicellular like humans with many different types of cells; structural and functional aggregates of trillions of specialized cells that work together because dont have direct access to external environment - muticellular- sponge, cells of the organism is similar

cellular respiration

intracellular reactions in which energy rich molecules are broken down to form ATP, using O2 and producing CO2 in the process glycolysis- 10 enzymes with 10 sequential steps to break down glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules . 2 ATP and 2 NADH net per glucose. -Occurs in the cytosol - not very efficient - CT poor blood supply-> use glycolytic pathways and not ox phosphorylation ; cartilage low blood supply; disadvantage makes healing very slow, less efficent atp formation CAC- pyruvate is moved into the mito matrix where one of its carbon is removed to form CO2 and NADH. this forms an 2 carbon molecule called an acetyl group that produces acetyl coA when combined with coenzyme A •Loss of carbon forms ATP •Combines with coenzyme A to form Acetyl CoA - 8 steps - acetyl coa and OXA combine first to form a 6 carbon citrate molecule - co2 released through the lungs - OXA and CoA are recycled at the end of the cycle to pick up another acetyl group - produce NADH and FADH2 for entry into the electron transport chain in the IMM - one more ATP per acetyl coa is produced. GTP formation transfer energy to form ATP -mitochondrial matrix * every time we loose a carbon we generate an NADH oxidative phosphorylation (ETC and ATP synthase) - ATP is synthesized using energy releasedd by the electrons as they are transferred to O2 - ETC- electron carriers found in the previous stages that enter into different complexes to strip H+ and form a proton gradient in IMS to power ATP synthase - ATP synthase take H+ and pumps through roter and different subunits to form ATP - chemiosmosis - 28 ATP, 2.5 ATP per NADH and 1.5 per FADH2= 32 total ATP -IMM *lungs bring in O2 for this process -gain water too through this process- hibernatioon •Occurs on the inner membrane of the mitochondria •NADH and FADH2 transported •High energy electrons from the carriers are taken slowly to a low energy state •Influx of H+ into the mitochondrial membrane results in the activation of ATP synthase •Oxygen serves as the ultimate electron acceptor produces more ATP in aerobic v anaerobic as oxidative phosphorylation is an aerobic process ATP is required for synthesis of new compounds, membrane transport and mechanical work *not 100% effiecent

Horse weight 1000 kg and 40g inulin used with conc of 171.4ug/mL, what is total body concentration? toad weighs 1.82 kg, 3mG indicator with conc 24 ug/mL, what is total body conc?

inulin= ECF 40g/V= 171.4ug/mL 40000mG/.1714mg/mL= 233,372 mL 233.372 L/1000kG= 23.34% **( 1000L= 1000kg) Total body water conc = V/TBW x100 ----- 3 mg/.0024 mg/mL- 1,250 mL 1.25L/1.82 kG= 68.68%

proteasome

nonmembraneous organelles is a protein degradation machine - misfolded proteins are tagged with ubiquitin and brought to proteasome -cylinder shaped breaks down tagged proteins into recyclable building blocks - hollow core particle capped at end with regulatory particles -released as peptide whicha re then broken down by cytosolic enzymes into amino acids •Present in cytoplasm AND nucleus •Only degrade proteins by breaking down peptide bonds

Functions of the lipid bilayer

it forms a basic structure of the membrane. It's hydrophobic interior is a barrier to the passage of water soluble substances between the intracellular fluid in the extra cellular fluid. Water soluble substances cannot dissolve and passed through the lift by layer. Finally it is responsible for the fluidity of the membrane. The liver bilayer is also a source of lipid signal molecules. ex: prostaglandin

cell theory.

life stems from the unique and complex interactions of these inanimate chemicals inside the cell - bridge between chemicals and humans * how do cell help maintain homeostasis? they specialize *tissue that does ___ which of these tools will it need to accomplish that / inc. or dec to accomplish? what does this. organelle need to do their function? **MAIN POINT -muscle cells need to generate atp (mitochondria)- have upregulation of mitochondria biogenesis - weight room excercise- protein synthesis ( ribsomes; free ribosomes that create proteins that stay inside the cells) all new cells and all new life arise from the divsion of preexisting cells not from nonliving sources - continuity of life, all cells are fundamentally similar in structure and function-> cell theory until the microscope was invented in the middle 17th century, scientists didnt know the cell existed because it was so small larger species have more cells not larger cells -found cells were filled with fluid " stuff of life" - determine what was that fluid with the electron microscope •The cell is the smallest structural and functional unit capable of carrying out life processes. •The functional activities of each cell depend on the specific structural properties of the cell. •An organism's structure and function ultimately depend on the collective structural characteristics and functional capabilities of its cells. •All new cells and new life arise only from preexisting cells.

hypothermic therapy

massive heart attach, dec body temp which prevents mitochondria lysis why? give an individual a higher chance of survival? heart attack leads to lack of blood flow so causes lack of O2 and ceasing of oxidative phosphorylation. build up of H+ ( pmf) which causes an dec in pH which causes protein to denature. hypothermia slows things down because cold slows down enzymatic activity to prevent mitochondrial lysis.

Golgi Apparatus/complex

membraneous organelles that is closely associated with the ER. stack of flattened, slightly curved membrane enclosed sacs that have some physical contact with each other - sacs are thin in middle but have bulging edges - newly synthesized molecules transported out of smooth ER enter Golgi and travel from innermost sac to the outermost sac near the plasma membrane - moved from each sac by COPI ** contents are not free to roam around the cell because they are water soluble substances during transit 2 things occur-> 1. processing the raw materials into finished products 2. sorting and directing the finished products to their final destinations •Post-translational modification; modifies for transport •Secretory and transport vesicles; shipping center - distinct vesicle picks a specific product and are wrapped in membranes with specific surface proteins or docking markers that coorelate to destination allow unloading of the product by connecting to the docking marker acceptor - secretion is the release to the cells exterior of a specific product made for a specific function - secretory vesicles contain proteins to be secreted and bud off the golgi sacs . once is a signal is recieved, the vesicle will move to the periphery, fuse with the plasma membrane and release contents to the outside through exocytosis •The post office! •Packages secretory vesicles for release by exocytosis •Post translational modification ( adding sugars to make glycoproteins)

ribosomes

nonmembraneous organelles that carry out protein synthesis by translating mRNA into chains of amino acids in the ordered sequence dictated by. the original DNA code - bring together mRNA, tRNA and amino acids and provide the enzymes and energy needed for linking amino acids together. free ribosomes synthesize proteins for use in the cytosol and are free proteins inside the cell - ER proteins are destined for export and are held in ER lumen so free proteins and ER proteins are physically separated. ER proteins exit through exits sites on smooth ER -mature RBC dont. need ER because doesnt secrete things, free ribosomes in charge of making Hb -glycolytic enzymes made by free ribosomes

perioxisomes

membraneous organelles that produce and decompose hydrogen peroxide in the process of degrading potentially toxic molecules . arise from golgi and ER -membrane enclosed sacs that contain oxidative enzymes and contain most of the cell's catalase -oxidative enzymes use oxygen in this case to strip hydrogen from organic molecules. helps to detoxify waste or foreign toxic compounds like alcohol - generate. H2O radical and H2O - H2O2 is destructive if allowed to accumulate - catalase prevents internal damage and decomposes h2o2 to O2 and H2O antioxidant enzymes to reg intracellular reactive oxygen species - known to leak superoxide radicals - detox process of alcohol with ADH, leading to inflammation and cell damage; aging of cells and liver damage •Oxidative enzymes •Use oxygen to strip hydrogen off a molecule •Major product of detox: hydrogen peroxide **need O2

specialized cell functions

modification or elaboration of basic cell functions gland cells of the digestive system Secrete digestive enzymes that break down ingested food through protein synthesizing ability kidney cells can selectively retain the substances needed by the body and eliminate substances accordingly in the urins- from their specialized ability to Control exchange of materials between cell and its surrounding environment muscle contraction which involves selective movement of internal structures creates tension; Produce intracellular movement. elaboration of ability to produce intracellular movement Generate and transmit electrical impulses that relay information; elaboration of ability to Sensing and responding to changes in surrounding environment essential to survival of the whole body - cells must be organized to carry out these life-sustaining processes of the body - organized into tissues, organs, body systems and the whole body

Extrinsic or Systemic controls

most. factors in. internal environment are maintained by theses regulatory mechanisms initiated outside an organ. to alter the organs activity -nervous and endocrine systems =permits coordinated regulation of several rogans

vesicular transport

movement of large polar molecules like proteins or moans, multi molecular materials like bacteria justify white blood cells. They are much too big for channels and no carriers exist for them. These are transferred across a membrane not by crossing the membrane but buying being wrapped in a membrane enclosed vesicle it requires energy expenditure by the cells this is an active method of membrane transport. Energy is needed to accomplish vesicle formation and movement within the cell. transfer into the cell is endocytosis while transport out of the cell is exocytosis endocytosis- and just a substance infuses it over the surface, pinching off the vesicle so it is trapped within the cell. Three types; pinocytosis, receptor mediated endocytosis, and phagocytosis. To Destiny's once inside the cells; lysosomes fused with a vesicle degrading releasing its contents into the intracellular fluid or the vesicles bypass the lysosome's and travel to the opposite side of the cell were there released by exocytosis. This provides a pathway called tran cytosis to shuttle large intact molecules through the cell. exocytosis; mhmmm Roy didnt Plaza betttt Chi College for Meadors in the selfie's with a plus member and then opens up and releases it into the exterior. Materials package for export by the ER and Gogi are internalize back to cytosis. Two purposes; mechanism for secreting large polar molecules like protein hormones and enzymes, contents are highly specific and released only on appropriate signals. It enables the cell dad specific components to the membrane like selected carriers, channels, or receptors depending on the sales needs. balance- endocytosis and exocytosis must remain in balance to maintain a constant membrane surface area. Could either insert or lose service area from too much of either process. Through these processes portions of the membrane are constantly being restored, retrieved, and recycled.

positive feedback

output. enhances or amplifies a. change so that the. controlled variable continues to move in the. direction. of. the. initial change - furnace stays on so temp can continuously rise rare in nature, common example is hormones during childbirth. doesnt occur as commonly. as. negative feedback ex; birth. of a baby- oxytocin inc and when baby pushed against cervix even more is released. doesnt stop until. the baby can be pushed through and is born -ex; ovulation •Signal triggers amplification of response •Must have an "escape"- way to interrupt cycle and make it effective; stop cycle •Can lead to disease if no escape •Insulin-resistant diabetes mellitus (type II) •Obesity -tumor cells and growth factors ex; blood clotting too **no set point **has an escape instead

membrane potential

separation of opposite charges across the membrane or to a difference in the relative number of cat ions in and ions in the intracellular fluid and extra cellular fluid. Opposite charges attract and like charges repel. Work must be performed two separate office charges after they have come together. Electro force of attraction between after charges can be harness to perform work when the charges are permitted to come together again. The separation of charges across the membrane is called the membrane potential because separated charges have the potential to do work. Potential is measured in millivolts. most fluid inside and outside the cells is electrically neutral. These can be ignored because I do not contribute to the membrane potential. Therefore almost in significant fraction of the total number of charged particles present in body fluids is responsible for membrane potential but the membrane itself is not charge. The greater the number of charges separated the larger potential. excitable tissue; nerve and muscle cells have the ability to produce rapid, transient changes in their memory and potential one excited. they serve as electrical signals.

ATP

source of energy is the chemical energy stored in the carbon bonds of ingested food - high energy phosphate bonds release energy when they are split - universal energy carrier and split the terminal phosphate bond to form ADP what goes in/out and where does it occur?? 5 hour energy-> is this a form of energy? no because no carbs or lipids. B vitamins play. a role in oxidative phosphorylation ( NAD and FAD). caffeine blocks adenosyine receptors which tells you youre not tired

Ca pump

transferred calcium out of the cell keeping the calcium concentration in the cytosol low. Abundant in neuron terminals the store chemical messengers and secretory vesicles. And electrical signal in the neuron triggers opening of calcium channels into the terminals plasma membrane. Entry of calcium downs concentration gradient through these open channels promote the secretion of neurotransmitters by exocytosis. Keeping the intracellular calcium concentration low helps the active calcium pumps maintain a large concentration gradient for the entry of secretion inducing calcium. muscle contraction

Na/K ATPase pump

transport sodium out of the cell concentrating it in the ECF and picks up potassium from the outside concentrating it in the ICF. There are three binding sites for sodium and two binding sites for potassium. When expose the cell interior the pump has a high 50 for sodium and a low affinity for potassium. Attachment of three sodium at the cell interior activates a ATPase activity which triggers a splitting of ATP and subsequent phosphorylation of the carrier. The phosphorylation causes security to change shape and exposes the bound sodium to the exterior. The carrier changes shape and reduces affinity for sodium and releases the ion to its high concentration side in the ECF. The change in shape increases the affinity for potassium, two potassium bind leading to the dephosphorylation of the carrier, which induces a second change in the carrier shape reverting it back to its original shape and exposing the bound potassium to the cells interior. In the interior of the affinity for potassium decreases and the potassium ion releases to its high concentration side on the ICF. After this the sodium binding sites affinity greatly increases so that this process can repeat. potassium in sodium out roles 1. it establishes a sodium potassium concentration gradient across all cells which is really important for nerve and muscle cells to generate electrical signals 2. regulate cell volume by controlling the concentration of solute inside and that's minimizing osmotic affects. 3. Energy used to run the sodium potassium pump is indirectly serves as the energy source for a secondary active transport.

Composition of plasma membrane

under an electron microscope it appears as a trilaminar structure consisting of two dark layers separated by light middle layer. This gives it its sandwich appearance. The most abundant membrane lipid is phospholipids. Phospholipids have a polar head containing a negatively charged phosphate group into non-polar fatty acid chain tales. The polar end is hydrophilic because it interacts with water molecules which are polar, in the non-polar and is hydrophobic and will not mix with water. In water the phospholipids self assemble into a lipid bilayer. The phobic tales bury themselves in the center of the bilayer away from the water in the fillet has lineup on both sides in contact with the water. The outer surface of the boiler is exposed to ECF where is the inner surface is in contact with the intracellular fluid. The bilayer is fluid and not rigid. The phospholipids are not held together by strong chemical bonds but are constantly moving. They can twirl, vibrate, and move around within their half of the bilateral. this accounts for the membranes fluidity when stains are used to visualize the plasma membrane. The dark two lines represent the hydrophilic polar regions of the lipid in the protein molecules that I've taken up the stain and the light space between corresponds with a poorly stained hydrophobic core formed by the non-polar regions of these molecules.

can set point change? difference between positive feedback and feedforward mechanism?

yes; fever changes set point to work with immune system to get rid of pathogen -ex; BP - change so can interact appropriately with environemnt adjusts set point in anticipation of a change in a regulated variable - works within a negative feedback loop to max efficiency of negative feedback system --ex: stomach; not hungry pH=6 and hungry pH= 2 and stays there within a negative feedback so its ready to receive food

Constituents

§Extracellular (plasma) -Cations §Sodium (Na+) §Potassium (K+) §Calcium (Ca2+) -Anions §Chloride (Cl-) §Bicarbonate (HCO3-) §Phosphate (PO43-) * H2O changes must occur through the ECF since it serves as an intermediary between the cells and the external environment. enters and leaves through the ECF * Na and Cl make up 90% of ECF osmotic activity, the retained sale is isotonic and the more salt in ECF the more water. -red salt load dec H2O retention since water follow salt *two main potassium and sodium -plasma membrane importance - ECF has more sodium than ICF K due to Na/K pump - plasma membrane is doing all it can to keep these gradients, if they vary you would die even by 20% Intracellular Fluid §Cations §Anions most abundant ion in the body? - potassium 40% total body water is intracellular fluid which is very high in potassium major diff between ICF and ECF 1. cell proteins in ICF cannot permeate the membranes to leave cells 2. unequal dis of Na/K and anions due to the action of the membrane bound Na/K pump . pumps Na out and K in so an Is primary cation in ECF and K+ primary cation in ICF H2O movement between plasma and interstital fluid is due to imbalances in capillary blood pressure and colloid osmotic pressure.

Distribution of Water

§Plasma is 90% water §Most organs are 70 to 80% water §Bone is 22% water (when hydrated it. is strong; aging) - cartilagenous bone is 80-90% water so young children have more cartilage and thus more water in their body §Fat is 10% water - animal fat has more water than human fat

basic cell functions

• Obtain nutrients and oxygen from surrounding environment • Perform chemical reactions that provide energy • Eliminate carbon dioxide and other wastes • Synthesize needed cellular components; enzymes • Control exchange of materials between cell and its surrounding environment - moving materials internally to externally • Sensing and responding to changes in surrounding environment • Reproduction; expectations are nerve and muscle cells; ex; stroke all cells are similar and have some basic functions even if specialized - essential for survival of individual cell

Indicator Dilution

•A known quantity of a substance (indicator) in an unknown volume yields a concentration •M/V = C * M= mass of indicator, V= V of the compartment the indicator was able to access, and C is of all three compartments cause it can pass through all three ** anything that acts on plasma also acts on interstitial fluid due to free exchange so will be able to regulate entire ECF -indicator is put into this unknown volume to measure the plasma - indicator has to be able to get into the compartment that we want to measure --ICF injected in plasma, reach equil interstitial and ICF; measuring then total body water --something that only going in ICF and plasma to find interstitial - indicator must be biologically innert and utilized by cells -indicator cant normally be in there • •Example: 2 g of a substance in an unknown volume yields a concentration of 20 μg / ml •What is the volume? ***50mg/mL=50g/L because m on mg and ml can cross out 24g and 50mg/ml conc 24g/50g/L=.48L or 480 mL

Roles of Proteins

•Channels •Span the entire membrane •Necessary for water-soluble compounds to enter the cell •May be ligand-dependent, leak channels (always open) or voltage gated (open or closed based on electrical potential) - not very selective *when channels are open, they are open at both sides of the membrane at the same time allowing for rapid movement of ions between either side of the membrane. - small water soluble like ions - ligand; binds to receptor (Ach) *simple diffusion- lipid soluble substances •Carrier molecules •. always Ligand dependent; need a signal for the carrier to work and sometimes its the molecule itself (Na/glucose symporter) •Highly selective •Limits A carrier proteins spans the membrane it can change its confirmation so that specific binding sites within the carrier or alternatively exposed to the ECF and ICF. - Carrier mediated transport 1. Carrier opens to the ECF 2. the molecule that needs to be transported attaches to the carriers binding side on one side of the membrane. 3. The carrier changes shape exposing the same side to the other side of the membrane 4. The brown molecule detaches from the carrier and the carrier reverts back to its original shape; pocket or hole their doesnt change shape and affinity of the carrier doesnt change * molecule could technically go back to other side again, chances are low tho - bidirectional carrier * final step of moving glucose into blood is driven by concentration gradient - carriers are never open to both sides of the membrane and they must change shape to alternatively pick up the molecule on one side and then drop them off on the other side, which can be a time-consuming process. water soluble substances have limits and lipid soluble dont! * three important characteristics that are determine the kind and amount of material that can be transferred 1. specificity; each carrier proteins specialized to transport a specific substance or a quick few closely related compounds. Saulsberry and the types of carriers they have does permitting a transport selectivity among cells. Cystinuria is a disease involving defective cysteine carriers in the kidney membranes; cause urinary stones 2. saturation; a limited number of carrier binding sites are available within the plasma membrane for a specific substance. The amount of substances able to be carried across the membrane of time is limited and this is known as a transport maximum. rate of transport across the membrane is directly related to its concentration. The more substance available the more transported. When the transfer maximums reach the carriers are saturated and the rate of transport is maximized. this is a critical rate limiting factor. 3. competition; closely related compounds may compete for a ride across a membrane on the same character. If a binding site can be occupied by more than one substance, the rate of transport of each substance is less when both molecules are present then when either is present by itself. both channels and carriers are proteins that spend the plasma membrane and serve as selective avenues for movement of water soluble substances across the membrane. The differences include; only ions fit through the narrow channels while small polar molecules like glucose and amino acids are transported by carriers. Channels can be opened or closed but carriers are always open. Move it through channels is considerably faster than carrier mediated transport. *water soluble substances have limits

Autophagasome

•Delivers cytoplasmic components to lysosomes (after tagged for degradation) carrier and lysosome is the destination -cytoplasm

Osmotic Pressure

•Difference in concentration of solutes across a water-permeable membrane *dependent on water and not solute permeable A selectively permeable membrane Permits the passage of water but not solute. Water will move possibly down his concentration gradient from an area of high concentration to low concentration. The net diffusion of water down his concentration gradient they were selectively permeable membrane is known as osmosis. Water moves by osmosis to the area of higher solute concentration. •Penetrating solutes pinching solute moves down its own concentration gradient in the opposite direction of net water movement. The movement will continue until both solute and water evenly distributed. What are the saw you might use my leg change places between the two sides until the distributions are equalized; and then equal number of water molecules move from side 1 to 2 I saw you particles move from side to to one. So if I can penetrate the plasma membrane do not contribute as many differences between the intracellular fluid in the extra cellular fluid and do not affect cell volume •Non-penetrating solutes (water soluble, ions, glucose) The greater the concentration of non-penetrating solute, the lower the concentration of water, the greater the dry for the water to move osmosis from pure water into the solution, the greater the opposing pressure required to stop the osmotic flow, and the greater the osmotic pressure of the solution. A solution with a high concentration of non-penetrating solute exerts greater osmotic pressure in a solution with a lower concentration of non-penetrating solute does. - if a solution of equal concentrations of non-penetrating solute or separated by membrane that is permeable to water but impermeable to the solute know concentration differences exist in the snow movement of water occurs across the membrane. This is the usual situation in body fluids because body cells normally do not experience any net gain or loss of value because the concentration of non-penetrating solute in the ECF is normally regulated so that the ECF osmolarity is the same as the osmolarity within the cells.if there are solutions of an equal concentration of non-penetrating solute than the osmotic movement of water across the membrane is driven by the difference in osmotic pressure of the two solutions. Now diffusion of water takes place from side 1 to 2 but the saw you cannot cross the membrane. Water movement alone because the volume of side to increase by the volumes I want to corresponding decrease. This will then increase in decreases are you concentrations on either side so that eventually they will become equal. If the membrane is free to move so that they can expand without opposing hydrostatic pressure developing then they will become equal. This is what happens across plasma membrane's in the body because their plasma membrane's normally accommodate the increase in sales volume with no significant change in hydrostatic pressure inside the cells. Osmotic pressure flash osmosis is a major force responsible for the net movement of water into or out of cells without having to take hydrostatic pressure into consideration. At the point where osmosis Ceases volume has increased on the side that originally had a higher solute concentration in the volume has decreased on the side with the lower solute concentration. therefore osmotic pressure of water across the plasma membrane always result in a change in cell volume, and cells, especially brain cells do not function properly when they swell or shrink. osmotic pressure of a solution is a measure of the tendency for osmotic flow of water into that solution because of its relative concentration of non-penetrating solute and water. Net movement of water by osmosis continues until the opposing hydrostatic pressure exactly counterbalance is the osmotic pressure. When these two pressures are equal then osmosis will stop. osmotic pressure poles and hydrostatic pressure pushes. water molecules can readily permeate the plasma membrane even though they are polar, they are small enough to slip through the momentary spaces between the phospholipid molecules tales as they sway move within the lipid bilayer. This is a relatively slow but aqua Porins are channels specific for the passage of water. This greatly increases membrane permeability to water. The driving force for net movement of water crossing membrane is its concentration gradient. hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a stationary (static) fluid on an object or in this case a membrane. The difference in hydrostatic pressure tends to flush fluid from side to side. - equation considers gravity and height of fluid - essentially equal all the way around and inside out -movement in water in ECF, hydrostatic pressure isnt a significant source of moving water out since it equal in and out - important in blood pressure and movement of fluids moving out of blood vessels *wont move water across the membrane osmolarity is a more direct means of expressing solute concentration because it is a measure of its total solute concentration given in terms of number of particles. Is expressed in osmosis per liter. *high gain, doesnt tolerate much deviation from set point -concentration ( particles per unit volume) -1. contributing is sodium -measure of number of particles in ECF •300 mOsm/L •mOsm - a measure of particle concentration what system is most highly effected by osmolarity? - respond very quickly and dont do well *CNS affected in its function - dehydration headache - chugging water, drown yourself from inside; brain swells

objective 1

•Form follows function, starting from cells up to systems •Different types of cells/tissues/organs have distinguishing physical characteristics which allow them to perform their desired function. •Know the basic cellular requirements, tissue types, and organ systems •What should these cells look like, knowing their purpose? •Nerve cell (neuron)- axon, long or short axon •Epithelial cell lining digestive system- porous for nutrients •Cardiac muscle cell- striated, lean, intercalated disks •If you could design a digestive system that could mix, push its contents, absorb, and secrete, what would it look like? •Hollow organs •Smooth muscle for movement •Epithelial lining for absorption -secretions Nerve- Cell body in brain folds-Increases surface area. Long axons project to target organs. Epithelial lining- Tight junctions between cells- High amount of surface area. Special sieve for what the body needs. Protein productions- cells have more ER, golgi, etc Cells that dispose of toxins- more smooth ER to deal with extra load (tolerance with drinking)

Cellular Adhesions

•In general, cells held in a matrix these adhesions bind groups of cells to gather into tissues and package them further into organs. The activities of body systems dependent only on the functions of the individual cells but also on how the cells live and work together in tissues in Organ communities. Cells organize into appropriate groupings are held together by CAMs, the extracellular matrix, and specialize cell junctions. - The tissues are held together by biological glue called the extra cellular matrix. It is an intricate meshwork of fibrous proteins embedded in a watery, gel like substance composed of complex carbohydrates. This provides a pathway for diffusion of nutrients, waste, another soluble traffic between the blood and tissue cells. The three major types of protein fibers woven through the gel or collagen, elastin, and fibronectin specialized cell junctions- where cells touch each other *what tissue type would not have cell junction? CT because cells dont touch each other ( cartilage, bone,blood,fat) because have a specialized matrix around them •Desmosomes "spot wells" Anchors together to adjacent but non-touching cells. It is composed of a pair of dents, button like cytoplasmic thickening is known as plaques located on the inner surface at each of the two adjacent cells and strong filaments containing cadherins CAM and extend across the space between the two cells and attach to the clock on both sides. These intracellular filaments behind adjacent positive and brings to gather so they resist being pulled apart. Thus they are adhering junctions and are the strongest cell to cell connections. most abundant in the skin, the heart, in the uterus. The cytoskeleton filaments such as tough keratin filaments in the skin stretch across the interior of the cells and attach to the desmosome plaques located on the opposite side of the cells interior. This interlinking fibers network provides tensile strength, reducing the chances of the tissues being torn and stretched. •Add strength for stretch -stretch marks tearing of subdermal and CT not where desmosomes are * cadherins make up desmosomes •Tight junctions (in lumen of something; between something and the blood ex; blood brain barrier) X-blood -adjacent cells bind firmly with each other at points of direct contact to seal off the passageway between the two cells. These are found primarily in sheets of epithelial tissue which cover the surface of the body in line it's internal cavities. These epithelial sheets are highly selective barriers between two compartments with considerably different chemical composition's. in the digestive tract the lateral edges of adjacent cells in the epithelial sheet or joint in a tight seal near their luminal border by kiss sites which strands of proteins note as claudins on the outer surface of the two interacting plasma brains fused directly. These tight junctions are in permeable and that's prevent materials from passing between the cells. Passage across the epithelial barrier must take place through the cells not between them which is called transcellular transport and is regulated by channels and carrier proteins. Tight junctions does prevent undesirable leaks within epithelial sheets. paracellular transport occurs between the cells for example in the small intestine during absorption of the meal because sometimes tight junctions are a bit leaky which enable water molecules and some ions to pass. •Impermeable - digestive enzymes if leak break down proteins and get into blood and break down proteins there (IBS) and cause inflammatory immune response -nutrients need a channel to get into cell and then blood stream, without channel will stay in lumen and be excreted - gut flora and sugars •Gap junctions A gap exists between adjacent cells which are linked by small connecting tunnels formed by connexons •Connexon are made up of six proteins subunits arranged in a hollow to black structure that extends through the thickness of the plasma membrane. To one from each of the plasma membrane's of two adjacent cells extend outward and join into enter form of connecting tunnel between the two cells. Gap junctions are communicating junctions. These tunnels permit small water soluble particles to pass through the connective cells but precludes passage of large molecules ions in small molecules can be directly exchange between interacting cells or gap junctions without ever entering the exercise or fluid. •Permits water soluble particles to cross from cell to cell - Gap junctions are especially abundant in cardiac muscle and smooth muscle. Movement of ions to gap junctions transmits electrical activity throughout entire muscle mass. This electrical activity brings about contraction in the presence of Junction enables synchronize contraction of a whole muscle mass such as pumping a chamber of the heart. Some gap junctions are found in non-muscle tissues where they permit a nursery deposit a small new dream items between cells such as glucose amino acids and other nutrients. Gap junctions help to bring these nutrients to the ovary which helps the egg stockpile these essential nutrients. Gap junctions are also avenues for the direct transfer of small signal molecules from one side to the next - heart-> lead to PVC (premature ventricle contraction) - passage of ions and small molecules from cell to cell without going to ECF - Na running causing contraction then go through gap junction to contract that one too, so ventricles hav e gap junctions in all then will spread to every cell and contract as a whole - smooth muscle- peristalsis and movement of food -GI move or propel food forward *do skeletal muscle have gap junction? fine and heavy motor movement is major function of skeletal muscles, gap junctions wouldnt cause to discrimination between these and all would cause same force of movement - each layer surrounded by CT and CT doesnt have cell adhesion molecules because cells are in extracellular matrix and dont touch each other

scope of regulatioon

•Intrinsic/Local •Organ-specific •Ex. Blood vessels •Extrinsic/Systemic •Neuroendocrine regulation •Ex. Vasopressin release Muscle cells - O2 levels fall, blood vessel walls automatically dilate due to this change in chemical environment Vasopressin - hormone released by posterior pituitary in response to low BP/blood volume or rising plasma osmolality (higher concentration of stuff in the blood, we need more blood to diffuse them to a normal level)

Facilitated Diffusion

•Involves water-soluble material •Moves across the membrane with help •Moves from high concentration to low concentration •Requires a transport protein •Saturable- concentration gradient factor; reach a limit as to how much can pass in a given unit of time •TM- The amount of substances able to be carried across the membrane of time is limited and this is known as a transport maximum. rate of transport across the membrane is directly related to its concentration. The more substance available the more transported. •Does not require energy in the form of ATP; energy is the concentration gradient and is a form of potential energy Passive diffusion alone cannot always account for the movement of ions. some ions move through the membrane possibly One Direction and actively in the other direction. Cells used to different mechanisms to accomplish these processes which are carrier mediated transport for transfer of small to moderate size water soluble substances and vesicular transport for movement of large water soluble molecules in multi molecular particles. poorly lipid soluble polar molecules that are too big for channels like proteins, glucose, and amino acids, cannot cross the plasma membrane on their own no matter what forces are acting upon them. This impermeability ensures a large polar intracellular proteins stay in the cell where they belong and carry out life-sustaining functions. The sound must provide mechanisms for transporting these types of molecules into or out of the cell as needed. facilitated diffusion uses a carrier to facilitate the transfer of a particular substance across the membrane downhill from high to low concentration. This process is passive and does not require energy because it occurs naturally down the concentration gradient. example is the facilitated transport of glucose into cells. A continuous gradient exist for net diffusion of glucose into cells The binding sites on these carriers can bind on either side of the membrane. Passengers are more likely to bind with the carrier in the high concentration side then the low concentration side. The rate of facilitate diffusion is limited by saturation of the carrier binding sites unlike simple diffusion which is always directly proportional to the concentration gradient.

Tonicity

•Isotonic has the same concentration of non-penetrating saw it as normal body cells do. In an isotonic solution no water enters or leaves the cell by osmosis of the cell volume remains constant. This is typical for the plasma in which red blood cells are suspended in. ECF is normally maintained isotonic so that no net diffusion of water occurs into or out of bodily cells. -300 •Hypotonic A solution with a below normal concentration of non-penetrating solute's, water enters the cells by osmosis. Net gain water by the cells causes them to swell at the point of rupturing or lysing. •Balanced by hydrostatic pressure - below 300 Hypertonic A solution with an above normal concentration of non-penetrating solute's, the cells shrink as a lose water by osmosis. The cell assumes a crenated or spiky shape. - above 300 tonicity of a solution is the effect the solution has on cell volume; whether the cell remains the same, swells, shrinks; when the solution surrounds a cell. The tenacity of a solution has no units and is a reflection of its concentration of non-penetrating solids relative to the cells concentration of non-penetrating solute's. because cells change volume when surrounded by fluid that is not isotonic it is crucial that the concentration of non-penetrating solids in the extra cellular fluid quickly be restored to normal so that ECF would not become hypotonic or hypertonic. For the same reasons IV fluid should be isotonic to prevent unwanted movement of water into or out of the cells. Example isotonic sailing.

Secondary Active Transport (A.K.A. Sodium Co-Transport)

•Kidneys •Glucose •Amino acids what is glucose out of the fluid that is to become urine moving it into the blood. •Intestinal Epithelium •Glucose •Amino acids move glucose from the lumen into the blood so none is left to be lost by feces. - sodium and glucose transporter; located in the luminal membrane. More sodium is present in the lumen inside the cells so it transports the sodium out of the cell keeping the intracellular sodium concentration low. binding sodium to the carrier increases the carriers affinity for glucose so glucose binds when it is open to the lumen side where the glucose concentration is low. When they're both found it will change shape and open to the inside of the cell where they will be released into the interior. The movement of sodium into the cell is downhill because the intrasellar sodium concentration is low but the movement of glucose is a pill because glucose concentration is hi in the cell. The sodium isn't pumped through the sodium potassium pump keeping the level of intracellular sodium low. glucose and moves possibly out of the cell by facilitate the fusion across the membrane into the blood this is mediated by the passive Gluth transporter. •Glucose and Amino Acids do not use the same carrier molecule - just the middle step is secondary active transport •The concentration gradient for sodium is used to move glucose or amino acids against their concentration gradients •High concentration of glucose/amino acids is required inside the cell to move them out of the cell into the plasma The movement of sodium into the cell down its concentration gradient drives uphill transport of another solute by a secondary active transport carrier. The transfer of the solute across the membrane is always coupled with the transfer of the ion that supplies the driving force. Carriers have two binding sites one for the saw you being moved out and one for sodium. This can occur by symport or anti-port depending on the direction of the solute in relation to sodium Symport or cotransport; the solute and sodium move through the membrane in the same direction. Glucose and amino acids are examples of symport in intestinal and kidney cells. * have to have both molecules to function anti-port or counter transport; solute and sodium move through the membrane in opposite directions. Cells exchange sodium and hydrogen by means of anti-port which helps to maintain the appropriate pH inside cells intestinal kidney cells have a high glucose concentration inside the cells. 1. primary active transport- ATP from low to high 2. driven by conc gradient of Na, low inside and high in lumen 3. grab Na and glucose in lumen to drive transport inside cell moving glucose from low to high (SGLT) **every other cell G-> G6P to keep glucose con low to inc absorption of cell from blood but kidneys and GI dont do this to keep glucose level high to allow for carrier which is driven by con gradient only to move glucose to blood *all processes in 1 cell Na low and glucose high inside cell - glucose high to low from cell to blood

Membranous vs. Non-Membranous

•Membranous organelles are separate, membrane-bound compartments. •endoplasmic reticulum •Golgi complex •lysosome •peroxisome •mitochondrion •Non-membrane bound organelles (free-floating) •vaults •centrioles •Ribosomes WHAT IS THE ADVANTAGE OF HAVING A MEMBRANE? control of what comes in and out and compartmentalization

Active Transport

•Moves substances against concentration gradient •Requires ATP •Facilitated diffusion requires a concentration gradient Active transport requires a carrier to expend energy to transfer the passenger uphill against a concentration gradient from an area of low concentration to high concentration primary active transport; energy is directly required to move a substance against its concentration gradient the carrier splits ATP to power the transport process. - ATP was required for the cure to change shape and expose the binding sites for ions. These are often called pumps. The bonding size to have a greater affinity on the low concentration side where the ion is picked up in the lower family on the high concentration side. - all have ATPase activity and split the terminal phosphate forming a DP, inorganic phosphate and energy. - ATP phosphorylates. the carrier protein and changes shape to allow molecule to go into binding site secondary active transport; energies required in the entire process but is not directly used to produce uphill movement. The carrier does not support ATP instead it moves in molecule uphill by using a secondhand energy stored in the form of an ion concentration gradient. That I ingredient is built up my primary active transport of the Iron by a different carrier ATP hydrolysis change affinity for molecule allowing pump to run can a molecule goo back to the other side? no because affinity changed and unable to do so change in concentration gradient will not change function of carrier

Fick's Law of Diffusion

•Q = (ΔC * A * β)/ (sqrtMW * ΔX) C= concentration gradient of substance *most variable A= surface area of membrane B= lipid solubility MW= molecular weight of substance X= distance/thickness Q= net rate of diffusion *B and MW are constant for a substance - numerator numbers if they go up so will Q *denominator inc then Q dec diffusion constant D= B/sqrt(MW) permeability P=D/delta X Q prop delta C x A x P •Lipid-soluble substances only; simple diffusion only, crossing movement without help and no channel cause that is facilitated diffusion •Oxygen •Carbon Dioxide •Anesthetics •Ethanol - vitamins a,ed,k -hormones -narcotics *affects brain it is lipid soluble several factors in addition to the concentration gradient influence the rate of net diffusion across the membrane. The factors that collectively make up ficks law of diffusion are the magnitude or steepness of the concentration gradient, the surface area of the membrane across which diffusion is taking place, the lipid solubility of the substance, the molecular weight of the substance and the distance through which diffusion must take place. 1. The rate of simple diffusion is always directly proportional to its concentration gradient; the greater the difference in concentration the faster the rate of net diffusion. Example; working muscles produce CO2 more rapidly than usual because they are burning additional fuel to produce extra ATP the increase in CO2 level in the muscles greater greater than normal difference in CO2 between the muscles in the blood. Because of the steeper gradient more CO2 than usual enters the blood and when the CO2 load reaches the lungs, greater than normal see you to grade it exists between the blood in the air sacs in the lungs. Does extra CO2 subsequently breathe it out to the environment. 2. The larger the surface area variable, the greater the radio diffusion I can accommodate. Example; microvilli in the small intestine increases the surface Area that increases the amount of absorption of nutrients. Conversely abnormal loss of membrane surface area decreases the rate of that diffusion. Example; emphysema results and unless surface area available for diffusion of O2 and CO2 between the air in the blood in the lungs. 3. The greater the lipid solubility of a substance more rapidly the substance can diffuser the membranes lipid bilayer down its concentration gradient. 4. heavier molecules do not bounces foreign collision as water molecules like O2 and CO2. O2 and CO2 diffuse rapidly; as molecular weight increases the rate of diffusion decreases. 5. The greater the distance, the slower the rate of diffusion. Diffusion is efficient only for short distances between cells and their surroundings. -thin alveoli to inc diffusion - edema inc distance

Establishment

•Uneven distribution of ions across plasma membrane •More sodium outside the cell than in •More potassium inside the cell than out •Large intracellular proteins can't leave the cell and have negative charge Na- 150 ECF, 15 ICF; 10:1 K- 5ECF, 150 ICF; 1:30 **more leak channels and more permeability; thus more power in influencing membrane potential A- (anionic proteins)- o ECF and 65 ICF **ICF concentrations will not change because they are minimal and occur just outside the membrane, ECF will change (K change has use clinical ramifications; Na can change but mostly for osmolarity) - permeability relative to number of channels; K more permeable than Na all cells have a slightly negative charge on the inside due to leak channels, differences in permeability, and large intracellular proteins that cant leave the cells - voltage sensitive channels eventually lead to change in function and function inside of cells- signal change of activity inside of the cell -ex; liver, pancreas

Lysosomes

•Worn out parts- lysosme fuse with aged or damaged organelles to remove these useless parts of the cell. enzymes degrade dysfunctional organlles making it building blocks available for reuse by the cell - selective self-digestion is called autophagy;Makes room for replacement organelles. -spheric -cytoplasm ACIDIC!: pH = 5 small membrane enclose degradative organelles that break down organic molecules. vary in shape and size - formed by budding from the golgi complex After phagocytosis hydrolytic enzymes dock with foreign body Hydrolytic enzymes - 40 different powerful hydrolytic enzymes which catalyze hydrolysis to break down organic molecules buy the addition of water at the active site - organic matter is cell debris and foreign material like bacteria - intracellular digestive system - mostly degrade extracellular proteins brought into the cell -extracellular material is brought in for hydrolysis through endocytosis in endocytic vesicles. •Degrade all kinds of biomolecules (carbs, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, cellular debris) endocytosis- internalization fo extracellular material -pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis and phagocytosis pinocytosis- •Nonselective •Forms endocytic vesicles (endosomes) •Dynamin is the protein that pinches off the vesicle from the plasma membrane receptor mediated endocytosis •Highly selective, enables cells to import specific molecules into internal environment. Pouch is formed by linkage of clathrin molecules. •HIV, Flu are examples of diseases that take advantage of this mechanism. They mimic molecules that the cell wants and gain access inside the cell. *phagocytosis- •Only performed by specialized cells ( like certain WBCs ). •Extend "pseudopods" to engulf particle, expose them to lysosomes. tay sachs disease- miss one lysosomal enzymes.( lysosomal storage disorders) -occur because of the lack of certain lysosomal hydrolytic enzymes, leading to serious accumulation of products that should be removed. **need water