PR Research Final Exam Review

Know examples of survey tools and consumer panels for online survey

Panels for general population (Representative sample) Panels for industries (Finding who has a Ford Taurus) Panels for specific quota needs

For research question "Will increasing the degree of interactivity of the website increase the number of visitors to the website?", which of the following is the independent variable?

Degree of interactivity of the website

According to our reading this week, which of the following is considered a "consumer-rooted segmentation base"?

Demographics Personality Traits Geodemographics

Descriptive vs. inferential statistics

Descriptive: Means and standard deviation -Describes individual variables in the sample -Ex: Social Media Analysis Surveys (Variables like behavior), Survey Research (Perceptions) -Better way to organize data (More meaningful and presentable) Inferential: More than two variables -Infer from the sample data what the population might be -Make decisions of relationships among variables -Hypothesis testing (Test relationships) -Ex: Gender and Awareness of the Stafford (Potential visitors)

Evaluative research - know difference between outputs vs. outcomes; three kinds of outcome evaluation

Done at the end of the PR process -Measures: Traffic, response of likes, clicks Outputs: Tactics (Specific actions and deadlines) -How much you post -Ex: The number of people who understand, retain, consider the messages, number of messages sent, in the media, who received the messages -Interviews, focus groups, media monitoring/content analysis Outcomes: Impacts/Audience Oriented, evaluations are measured by: -Awareness -Engagements -Attitude and perception -Behavior -Ex: The number of people who changed attitudes, behaviors -Quantitative surveys (sales, voter results), focus groups

What are some examples of research in PR?

Environmental Scanning: Making sure you're on top of things, avoiding crisis Benchmark: Best practices Formative, Evaluative Research

Know what is and how to evaluate UI/UX

Evaluating websites UI/UX: User interface design/User experience -Navigation (Easy to use) -Layout, colors, fonts, white space -Internal and external links (Increase search engine results, social content- more credible websites, external: Smithsonian, Trip Advisor ) (Stafford Internal Links: Too mismatched, Need more active) -Multimedia -How many clicks test (needs to be less than 3) (Finding ticket prices)

Know some examples of the secondary resources such as databases/websites we talked about in class and what kind of information you can find on them (e.g., finding industry and company news; important sites for finding target audience information)

Examples: Archived materials Organization (internal and external) materials (Website) The Internet (search engine and database) -Google: not a bad place to start -Do not solely rely on Google and Wikipedia Communication audits Public relations software - (social) media scanning and monitoring A public relations firm using census data collected by the US Census Bureau to understand a key public Make use of the secondary data for YOUR purpose 1. Browse through secondary information to gain a better sense of your client's overall situation 2. Establish your own research purpose 3. Find secondary data to support your argument 4. Synthesize and analyze secondary data for your purpose -Provide citation whenever you use anything Secondary Research Techniques -https://libraries.ou.edu/"Discover" - Finding Journals and periodicals -"Databases & E-reference" -OU library mass communication resources: https://libraries.ou.edu/resources-subject/journalism-mass-communication -OU library public relations research resources: -http://guides.ou.edu/pr

Which of the following method is more appropriate when the researcher wishes to reduce defense mechanisms of the participants?

Focus Group

Which of the following is the best resource to find information regarding key public demographics, lifestyle trends, consumer behaviors, and public opinion?

Pew Research Center

What does formative research consist of?

Phase 1: Define problem (Success/effects), analyze situation Phase 2: Planning and programming, conduct informal exploratory research Phase 3: Communication implementing Phase 4: Evaluation Types of formative research: Casual Research: Collecting what is already known Secondary Research: Looking for existing information - Analyze situation -Conduct exploratory, informal research -Establish research objectives Primary Research: Collecting original information -For formal research (Qualitative and quantitative) Formative Research are inputs -Quality of message presentation -Appropriateness of content, medium selected -What does target audience know, what do they need? -How do they prefer to receive information?

Know definition of sampling. Know the distinction between sample and population

Population: Group or class of subjects, variables, concepts (doesn't have to be people) Sample: A subset of the population -Selected group of people to represent population Sampling: The means by which researchers select units to represent population

Be able to read statistical test results (give research conclusions based on p-value)

Probability should be less than 0.05 % -IBM SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) -Excel

What are the advantages and disadvantages of survey method?

Pros: -Cost is reasonable -A large amount of data can be collected -Not constrained by geographic boundaries -Results are generalizable (More than qualitative) Cons: -Inappropriate wording/placement of questions can lead to bias -The wrong respondents may be included in survey research -Research is becoming difficult to conduct as response rates decline

Pros and cons of secondary research

Pros: -Cost -Time -Indirect needs -Insights before primary research Cons: -Not meeting direct needs -Not very complete or accurate -No idea of the quality of data

In arranging the order of survey questions, non-sensitive and simple questions need to be placed at the beginning of the survey

True

In designing survey questionnaires, all demographic questions should be placed at the end of the survey.

True

Operational definition of a variable refers to how the variable is to be measured in a specific research study.

True

Know two types of questions (open- vs. closed-ended) and drawbacks for the use of open-ended questions in surveys

Two basic types of questions: Open-ended -Category of question in questionnaires and interviews that allows the respondent considerable latitude to express feelings and to expand on ideas Cons: -Ex: "How often do you read the news online?" -Time consuming, might drop out -Too much to think about -Respondents don't like them -They are time-consuming -Difficult to analyze -Cannot follow up Closed-ended -Category of question found in questionnaires or interviews that requires a specific response and that often takes the form of rankings and scaled items -Ex: "How likely is it that you will contract the Corona virus?"

Be able to identify which statistical test to use based on variables in RQs and hypotheses: Chi-square, T- test, or correlation test

Two types of inferential statistics: Nonparametric: -Chi-Square: Determine if there are differences among categorical variables or if they are evenly distributed (Both Ind and Dep) (RQ: Is there any difference between female and male residents in terms of their donation experience?) (Donation measured by a nominal variable yes/no) (P:76%, so not supported) Parametric: Continuous -Correlation: When to use: Strength of associations between two continuous variables, Hypothesis: Students' perception of the museum is positively correlated with their intentions to visit, Pearson's Correlation r = .865, p< .05: Supported -T-test: When to use: IV=Categorical (Groups), DV= Continuous (Average), Comparing mean (average) scores between two groups, One IV and One DV t = 2.86, p < .05 RQ: Is there any difference between female and male in terms of their awareness of the Stafford Museum? (awareness measured on a Likert scale) -IV: Gender -DV: Awareness of the Stafford Museum -t = 2.86, p < .05 Which test to perform for the following hypotheses and RQs? -Ind: Gender, Dep: Awareness RQ1: Is there any difference between female and male in terms of their awareness of the Stafford museum (measured on a Likert scale)? -T-Test RQ2: Is there any difference between the two generations (Gen Z vs. Millennial) in terms of their perception of air and space (measured on a Likert scale)? -T-Test (Continuous Dep) Hypothesis: Awareness of the museum is positively correlated with the perception of the museum. (both measured on Likert scales) -Correlation

Know and be able to use projective techniques

Used in focus groups on association with brands -Helps them to verbalize feelings (Listing words that describe something) -Word association -Emotivescapes -Picture storytelling -Story telling -Personal diaries -Obituary -ZMET Example: "If you could categorize Gaylord as an animal, what would it be?"

Market segmentation - what it is, why is it necessary, bases for segmentation

Used to determine target audiences, manifested by demographics and gender -Necessary to cater to key public by determining behaviors

Which of the following questions is the most appropriate for an in-depth interview?

What has been your experience with Twitter?

Which of the following are content analysis used for?

social media audit environmental scanning comparing media content to the real world

Based on SEO, how do you ensure your website rank high on Google's search results?

update website regularly use relevant key words on the website have more quality links on the website

What is sampling error?

(Margin of error/ Confidence Interval) Related to selecting a sample from a population -Only for probability samples (May be bias)

Strategic Planning Pyramid:

-Mission Statement (Why we exist) -Define problem (Problem statement) -Goals (What direction to move in) -Objectives (How we will know we have arrived at destination) -Setting baseline: Awareness, attitude, behavior -Strategies (How to get to destination, what message to use) -Audience Research and Message testing -Tactics (Specific actions and deadlines)

Five principles of reporting; What are the types of written reports? (readings)

1) Get to the point quickly 2) Make it clear 3) Enlighten, understand feelings 4) Involve users of study results 5) Use multiple reporting strategies

What is in a SOWT analysis; how to use a SOWT analysis

1.Performance 2.Niche 3.Organizational structure 4.Public perception 5.Supporters 6.Opponents 7.Competitors 8.Industry/social trends 9.Internal Impediments 10.External Impediments 11.Ethical base Use a strength to fight off a threat Use a strength to take advantage of an opportunity Use an opportunity to overcome a weakness

Hypothesis vs. research question (know when to use; be able to come up with hypotheses or research questions)

A hypothesis is a tentative prediction about the nature of the relationship between two or more variables -Predicting outcome of two variables (Gender and interest in Air and Space) An educated guess about what you think will happen A research question does not predict an outcome

Know what a problem statement is

A problem occurs when the organization encounters something in its environment or in its relationship with key publics that threatens its ability to fulfill its mission The problem statement addresses what the issue is and how you can establish a purpose

Know and be able to identify what to avoid when constructing questions for survey questionnaire

Avoid incomplete wording Define ambiguous terms Avoid leading questions Keep it short Most relevant questions should be included Survey instructions: -Give very clear instructions and explanations at the beginning of each section -E.g., "First/Next, we would like to learn about your ..." -Define jargons or important nouns and concepts -E.g., "Corporate Social Responsibility (hereafter CSR), is a form of corporate self-regulation ..." Avoid: -Incomplete words (Reason last saw doctor?) -Poorly defined terms (How many times in the past year have you seen or talked with a doctor about your health?) -Double Barreled Questions (Do you think that the US should have sent troops to Iraq but should not continue its military presence there (yes/no) -Leading Questions (Do you agree that Sally's Facial Lotion makes you look years younger?) -Double negatives (Don't you agree that teenagers less than 15 years of age should not drive?) -Prestige Bias (The U.S. supreme court has ruled that ...Do you agree or disagree with this ruling?) -Over demanding recall questions (How much coffee did you drink last month?)

Be able to identify categorical variable vs. continues variables in RQs and hypotheses

Categorical Variables -Nominal: Gender -Ordinal: Socioeconomic status Continuous Variables (Number based) -Interval/Ratio: Likert scales

What is formative research and when do you conduct formative research in the PR campaign process?

Conducting at the beginning to identify problem Background research to see what to handle -Attitudes of customers

Know basic setting for a focus group

Conference room with a one-way mirror, viewing room, and video/audio equipment -Convenient location for participants

Know definition and how to use confidence level & confidence interval. What is the confidence level used by social science research?

Confidence Level: 95% used in Social Science Research -It is a degree of certainty (expressed as a percentage) Confidence Interval: Margin of error or sampling error -Plus or minus percentage that is a range within confidence level -Ex: Average of selected sample to generalize to whole population Standard Deviation: Defines standard unit of distance from the mean (Predicting mean through statistics without seeing whole population)

Concepts/constructs/variables: know which one is most abstract/concrete

Construct: Most abstract -Theory Concept: -Observation Variable: Most concrete -Specific Research Study -Measurable

Know what is a content analysis and when to use

Content Analysis: Systematic, objective, and quantitative counting or categorizing of communication content -See how you can improve -Quantitative -Used for Comm. Audit -Comparing media content to the real world (Accuracy) -E.g., Assessing the image of particular groups in society (Bias towards minorities) -Information Monitoring and environmental scanning (Google Alerts) -Client names in press coverage/news articles/social media contents -Crisis management (Prepare for) -Systematic: Select communication content (sampling process) follows explicit and consistently applied rules -Objective: try to eliminate researcher bias -Quantitative: Making generalization

Which test to perform for the following hypothesis? Hypothesis: Awareness of the museum is positively correlated with the perception of the museum. (both variables measured on Likert scales)

Correlation test

What are the categories of public?

Customer -Potential -Secondary -Current -Shadow Constitution Producer -Supplier -Personel -Financiers Enabler -Media -Allies -Opinion Leaders Limiter (Impede organization) -Competitors -Opponents -Opinion Leaders

Which of the follow is the correct way to present nominal data?

Frequencies and Proportions

Which of the following are ways to present/organize data for descriptive statistics?

Frequencies and Proportions Summary Statistics Visuals (Graphs)

Strategies to find participants

Homogeneous on the characteristics of interest -Demographics -Product Use -Location -Knowledgeable, but not "professional" -E.g., Whole Foods in Norman Strategies to find participants: -Organization lists -Nominations -Snowball sample -Piggyback -On location

Understand concepts of hypothesis testing: the use of null hypothesis vs. alternative hypothesis; how to make decisions (p-value less than 0.05)

Hypothesis: Ad commercial increases product sales -Product sales may increase by chance Null Hypothesis: Ad Commercial does NOT increase product sales -Disproving the opposite in order to support hypothesis -What's the probability that "product sales increase might be purely due to chance" -If the probability is less than 5%, it means that product sales increase are NOT due to chance (Disproving Null) Testing Hypothesis for Statistical Significance: -If the probability is less than 5% (p-value < 0.05), the researcher rejects null hypothesis, and supports the hypothesis -If the probability is more than 5% (p-value > 0.05), the researcher fails to reject null hypothesis, rejects the hypothesis

Which of the following is the first step of the "six-stage synthesis of the process of issues management"?

Identify future issues that are likely to affect an organization

What are examples of qualitative research?

In-Depth Interview Focus Group Common weakness: Sensitivity to researcher bias Strength: Rich data -More sensitive the better

"Socioeconomic status" is typically measured by which of the following measurement level?

Ordinal

Know and be able to use focus group/interview techniques (dos and don'ts); Understand and be able to identify what type of questions to avoid in focus groups/interview; Know what type of questions are engaging.

In-Depth Interview: -Intro (purpose of study and icebreaker) -Ask easy questions, then ease into detail -Probe: Questions to elaborate based on what they say (semi-structured) -Body language: Restrict, be neutral, avoid head nodding -Avoid quantitative/short answer/why questions -No leading questions -Ask clear, short, open, conversational questions -Ask "How, what, where, when" questions Focus Groups: -Welcome and Overview -Opening questions (Ask each person to say something) -Intro and Transition Questions (Ask about experiences) -Key questions (Main discussion questions 4 to 6) -Ending Questions (Summary questions) -Don't invite questions at the beginning, start conversation before focus group -Have eye contact (Give 5 second pauses) -Probing: "Give an example" -No leading questions, why questions

Know characteristics of in-depth interview; how is in-depth interview different from other types of interviews? In-depth interview advantages and disadvantages (vs. focus groups); When is it more appropriate to conduct in-depth interviews instead of focus groups?

In-Depth Interview: Qualitative research method collecting data based on a free-flowing, loosely structured conversation -Questions highly adaptive to the informant's responses, although the informational goals are constant Pros: -Highly confidential, emotionally charged, or sensitive topics -No group pressure to bias responses -Convenient location and time for the interviewee Cons: -Limited access -Time consuming -Labor intensive -Hard to schedule -Need highly trained interviewer Open-ended questions: Most engaging

What is an independent variable/dependent variable? Be able to tell an IV from a DV in a research question

Independent variables (IV) are systematically varied by the researcher -Comes first Dependent variables (DV) are observed and their values presumed to depend on the effects of the IVs Increased exposure to a health campaign leads to greater behavioral intention to get the flu shot -IndependentVariable(IV)X: Exposure to a health campaign -DependentVariable (DV) Y: Behavioral Intention The more people are involved with the topic of air and space, the more likely they will visit the museum -Ind: Involvement with topic -Dep: Visit the museum The distinction between IV and DV -Depends on the purposes of the research -An independent variable in one study may be a dependent variable in another -E.g., "Reputation, relationship, reputation"

What is the informed consent process; ethics in data collection and reporting?

Informed consent process: -Information -Comprehension -Voluntariness Ethics in data collection and reporting: -Guarantee confidentiality and anonymity -Data storage -No identifier linked to data -No identifier used in reporting -Full disclosure of research results

What are the characteristics of publics/what are the bases for segmenting publics? (public-rooted, organization/situation specific, facts, cognitions, etc.)

Intercessory Public: An opinion leader, can be a link to organization and the rest of the publics Characteristics of publics: -Demographics -Psychographics -Communication behavior (media usage/habits) -Relationship with the organization -Involvement in the issue/product/service -Etc. Empirical Personal Features -Demographics: age cohorts, gender, marital status, family life cycle, finances/income, education, occupation, social class, religion, political orientations, etc. -Geographic location, address, and geodemographics Usage and Behaviors -Usage rate -Usage situation/occasion -Communication preferences (media and content) -Brand loyalty (general behavior) -Psychographics - factual behaviors (leisure activities, hobbies) Attitudes and Preferences regarding the service/issue -Benefits (what's in it for me?) -Level of involvement/awareness -Awareness of (service) alternatives -Brand loyalty (perceived commitment and level of relationship) Personality, Lifestyle, and Sociocultural Values• -Personality traits• -Lifestyles, psychographics, and VALS (Based on personality types) -Sociocultural values and beliefs -(hopes and dreams, worries and fears)

What is involved in analyzing the organization?

Internal environment -Structure, performance, niche, internal impediments External environment -Supporters, competitors, opposition, external impediments (social, political or economic factors outside an organization that might limit the effectiveness of a public relations program) Public perception -Visibility and reputation

Likert scale questions in surveys typically belong to this level of measurement.

Interval

Be able to identify IVs from DVs in RQs and hypotheses

Is there any difference between Male and Female students in terms of their TV viewing hours (Hours per day watching TV) ? -Gender: IV: Categories -Viewing Hours: DV: Continuous RQ2: Is there any difference between the two generations (Gen Z and Millennial) in terms of their interests in air and space? -IV: Generations (Categorical) -DV: Interests (Continuous) Hypothesis: The degree of interactivity of the website predicts the number of visitors to the website. -Continuous

What is the main problem with the survey question "How many hours did you use Twitter last week?"?

It's an over-demanding recall question

Know different descriptive statistics (different ways to organize data): frequencies & proportions, summary statistics (e.g., mean & standard deviation), and visuals

Organizing data in some meaningful way -Frequencies and Proportions (How many times something has occurred) -Summary Statistics (Measuring two basic tendencies of distributions, Central tendency (Where data is centralized), Mode, Median, Mean ( μ or M), Dispersion, Range, Variance, Standard Deviation ( σ or SD) -Mean: Average -SD: How dispersed are they? -Visuals (Graphs)

Know and be able to identify 1) different levels of measurement 2) all closed-ended question scale types; Know how to use and issues to be cautious about when using each closed-ended question scale types (i.e., what do you need to be aware of when using Likert Scale)

Level of Measurement: Close ended -Nominal (Categories) (How often do you go to Starbucks in a week?) Lowest Statistical Power -Ordinal (Rank order) (Rank which of the following social media do you most frequently use?) -Interval (Scale) (How frequently do you use Facebook?) Second highest Statistical Power -Ratio (Start with 0) (How many times yesterday have you used Facebook?) Highest Statistical Power Closed Ended Questions: Multiple Choice -Nominal level -Mutually exclusive -Try to be exhaustive (provide "other" option) Likert -Interval-level measurement variable -The most commonly used scale in mass communication research -5 or 7 points (Always odd number) -Use direction: "Please rate the degree to which you agree or disagree with the following statements" -Group similar statements together (when measuring concepts) -Usually 1= Strongly disagree and 7=Strongly agree -Avoid including too many statements in one matrix and negative statements Semantic Differential - An interval-level measurement variable -Use bipolar adjectives to describe responses (Attitude Scale) Checklists -Nominal -"Check all that apply" -Not recommended Ranking -Ordinal -"Rank your preferences" Frequency -Interval or Ratio -"How many times a day do you visit Twitter on your mobile phone?"

What is secondary research?

Looking for existing information - Analyze situation -Conduct exploratory, informal research -Establish research objectives

List the best PR research practices

MBO: Clear research objectives, rigorous research designs, data is only as good as the research design TIPS: Quality and substance of research findings Interpretation of findings Demonstrate effectiveness -Link outputs (tactics) with outcomes (audience impact) -Cost effectiveness: ROI (Return on Investment)/ROE (Return on Expectation)

Understand the purpose for descriptive statistics

Means and standard deviation and proportions Level of measurement determines: -Which kind of descriptive statistics to use -Graphs -Analysis

Selecting participants for focus groups. Know why and how to use a pre-screening questionnaire. Understand the process of participant selection (i.e., based on participant characteristics, homogeneity, etc.). Know and be able to identify the number of participants to recruit for focus groups for different purposes of research.

Mini-group (4-6) & Focus Group (8-12) -How many groups? -3-4 groups per type of participant or until saturation -Use a screener to identify those that fit the profile of your "target audience" (Frequency of exercising) -Age, gender, usage, location, etc. -Saturation: No more themes to be summarized

The following survey question belongs to ______ level of measurement. "How often do you visit Facebook on your phone in a day"? 1) Never 2) 1-5 times 3) 6-10 times 4) more than 10

Nominal

Know the corresponding descriptive statistics and visual representations (tables and different types of graphs such as bar, column, line, histogram, pie, etc.) for different levels of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval/ratio)

Nominal and Ordinal: Pie Charts (Frequency and proportion to describe them) Interval and Ratio: Bar Charts Preparing Data with Levels of Measurement: Nominal: Categories -Descriptive Statistics: Frequency and Proportions -Visuals Representations: Table, Bar Charts/Pie Charts -Ex: Yes/No "I have donated to non-profit organizations" (Frequency, Percentage: Proportions) -Use: Qualtrics: Survey Questionnaire, Data Distribution in Report, Presenting Data in Research Report Ordinal: Ranking (Presents all information) -Descriptive Statistics (Best way to present data): Frequency and Proportions -Visuals Representations: Table, Bar Chart -Ex: What is your preferred way to donate? Rank your preferences below: Bar Chart Interval/Ratio: Likert Scales -Descriptive Statistics: Mean, Standard Deviation (Summary statistics) (For each statement) -Visuals Representations: Table, Bar Chart, Histogram, Line Chart -Ex: "Please rate the degree of which you agree/disagree with the following statements" Presenting Open Ended Questions: -"Any additional thoughts?" -Not preferred -Find unexpected themes

What are the two general types of sampling techniques? What are the differences between non-probability sampling and probability sampling? Know different types of sampling techniques and how to use each of them (i.e., snowball, purposive, simple random sample, etc.)

Non-probability: Stafford Project -Convenience (Collection of readily accessible participants: Internet poll or On the street/Sent to friends) -Purposive (Only subjects selected for specific characteristics/qualities: College students for the Stafford) -Snowball (Qualitative based, asking respondents for referrals) -Quota (Participants are selected to meet predetermined/ known percentage: Balance of gender respondents) -Panel (Purposively recruit participants with different attributes, commonly used in PR and Ad.) Probability: Selecting people for study randomly -Simple Random (Equal chance of being selected: Assign ID number to population and randomly select participants to eliminate bias: Generator ) -Systematic Sample (Every nth person will be selected from chosen starting point: Used in content analysis a lot) -Stratified (Like quota, it's used to receive adequate representation of a subsample, ensures that sample is drawn from homogeneous subset: Maintain percentage of both male and female are participants) -Cluster (Selecting group in category: Analyzing magazine readership habits in Norman, divide city by streets, relatively less used-Mainly community surveys)

What are the stages of development for public (nonpublic, latent, apathetic, aware, active)?

Publics based on involvement and knowledge (org./service/issue) -Non-public -Latent public -Aware public -Active public

Understand how focus group analysis is different (implications of conversation for analysis) (readings)

Purpose drives focus group analysis and reporting

What is a focus group and what are the characteristics? Its advantages and disadvantages (vs. in-depth interviews); When is it more appropriate to conduct focus groups instead of in-depth interviews?

Qualitative research method collecting data based on group interactions -Attitudes and perceptions are developed in part by interaction with other people -Purpose drives focus group analysis Pros: -More conversational -Group dynamics stimulate deeper and richer discussions -View things differently -Discussion help verbalize one's thoughts -More spontaneous -More interesting for participants Cons: -Dominant vs. silent participants -Group pressure against minority opinions(power of group) (Conformity bias) -Sensitivity of the topic -Group data, not individual data

Understand basic layouts of survey design and issues to be cautious about when designing questionnaire layouts and question orders

Quantitative Research Questions: -Recall your information needs -What information have you already obtained through secondary research and qualitative research? -What else is needed? -FOCUS! Understand the goals of the project so that only relevant questions are included Survey Layout: -Introduction → body → conclusion -Font sizes, typeface, visual, view on multiple platforms, etc. -Length of survey (10-15 min, or around 25 questions) -Multiple sections of instructions and questions (group similar ones together) Question orders: -Questions at the beginning will influence how respondents answer later ones (Demographic can go at beginning to filter out) -Simple/Interesting questions → Hard/long questions -General → specific -Non-sensitive → sensitive

Which of the following level of measurement has the highest statistical power?

Ratio

Levels of measurement. Understand the differences among different levels of measurement. Know examples of each level of measurement. Statistic powers of each measurement level. The importance of measurement and sources of measurement error.

Ratio: Has a true Zero point, similar to interval -Has the properties of interval scale, plus -The existence of a true zero point -The most sensitive, powerful type of data, highest form -Contains the most precise information about each observation -e.g., age, time, distance, weight -Ex: Runners time in LA Marathon Nominal: Categories, multiple choice -The weakest form of measurement -The way of classifying people/objects/characteristics -No Rank - numbers do not have a meaning -E.g., 1=female, 2=male, 3=other -Mutually exclusive (Categories have same characteristics) -Exhaustive -(Gender, Ethnicity, Religious affiliation, Political affiliation, Education) -Ex: Categories of ethnicity in this class Ordinal: Ranking (High, medium, low) (Socioeconomic status, football rankings) -Ranked along some dimension (e.g., smallest to largest) -Equivalence -Subjects within the same category are treated equally -Subjects across categories are ranked via values but no equal distance between the values -Socioeconomic status -Rankings of football teams -Bestselling books(#1,#2,#3 bestseller,etc.) -Ex: Small, medium or large size drinks at Movie theater Interval: Scale (12345), numbers have meaning -Has all the properties of an ordinal scale, but the distance between attributes does have meaning -Equal distance between values -Lacks a true zero point -Represents a more sensitive type of data or sophisticated form of measurement -IQ, reputation scores -Scale data: Likert scales, Semantic Differential scales (Measures individuals' reactions to a particular concept using contrasting adjectives: Favorable/Unfavorable) -Scale data = Interval data -Ex: Scores on a "self-esteem" scale of Hispanic managers -Likert Scale (Please indicate the degree to which you agree with the following statements: (Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Natural Agree, Strongly Agree, 123451) 1. I have a good feeling about this company (emotional appeal) 2. This company offers high quality product and services 3. This company has excellent leadership (vision and leadership) 4. This company looks like a good company to work for 5. This is a reliable and financially strong company 6. This company has good performance on its social and environmental responsibilities A researcher assigns numerals to objects, events, or properties according to certain rules (Example of measurement) Nominal and Ordinal: Categorical/Discrete Variable Interval and Ratio: Continuous Variables Higher statistic power means you can: -Perform more advanced statistical procedures on the data -Gain more insights & info based on analysis -Try to use interval variables, if you can -Nominal: Gender -Ordinal: Socio-status -Interval: Reputation Sources of measurement error: -Respondent -Situational factors (Asking after a football loss) -Measurer (the researcher) -Instruments

What is reliability and validity? How to secure them?

Reliability: -A measure is reliable if it consistently gives the same answer -Does not ensure accuracy Validity: -A measure is valid if it accurately reflects the concept it is intended to measure -Face Validity -Instrument measures what we think it measures Brainstorm and conceptualize is how you secure both How to secure them: Drafting and Refining the measurement instrument -Introduction -Clear instructions -Appropriate arrangement of questions -Instrument length -Pretest!!

Institutional Review Board (IRB): what it is, who established it.

Research Ethics! Established by Belmont Report -A panel of people who determine if a proposed research study is ethical -Every institution that conducts research (i.e., colleges, universities, etc.) has an IRB -Studies CANNOT be conducted unless it receives approval from IRB -If you are conducting a survey research study at OU (and intend to publish it), you will need review and approval from the following entity

What is syndicated research? (example firm: Neilsen)

Research conducted by a market research firm in an area that may be of interest to multiple companies or organizations within a particular industry (e.g., Nielson) Media exposure Media Profile Target Audience Profile (Superbowl)

Three core principles of ethical research (respect for persons, beneficence, justice): what do they each entail; how do they manifest in practice?

Respect for Persons -Informed (Know purpose of study to make an informed decision) -Voluntariness (Joining the study themselves) -Respect for anonymity and confidentiality -Respect for privacy Beneficence Maximizing benefits Do not harm - minimizing harm Justice No biases Benefits and burdens of research should be distributed fairly among people groups Manifested: Informed consent process, data collection/reporting, data storage (no identifiers), full disclosure -Comprehensible -Gives purpose

What is the appropriate sample size for different purpose of research?

Sample Size: Depending on time, resources, type of project (purpose and complexity) and research method -For a probability sample: 1,000-1,500 National poll: 1,000-1,500 PR Research: 250-500 -5-6% margin of error 95% of the time

Know steps of conducting survey research

Sampling Question Development Questionnaire Design and Pre-testing Administration of Questionnaire Distribution Data Analysis, Interpretation and Reporting

Organization-Public Relationship

Satisfaction Communal Relationship Trust Exchange Relationship Control Mutually Commitment Trust

Know the difference between secondary and primary research. Know the reasons and benefits of using secondary research and that of using primary research

Secondary Research Purpose: -Not everything we know we know is useful -There's useful things we know we don't know -We may not know what other people know -Collected by someone else Primary Research: Collecting original information -For formal research (Qualitative and quantitative) -Pros: -Direct needs -Completeness -Accuracy -Less biased -Less likely to misinterpret or mislead -Quality Assessment -Methodology typically not provided by secondary source -Source: Us -Ex: The Census

The process of planning/conducting focus groups (readings and lecture slides)

Select Moderator Determine Group Characteristics Brief Moderator Prepare, Pretest, and Revise Discussion Guide Determine Number of Required Groups Select Facility Schedule Groups; Specify and Recruit Sample Conduct Group Assess Group Success; Revise As Necessary Analyze and Present Findings Apply Findings to Decision Making

What are the criteria of selecting a focus group moderator?

Select a moderator based on: -Personality: attentive, respectful, active listener, open, clear -Background and experience: knowledge of the topic -Fit with the demography of the group -Brief the moderator -Enough to know the right questions

Corporate Reputation Relationship

Social Responsibility Workplace Environment Vision and Leadership Products and Services Financial Performance Emotional Appeal

Know different types of survey methods (person-to-person vs. telephone vs. mail vs. web); Know the pros and cons of different types of survey distributions

Survey Methods: Telephone Pros: -Marginal costs for multiple contacts -True random sample is feasible (Number generator through landlines) Cons: -Must be short -Question complexity must be simple -High refusal rate (Spam) -No visual stimuli -Landlines and screening calls Mail Pros: -Cost efficient per completed survey -Respondent convenience -Useful for sensitive data -Can reach large geographic areas (Community surveys) Cons: -Low response rates -Limited questionnaire length and complexity -Extended timing of data collection Internet: Using online survey tools (Qualtrics or Survey Monkey) -Recruitment through: Email lists, Social media/websites, Consumer panels/sampling companies Pros: -Cost efficient per completed survey -Respondent convenience -Useful for sensitive data (Anonymous) Cons: -Low response rate (If without compensation) -Extended timing of data collection -Special programming skills -True random sample and generalizability are not feasible Person-to-Person Pros: -Highest quality of data -Useful for long questionnaire -Visual stimuli can be used Cons: -Expensive and time-consuming -Highly trained interviewers -True random sample and generalizability are not feasible (Everyone has equal chance of being selected)

Which test to perform for the following research question? RQ: Is there any difference between female and male in terms of their awareness of the Stafford museum? (Awareness measured on a Likert scale)

T-test

The Belmont Report: what it is, its triggering event (Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment)

The U.S. government established the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research -Not legally binding Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment: -Clinical Study conducted by the U.S. Public Health Service from 1932 to 1972 -Test subjects were not informed that they had the disease, nor were they being treated

What is Research? Understand the different categorization of research, including definitions and examples - informal/formal, qualitative/quantitative, academic/private

The attempt to discover something Informal: Observation of people, events, or objects of interest as they occur Formal: Systematic gathering, analyzing, and evaluating of data via some methodology, be it quantitative or qualitative Qualitative Research: In-depth interview, Focus group, Field observation, Ethnography, Case study -Operational or contextual definitions of concepts/variables are crucial Pros: -Interview-interviewee rapport (rich experience) -Extensive, detailed probing -Rich data: Provide respondents' opinion, values, motivation, recollections, experiences, and feelings Cons: -Generalizability is an issue -Sensitive to researcher bias -Cost: Time-consuming, Labor-intensive, Highly trained interviewer/moderator Quantitative Research: Survey, Experiment, Content analysis, Social media analytics, Big data research -Netflix Users to determine viewer statistics -Observations must be quantifiable for statistical analysis -The more precise, sensitive the method/level of measurement ,the better Applied Research: Seeks to use theory-driven research in business world situations

What is response rate? Why is response rate important? What is the acceptable response rate?

The percentage of surveys that are returned High response rate: Less chance of significant bias (non respondents v respondents) -Female and older participants are more likely to respond (More male responses during Covid) Acceptable Response rate: The higher the rate, the better -20%: Adequate for analysis and reporting -50%: Good -70%: Very good

Know what is and how to evaluate/increase SEO

The process of affecting the visibility of a website or a web page in a search engine's unpaid results, determined by: Keyword, Google Algorithms -Update content, based on region, freshness -Based on page rank (Quality of external links): PageRank: Google's way of determining the importance of a site by giving it a score 1-10 (relevant content, regular updates, # and quality of links, etc.) -Update content, based on region, freshness -Based on page rank (Quality of external links) -Key words: More specific the better for ranking (Our public might use ambiguous words (Science Museum has good SEO)

Risk Management

The process of identifying, controlling and minimizing the impact of uncertain events on an organization

What are the major components of a social media audit? (know what social content and strategy and engagement metrics to audit)

The process of reviewing and evaluating your and your competitors' social presence -Content analysis -Not that objective or systematic Who (your brand, competitors, benchmarks) -Channels they use, their performance -Direct Competitors and Indirect Competitors Where (Channels) -Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, YouTube, Reddit, Snapchat, TikTok -What & When (social content and strategy) Why (engagements and performance) -Purpose -Engagement/Performance Metrics -# of reactions/likes /. shares / retweets /comments -Sentiments (positive, neutral, negative) -Time of increased engagement (Planning for the weekend, White collar time for posting) What and When (Social content and strategy/ Frequency) -Sharing headlines/photos from website with links -Containing text/image/video/link? -Key messages communicated (is there a key message?What are the key messages being communicated across the platforms?Who are the audiences?) -Who created the content (Created directly by the brand, Shared from external sources, Co-created with influencers: Tank Museum, Fenty influencers, Curated: Followers create the content, Wendys Twitter) -Communication styles (Narrations/storytelling, First person imagery, most engaging, Humanizing the brand, First person, Brand personality: Sincere, exciting, competent, sophisticated, rugged: National Cowboy Museum)

Know two kinds of definition of variable

Theoretical: the words used in a theory; can be basically dictionary or common use Operational: a definition that explains how the variable is to be measured in a specific research study - varies in different contexts and different research studies -Ex: "Public engagement" in public relations Measuring following variables: -Age (What generation are you from?) -Gender (What are your pronouns?) -Political affiliation (What party are you going to vote for?) -Social Media usage (What social media do you use? How often?)

What are the steps for focus groups/interviews data analysis? Know and understand each step.

Transcribe from video/audio -Verbatim (Recording all pauses) -Main ideas -Transcription software -Dragon -VLC media player Analyze (Find themes, patterns and trends) -Begin with informational needs (Research purpose/Research questions) -Find common patterns and trends in what your participants have said, and summarize them into themes -Focus on meaning and relationship rather than literal description -Not what they said, but what they meant -Summarize each theme in short phrases -Look for any unforeseen or unanticipated insights (be open-minded!) Reporting and summarize -Use themes as the organizing framework -Illustrate each theme with direct quotations and paraphrased responses (one or two per theme) -"Richest" quote -Don't use numerical description -Provide alternative explanations -Cognitive Maps: Visual of interpersonal relationships to find themes Qualitative data analysis software -Atlas ti -Nvivo

"Sincere" is one of the five brand personality types.

True

A hypothesis is a tentative prediction about the nature of the relationship between two or more variables.

True

Know what is involved in a situational analysis (analyzing the situation and the organization)

What is the background of the situation? -Cause? -Facts? Consequences of the situation? -Mission? -Opportunity vs obstacle? Resolution -Mutually benefit? In-depth analysis -Support your claims with secondary data -Cite credible sources -Check multiple sources/viewpoints -Be specific Be very specific! -Make your own argument -Use secondary data to back yourself up -E.g., Too broad - "Millennials use social media to connect with family and friends" -E.g., Specific - "According to a survey by Gallup Poll Briefing in 2014, 94% of millennials say they use Facebook to connect with family and friends (Swift, 2014)"

According to the readings this week, good focus group questions ...

evoke conversation are open-ended are clear