PSY 201 Chapter 8: The Adaptive Mind: Learning
Dr. Graham exposes rats to a vanilla scent prior to receiving a food pellet in the left corner of their cage, but provides no food after exposure to a lemon scent. After several trials, upon smelling a vanilla scent, the rats wait at the far left corner of the cage regardless of whether a food pellet is present. However, they do not wait in the far left corner when exposed to the lemon scent. What is the unconditioned stimulus in the experiment?
food pellet
Pavlov's original experiment was an example of ______.
forward conditioning
Eli is afraid of bees, and has been ever since he was nearly stung by one a few months ago. Lately, his father has been very distressed to see that Eli is now afraid of any flying insect, even tiny ones like gnats. The fact that Eli gets terribly afraid and runs to another room whenever he sees a flying "bug" demonstrates _____.
generalization
The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to an original conditioned stimulus is called ____.
generalization
Research on concussions in high school athletes suggest that _____.
girls are at more risk of a concussion than boys
Your friend asks you if it is possible in the three stages model of memory for memories to go directly from sensory memory to long-term memory. How should you answer?
No, the model says that information has to travel in sequence from one stage to the next.
A company that markets air fresheners has a series of commercials about being "nose-blind," that is, people getting used to odors such as those from pets or cooking pungent foods to the extent that they no longer notice them. "Nose-blindness" is actually ______.
habituation
A physical therapist who attempts to treat a person with chronic motion sickness by repeatedly exposing the person to the stimulation that causes the motion sickness is using ____.
habituation
The tendency to ignore an unchanging, repeated stimulus is called ________.
habituation
If a behavior continues to be exhibited in spite of the fact that no reinforcement is being given, it is likely that the behavior ____.
has been previously conditioned according to a partial reinforcement schedule
Studies on the intellectual achievements of African American children adopted into affluent white families show that by middle school, the African American children score _____.
higher on intelligence tests than the average white child
The fact that recalling a memory involves reconstructing the basic elements and constructing other elements to fill the gaps in our memories, suggests that human memory can be ____.
highly inaccurate
As a gate creaks open, Oscar the puppy notices a cat heading into his yard. The cat hisses and scratches Oscar on the nose, causing Oscar to yelp in pain. Which outcome to this scenario portrays higher order conditioning?
Now when Oscar hears a gate creak, regardless of who is coming through it, he runs away.
The first step in problem solving is to _____ the problem.
identify
Strict behaviorism tends to ______.
ignore the influence of cognitive processes
In what process do mirror neurons play a key role?
imitation
When you tie your shoes, you are most likely making use of your ______.
implicit memory
Proactive interference ____ and retroactive interference ____ as we get older.
increase; increases
The experience of suddenly realizing how a problem can be solved, or ________, was the focus of the research of Wolfgang Kohler.
insight
Experienced whale trainer Dawn Brancheau was killed by one of her favorite killer whales during a 2010 show at Sea World in Orlando, Florida. Animal experts believed that the whale had simply reverted to normal whale behavior; illustrating ____.
instinctive drift
The Brelands concluded that animals' strong instinctive behaviors predominated over behaviors that had been conditioned, which they described as ____.
instinctive drift
According to the law of effect, if an organism commonly expresses a certain behavior, you can bet that the behavior ____.
it has led to positive consequences in the past
According to Lev Vygotsky and his sociocultural theory, ______.
language is a primary means of transmitting cultural elements from generation to generation
A person with schizophrenia who associates a boiling pot of water with anger has reduced ____.
latent inhibition
At dinner Candace eats several familiar food (pasta, salad, bread) and an unfamiliar food (mussels). Later that evening she suffers abdominal discomfort. She attributes this to the mussels, but later learns that she had developed a sensitivity to gluten. Her misattribution of the problem to the mussels is likely due to ____.
latent inhibition
Even though you do not plan to be a teacher, you make mental notes of the way your teacher handles the class or explains a certain topic because it might come in handy one day. These mental notes you are making illustrate
latent learning
Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement is referred to as ____.
latent learning
According to the ______, behaviors that lead to positive consequences will be strengthened and behaviors that lead to negative consequences will be weakened.
law of effect
As Angel speeds down Elm Avenue, he suddenly slams on his brakes to avoid a collision with another car. Angel's response is an example of a(n) ____.
learned behavior
Which process below is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience?
learning
What model predicts that information that is processed deeply and elaboratively will be best retained in and recalled from long-term memory?
levels-of-processing
Spontaneous recovery can happen ______.
long after the response has been extinguished
Based on the work of Richard Dawkins, the basic unit of cultural transmission is known as a(n) ____.
meme
Decay theory would have the hardest time dealing with any research finding suggesting that _______.
memories can last a very long time, even if they have not been assessed periodically
Based upon research regarding gender and memory, what can be concluded?
memories of childhood may be influenced by the different manner in which men and women are socialized
Bits of information stored in our memory are called _____.
memory traces
Which of the following is an example of a conditioned reinforcer?
money
Why does associative learning provide an enormous survival advantage?
Organisms can predict the future and thus are given time to prepare for future events.
Miranda comes home late one evening past her curfew only to find her parents waiting up for her. Her father says, "Miranda, you're late! You may not use the car for an entire month." Miranda's father is using ____.
negative punishment
Richard, who is sixteen years old, misses his curfew and as a result is grounded by his parents. His parent's actions illustrate ____.
negative punishment
Tanya and Bob have found that taking away their teenagers' cell phones or taking away other privileges are effective in reducing any "misbehavior." Tanya and Bob are using
negative punishment
Joseph tells his buddies at work a joke that makes fun of women. To his surprise, his friends scolded him. As a result, Joseph decides never again to tell a joke like that at work. Joseph's experience is an example of what type of consequence?
Positive punishment
Which method will make punishment more effective?
Punish the bad behavior each and every time it occurs
Which statement is TRUE regarding punishment compared to reinforcement?
Punishment often only has temporary effects.
What type of consequence is Mayra using when she tells her daughter that she does not have to do the dishes for a week because she did so well on her weekly spelling test at school?
negative reinforcement
What type of consequence is Myra using when she tells her daughter that she does not have to do the dishes for a week because she did so well on her weekly spelling test at school?
negative reinforcement
Lucia, who experiences extreme anxiety when taking an exam, practices meditation breathing to reduce her anxiety prior to taking a test. Her meditation breathing is an example of a ____.
negative reinforcer
In a typical classical conditioning experiment by Pavlov, a buzzer or tone serves as a(n) ____.
neutral stimulus that becomes a conditioned stimulus.
Learning that involves changes in the magnitude of responses to a specific stimulus is referred to as ____.
nonassociative learning
Research on the strong form of the Whorfian hypothesis has ______.
not supported the hypothesis
Learning is traditionally divided into three categories: associative, nonassociative, and ____.
observational
What type of learning is most influential in developing and maintaining culture?
observational learning
Social learning involves ____.
observing the behaviors of others and learning from them.
What was a key finding of the Bobo doll experiment?
Reprimanding the adult for her aggressive behavior slightly reduced the children's aggressive behavior
If you wear a particular tie and get teased and laughed at, you are less likely to wear this tie again. This illustrates
operant conditioning
The process of associating a behavior with its consequences is known as ____.
operant conditioning
On Fridays, you know that you can dress casually for work, but on Wednesdays when the corporate executive usually drops by, you know you should dress in your best suit. This illustrates
operant stimulus discrimination
If your 9-year-old child uses the title "grandpa" to refer to all older men, she is exhibiting a common language tendency called ______.
overextension
Which of the following is an example of a fixed ratio schedule of partial reinforcement?
Sam earns extra money by driving a shuttle bus from the airport to the hotel. He is paid $20 per trip, but Uber drivers and taxis sometimes pick up all the passengers going to the same hotel and Sam has to wait for the next flight to arrive.
Which of the following is an example of a fixed ratio schedule?
Sam earns extra money by mowing his neighbors' lawns in the summer and shoveling their driveways and sidewalks in the winter. He charges $20 per job.
Who is likely to discontinue his or her behavior first if reinforcement completely stops?
Sam, who receives $20 each time he mows his neighbor's lawn
Reinforcement of a behavior only some of the time it occurs is called a ____ reinforcement schedule.
partial
The reinforcement of a desired behavior on some occasions but not others is called ____ reinforcement.
partial
The reinforcement of a desired behavior on some occasions but not others is called ____.
partial reinforcement
A modified cage containing levers or buttons that can be pressed or pecked by animals and is used to investigate operant conditioning is referred to as a ____.
Skinner Box
Behaviorism is to ____ as social learning is to ____.
Skinner; Bandura
To move information from iconic sensory memory to short-term memory, you must _____.
pay attention to the information
What is one of the index scores on the WAIS-IV?
perceptual reasoning
Watson and Skinner believed that ____.
personality is shaped by rewards and punishments
The smallest units of sound that are found in a language are called _______.
phonemes
Kim is a daycare worker. She recently decided that the children would no longer be allowed to watch Batman on TV because so many kids were getting into fights on the playground after watching this cartoon. What best explains why watching Batman would influence the children to fight on the playground?
Social learning
As Ronnie hears a song on the radio, she feels stressed: her heart races, her hands become clammy, and her breathing becomes rapid. The song is familiar because it was very popular at a time when her parents were going through a divorce that caused Ronnie intense anxiety. In this scenario, identify the following in the same respective order: the conditioned stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response, and the unconditioned response.
Song; parents fighting; anxiety toward song; anxiety toward parents fighting
Which of the following approaches would B.F. Skinner recommend to alter an undesirable behavior?
Standing by but ignoring a child who is having a tantrum in the grocery store
A consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behavior by applying an aversive stimulus is referred to as ____.
positive punishment
Joseph tells his buddies at work a joke that makes fun of women. To his surprise, his friends scolded him. As a result, Joseph decides never again to tell a joke like that at work. Joseph's experience is an example of what type of consequence?
positive punishment
Lloyd's roommate, Don, classically conditioned Lloyd to cringe whenever Don opened a squeaky drawer by pairing a squeak with a ping pong ball to Lloyd's head. Lloyd wants to return the favor, so when Don is out, Lloyd secretly wires an electrode to the drawer handle so Don will be shocked when he touches it. Lloyd is using _____.
positive punishment
Whenever little Bobby cries, his father spanks him. Bobby's father is trying to decrease Bobby's crying through the use of ____.
positive punishment
After a stressful day of work, Randi often makes small burn marks on her inner arm with a cigarette; which she feels helps her sleep better at night. This type of behavior is an example of ____.
positive reinforcement
Tina has a heavy class load and is spending a lot of time studying, to the dismay of her beloved dog, Bobo. When Bobo walks over and puts his chin on Tina's leg, she pets him and gives him a treat from the bag she keeps in her desk drawer. As a consequence, he continues walking over and putting his chin on Tina's leg. Tina has used ____.
positive reinforcement
Which of the following is likely to provide the most powerful method for managing behavior?
positive reinforcement
What was a key implication of Garcia and Koelling's classic taste aversion studies?
The studies highlighted the unique biological predispositions of specific species.
Presentation of a rewarding stimulus serves as ____, whereas removal of an aversive stimulus serves as ____.
positive reinforcement; negative reinforcement
Which of the following would decrease the likelihood of acquisition?
The unconditioned stimulus is presented long after the conditioned stimulus.
The law of effect was proposed by ____.
Thorndike
What is a token economy?
Tokens are exchanged for valued reinforcers to increase the frequency of a desired behavior.
Sam recently lost his grandmother. Now Sam feels sad whenever he smells the perfume his beloved grandmother used to wear. In this example, what is Sam's sadness?
UR
Yanna used to date a man who wore lime-scented aftershave. Yanna was very attracted to this man, and now when she smells the scent of lime, she finds herself slightly aroused. In this example, what is Yanna's ex-boyfriend?
US
What type of stimulus elicits a response without prior experience—that is, without learning having taken place?
Unconditioned
If you remember how to tie your shoes, you are specifically using a _______.
procedural memory
When is the matching law most applicable?
When exposed to at least two schedules of reinforcement
What is an example of an orienting reflex?
While standing in line at the cafeteria, you turn around to see who poked you in the back
Which type of response cannot be classically conditioned in humans?
quitting your job because it does not pay enough
What type of partial reinforcement depends on the number of times a behavior occurs?
ratio
Based on his experiments with rats in mazes, Edward Tolman believed that ____.
rats developed a cognitive map for where they could find food
Edward Tolman studied rats running through mazes and found that ____.
rats that had been allowed to wander through the maze without rewards learned the maze more quickly than normal once they began to be rewarded for reaching the end
A child puts her hand on a hot stove. She quickly removes it. This is an example of a(n) ____, and it involves ____.
reflex; involuntary reaction
Inevitable, involuntary responses to stimuli that are primarily controlled by circuits located in the spinal cord and brainstem are referred to as ____.
reflexes
In a continuous reinforcement schedule, ______.
reinforcement is given every time the behavior is exhibited
In operant conditioning, extinction occurs because ____.
reinforcement no longer follows the behavior
Sigmund Freud's theory of forgetting is called ______.
repression
What type of interference leads to difficulty remembering old information?
retroactive
A pig trained by the Brelands to pick up large wooden coins and deposit them in a wooden "piggy bank" learned quickly to do so for food rewards, but eventually ____.
reverted to rooting for the coins instead, in accordance with its natural approach to food
A person without iconic memory probably would not be able to remember anything that he or she ______.
saw
A token economy makes use of a(n) ____.
secondary reinforcement
How are long-term memories most often encoded?
semantic form
The three stage model proposes that memory stage operate in a _______ fashion.
serial
What is an example of a primary reinforcer?
sex
Nash is fed up with hearing his friends brag about the tricks their dogs can do, so he decides to train his hyacinth macaw how to shoot basketball, using a bird-size ball and hoop. He starts out by giving Indigo a treat for touching the ball with his beak. When Indigo reliably touches the ball, Nash begins reinforcing Indigo for picking the ball up in his beak, and, behavior by behavior, eventually trains Indigo to shoot hoops. Nash is using ____.
shaping
The rats involved in Skinner's research boxes learned to press levers for food through the process of ____.
shaping
What is an effective method for teaching a new behavior that involves balancing too much versus too little reinforcement?
shaping
Shaping differs from simple reinforcement in that ____.
shaping involves the reinforcement of different behaviors until an ultimate behavior is expressed
Three conditions must be met for punishment to have any observable effects on behavior: ____.
significance, immediacy, and consistency
Kim is a daycare worker. She recently decided that the children will no longer be allowed to watch Batman on TV because so many kids were getting into fights on the playground after watching this cartoon. What best explains why watching Batman would influence the children to fight on the playground?
social learning
Kim is a daycare worker. She recently decided that the children would no longer be allowed to watch Batman on TV because so many kids were getting into fights on the playground after watching this cartoon. What best explains why watching Batman would influence the children to fight on the playground?
social learning
Polly sees her mother baking cookies one day. Two weeks later at kindergarten, Polly and her friends are playing house and Polly begins to mimic the steps she saw her mother going through when making the cookies. Polly's play acting in kindergarten shows that ____.
social learning involves the use of memory
Who will most likely learn a second language fluently?
someone who begins learning it at a young age
During extinction training, the reappearance of conditioned responses after periods of rest is called ____.
spontaneous recovery
Greg, who mainly smoked cigarettes when out with friends, recently quit smoking. However, each time he visits a bar or restaurant with his friends, he has the strong urge to light up a cigarette. This is an example of ____.
spontaneous recovery
The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response is called ________.
spontaneous recovery
Thorndike's law of effect states that behavior is ____.
stamped into an animal relative to the consequences of the behavior
If "Little Albert" had developed a fear of large white rats, but not of small white rats, psychologists would label that an example of ____.
stimulus discrimination
Jennifer normally experiences a flood of romantic feelings whenever she smells a particular cologne because it reminds her of her boyfriend. Thankfully, when her younger brother wears a different cologne, she does not experience the same feelings. This is an example of ____.
stimulus discrimination
After "Little Albert" was conditioned to fear a white rat, he began to fear several other furry things. This is an example of ____.
stimulus generalization
When you go to the store in search of a particular brand or style of shoes, you are searching most directly within a _____.
subordinate category
According to Rescorla and Wagner, the association between a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus is strongest when the association is ____.
surprising
Counterconditioning in which people relax while being exposed to stimuli that elicit fear is referred to as ____.
systematic desensitization
Where would the placement of a neutral stimulus most likely yield the strongest classical conditioning outcome?
a neutral stimulus that is consistently presented immediately before an unconditioned stimulus
Classical conditioning is learning in which ____.
a previously neutral stimulus becomes capable of triggering a reflexive response
Sara allows her dog, Isabel, to run freely at a local park. As Isabel is chased by several other dogs, Sara notices that Isabel's hair rises up along her spine. Isabel's response illustrates ____.
a reflex
Juan feels nauseous every time he eats pizza because one time he ate pizza just before coming down with a stomach virus. Juan's nausea is most likely due to ____.
taste aversion
Sara allows her dog, Isabel, to run freely at a local park. When a truck drives by and its engine backfires loudly, Isabel quickly jumps up on her hind legs and barks loudly. Isabel's response illustrates ____.
a reflex
Determining whether an action constitutes reinforcement or punishment requires understanding ____.
the action's effect on behavior
The orienting reflex describes _______.
the attention we give to novel stimuli
If asked, many people would state that car accidents are a more frequent cause of death in the U.S. than strokes. However, the truth is that car accidents are just more sensational than the more frequent strokes. What would this mistake be an example of?
the availability heuristic
Psychologists define learning as
a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
Lora watches a certain news network that is well known for its harshly negative portrayals of the followers of a specific religion. When she visits a university campus and meets followers of that religion, she has an immediate, negative response. What is Lora using?
a representativeness heuristic
Nick wants to encourage his six-year-old daughter, Anna, to help with family chores. He makes an outline of a rainbow with seven bands so that Anna can color in a band each time she does a chore. If she does seven chores in a week, coloring in the full rainbow, she gets one dollar. Nick's technique demonstrates which methods?
a token economy, positive reinforcement, and a fixed ratio schedule
According to the principles of operant conditioning, when reinforcement for a behavior is stopped, ____.
the behavior will also stop eventually
The neutral stimulus in Pavlov's original studies was ____.
the buzzer
The case of Little Albert provides insight into ____ through ____.
the development of emotional response; classical conditioning
The serial position curve shows that when attempting to recall a list of items immediately after being exposed to them, ______.
the items at the beginning and end of the list are better recalled than the items in the middle of the list
Edward Thorndike is best known for his work on ____.
the law of effect
The fact that you go to work each day in order to have enough money to pay your bills is best explained by ____.
the law of effect
In Pavlov's original studies, what was the unconditioned stimulus?
the meat
Joseph goes out with his friends for pizza. Unbeknownst to him, he is coming down with a stomach virus. When the nausea associated with the virus kicks in, he vomits. Now, Joseph cannot even look at a pizza without feeling nauseous. In this example, the conditioned stimulus is ____.
the pizza
Joseph goes out with his friends for pizza. Unbeknownst to him, he is coming down with a stomach virus. When the nausea associated with the virus kicks in, he vomits. Now, Joseph cannot even look at pizza without feeling nauseous. In this example, what is the conditioned stimulus?
the pizza
When a classically conditioned response is no longer exhibited, ____.
the relationship between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus has been broken
What is true of heuristics?
they can lead to correct judgements
The fact that you can pronounce the words that you are reading in this sentence before you process them into long-term memory is mostly a problem for the ______.
three stages model of memory
What type of stimulus elicits a response without prior experience?
unconditional
What type of stimulus elicits a response without prior experience?
unconditioned
A reaction to a given stimulus that requires no previous experience is referred to as a(n) ____.
unconditioned response
In Pavlov's original studies, salivation to meat was a(n) ____, and salivation to a buzzer was a(n) ____.
unconditioned response; conditioned response
When treating alcoholism with aversion therapy, the drug called Antabuse is used as the ____.
unconditioned stimulus
When treating alcoholism with aversion therapy, the drug called Antabuse is used as the ______.
unconditioned stimulus
The initial establishment of a conditioned response is called ________.
acquisition
The phase of classical conditioning during which the conditioned response is developing is often referred to as _______.
acquisition
Thorndike concluded that his cats were learning because ____.
across repeated placements in a box, it took them a shorter amount of time to get out of the box
Children are most likely to pattern their own behavior based on the ____ of their parents.
actions
What method is least likely to improve your memory?
using maintenance rehearsal
A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response after a varying period of time is reinforced is called a(n) ____.
variable interval schedule
A schedule of partial reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs after a fluctuating number of behaviors is called a(n) ____ schedule
variable ratio
Which of the following schedules of reinforcement creates a response that is more highly resistant to extinction than the others?
variable ratio
Based on the findings of Garcia and Koelling, which type of stimuli would be most effective for training birds?
visual stimuli
Which of the following produces the strongest classical conditioning outcome?
when the US and NS are presented very close in time
Positive reinforcement is to ____ as negative reinforcement is to ____.
addition of something pleasant; removal of something unpleasant
When Antabuse is used to treat alcoholism through aversion therapy, the neutral stimulus in this classical conditioning example is ________.
alcohol
Determining the number of miles per gallon you got on your last tank of gas by dividing the total mileage since your last fill-up by the number of gallons of gas purchased would be an example of using an _______.
algorithm
A critical variable in determining whether modeled behavior will be imitated is
whether the model is successful or unsuccessful.
Algorithms can be thought of as "_______" as heuristics can be thought of as "_______."
always correct; may not be correct
Jenna, a recovering drug addict, attends counseling sessions so that she will no longer associate the sight of a needle and syringe with an expected drug effect. During the counseling sessions, Jenna handles a syringe without receiving any drugs as her counselor pairs a new signal with the sight of the syringe: a favorite song of Jenna's. The method used here illustrates the use of ____.
an inhibitory conditioned stimulus
Jim and his father are watching the ball game on TV. Jim's father starts to yawn and Jim soon follows. This is an example of ____.
an instinct
Primary reinforcers ____.
are directly reinforcing
Secondary reinforcers ____.
are those things that indirectly lead to other, directly pleasurable things
The process that determines which memory information gets transferred from sensory memory to short-term memory is _______.
attention
Which condition is characterized by a lack of gesture and facial expression imitation during infancy and deficits in empathy and social skills later in life?
autism
When a reinforcer is inexplicably withheld, the person or animal may start engaging in an increased rate of the associated behavior in an attempt to cause the reinforcers to resume. This is called an extinction ________.
burst
In one classic experiment, children learned to hit a "Bo-Bo Clown" doll
by watching an adult model.
Classical conditioning is to ____ as operant conditioning is to ____.
association of stimuli; consequences of behavior
Taste aversions provide an "exception to the rule" in classical conditioning because they ____.
can result from a single pairing of the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus
Kate's six-year-old son has autism. To help him learn daily tasks, she breaks down activities into their component parts. Tooth brushing, for example, involves several steps that occur in basically the same order each time. Which of the following learning principles would provide the strongest foundation for learning how to brush one's teeth in this context?
chaining
Martha wants to teach her dog Max the command, "Get beer, Max." This involves going to the refrigerator and opening it by pulling on a dishtowel tied to the handle, taking out a can of beer with his mouth, and bringing it to her dinner guest. Which of the following training methods is likely to work best?
chaining and positive reinforcement
Albert Bandura is best known for his studies on _____.
children behaving aggressively toward Bobo dolls
What is true regarding to a child's first words?
children's first words are usually names of familiar objects, people, or actions
Aversion therapy that uses Antabuse to treat alcoholism is based on the principle of _______.
classical conditioning
Based on a patient's prior experience with medicine, which mode of learning is likely responsible for the efficacy of the placebo effect?
classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov has been credited with the initial discovery of
classical conditioning
The formation of associations between two stimuli, which occur sequentially in time, is referred to as ____.
classical conditioning
When a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, ____ has occurred.
classical conditioning
When he was nine years old, Mike tried shrimp for the first time; but felt ill shortly after. To this day, he cannot bring himself to eat shrimp. This is an example of ____.
classical conditioning
Sonia first trains her new dog by saying "good dog!" before giving him a food treat. She then trains her dog to sit and stay, saying "good dog!" when he provides the correct behavior; while continuing to periodically provide a food treat. Sonia is using which method(s)?
classical conditioning and operant conditioning
If you have developed an extreme negative reaction to chicken because it was associated with a case of the flu in your childhood, you have a ______.
classically conditioned taste aversion
An internal representation of a relationship that acts as a guide would be referred to as a(n)
cognitive map
If latent learning is occurring, it suggests most directly that ____.
cognitive processes are influencing the learning process
Sometimes when making a decision we exhibit risk aversion, which means that we make a decision that reflects a ______.
concern over losing what we already have
A reinforcer that gains value from being associated with other things that are valued is called a(n) ____ reinforcer.
conditioned
A reinforcer that gains value from being associated with other things that are valued is called a(n) ____.
conditioned reinforcer
A reaction to a given stimulus that is learned or acquired over time is referred to as a(n) ____.
conditioned response
An environmental cue or event whose significance is learned is referred to as a(n) ____.
conditioned stimulus
An environmental cue or event whose significance is learned through classical conditioning is referred to as a(n) ____.
conditioned stimulus
If conditioning has taken place, the neutral stimulus becomes the ____.
conditioned stimulus
Because of the surgical removal of his hippocampus, H.M. was unable to achieve _______.
consolidation
Two very important factors that influence the strength of classical conditioning are ____.
contiguity and contingency
Tim, an alcoholic, is prescribed disulfiram by his doctor to help him halt his alcohol consumption. Disulfiram works by causing unpleasant physiological effects when even small amounts of alcohol are consumed. This type of treatment is best described as ____.
counterconditioning
When you cannot retrieve a memory because you are using the wrong probe, you are experiencing ______.
cue-dependent forgetting
If successful performance on a test requires knowledge that people of a particular culture do not generally have, the test is said to be ______.
culturally biased
Children typically begin to speak their first words at around ______.
12 months
In the 1950s, George Miller showed that the capacity of short-term memory is _______.
7 ± 2 bits of information
Martin is 18 years old, but he scored like an average 15-year-old on the Stanford-Binet intelligence test. Martin's IQ would be approximately ______.
83
When most people make shopping lists, they use terms like "apples," "shampoo," or "milk." A list like this is using _____.
basic level categories
What type of reinforcement schedule depends on the number of times a behavior occurs?
A ratio schedule of partial reinforcement
Who would have argued that we do not need to directly be reinforced or punished to learn?
Albert Bandura
Which of the following examples illustrate a US-UR pair?
An air puff in the eye elicits an eye blink.
What distinguishes a reflex from an instinct?
An instinct is a more complex behavior than a reflex.
Which of the following is an example of nonassociative learning?
Andrea recently learned how to drive a car. At first she found merging into highway traffic very stressful, but now can do it with ease.
One of the earliest purveyors of the behavioral model was ________, who noted that cognitive or mental processes have no place in the scientific study of psychology.
B. F. Skinner
Keller and Marion Breland, two of B. F. Skinner's former students who used operant conditioning to train animals for entertainment, encountered ____.
biological boundaries
Which of the following statements describes a belief of the early behaviorists?
Behavior follows the same general rules across species.
Brian watches the Boston Celtics games on TV. According to Bandura, what would motivate Brian to try to imitate the Boston Celtics?
Brian's friend improved his three point shot after mimicking the shooting style of one of the Boston Celtics.
Garcia and Koelling's findings prompted a renewed interest in ____.
biological influences in learning
Freddie used to feed her cat canned cat food. Now every time Freddie uses the can opener, her cat gets very excited and starts meowing. In this example, the US is ____.
Cat food
What is a key distinction between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning makes associations between two stimuli; operant conditioning associates a behavior with its consequence
What is a key distinction between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning makes associations between two stimuli; operant conditioning associates a behavior with its consequence.
How can extinction be avoided with operant conditioning?
Continuously reinforce a behavior, even after it is learned.
The hippocampus is to ______ memory as the cerebellum is to _______ memory.
declarative; motor skill
Children who grow up in a home that is bilingual will ______.
develop a high level of proficiency with both languages
Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning through his research on ______.
digestion
The learned ability to distinguish between stimuli is referred to as ____.
discrimination
Critics of animal language research argue that animals _______.
do not follow all of the grammatical and syntactical rules of human language
A neutral stimulus is defined as one that ______.
does not naturally elicit a particular unconditioned response
What is an example of a basic level category?
dog
In which of the following scenarios is Roxie the dog most likely to rapidly learn to associate a conditioned stimulus with food?
Each morning, Roxie's owner opens the squeaky kitchen cupboard, pours dog food into a bowl, and immediately puts the bowl of food on the floor for Roxie to eat.
Eduardo, a psychologist, uses counterconditioning to help his client, Catherine, address her extreme fear of heights. What technique is Eduardo likely to use?
Eduardo and Catherine repeatedly visit a scenic viewpoint at the top of a hill. They have a pleasant picnic there, gradually moving to picnic tables that are closer to the top of the hill.
Eduardo, a psychologist, uses systematic desensitization to help his client, Catherine, address her extreme fear of heights. What technique is Eduardo likely to use?
Eduardo teaches Catherine relaxation techniques then gradually, through guided imagery, asks her to imagine herself in a high place. If she starts to feel anxious, they temporarily return to the relaxation techniques.
Chang gets paid a $50 bonus for every 100 pairs of shoes that he sells. Chang is being reinforced on a ____ schedule of reinforcement.
Fixed ratio
Although hunger naturally occurs in response to an empty stomach, we can easily become conditioned to feel hunger at certain times of the day due to classical conditioning. In this case, the US would be the ____.
empty stomach
Rick wants his daughter to spend more time studying. Which strategy is most likely to work for Rick?
He should reward his daughter when she does study.
Which of the following is an example of a variable interval schedule?
Hoping to catch a message from her boyfriend, Wendy checks her email again and again throughout the day.
What indicates that imitation provides adaptive advantages?
Imitation is frequently used in the animal world.
In which of the following examples is the person likely to show the highest, and very steady, rate of response over time?
In hopes of winning a big jackpot, Penny plays the slot machines at a nearby casino.
Thorndike's Law of Effect states that behavior is ____.
engrained relative to the consequences of the behavior
What is true of operant conditioning?
It generally involves voluntary behaviors.
Why is the process of sensitization advantageous?
It improves reaction time.
What is a disadvantage of continuous reinforcement?
It is not convenient.
Marcus, who runs a software development company, repeatedly thanks his administrative assistant, Shana, for her hard work. Lately however, Marcus neglects to acknowledge the accomplishments of Shana; leading to her dwindling performance. What likely contributed to Shana's performance problems?
extinction
Tim would like to stop drinking alcohol, but he is finding it difficult to resist the urge to drink when he meets up with friends. Tim's therapist assures him that if he can resist the urge to drink during these social events, his cravings for alcohol will diminish even further, eventually fading away. What process is Tim's therapist describing?
extinction
When Roxie the dog was a puppy, she would jump excitedly on anyone who entered the house; receiving praise for her actions. Now that Roxie weighs 65 pounds, Roxie's owner has asked everyone who enters the house to ignore the dog until she settles down. This scenario illustrates the use of ____.
extinction
What is an advantage of observational learning?
It transmits information across generations.
Who was responsible for the classical conditioning of Little Albert?
John Watson and Rosalie Rayner
Which of the following methods of behavior modification adheres to the Premack Principle?
Knowing his daughter loves to ride her bike, Miguel states: "you can ride your bike as soon as you clean your room."
What is true of latent inhibition?
Learning associated with latent inhibition is slow; resulting in relatively poor learning.
What test is used for emotional intelligence?
MSCEIT
Mrs. Collora teaches social studies to junior high school students. Two boys in her class often loudly make jokes about the material being discussed. She has tried several techniques without success: 1) ignoring them; 2) encouraging and rewarding them for contributing to the class discussion; 3) removing their opportunities to participate in field trips; and 4) sending them to detention. In the order presented, list the operant conditioning principles she has applied to the situation.
extinction, positive reinforcement, negative punishment, positive punishment
John B. Watson was successful in conditioning ____ in "Little Albert."
fear
Which of the following is an example of a variable interval schedule of partial reinforcement?
Marcus takes his daughter Rebekah fishing, and explains that you never know how long you have to leave your line in the water before a fish will bite.
In the famous case of Little Albert, the unconditioned response was
fear of a loud noise
Which of the following is likely to be the most efficacious form of punishment?
Marjorie promptly takes away her son Ben's crayons each time he refuses to share with his younger brother, causing Ben to cry.
A schedule of partial reinforcement in which the first response after a specified period of time will be reinforced is called a ____ schedule.
fixed interval
Thea gets paid every two weeks and thus is being rewarded for her work on a____ schedule of reinforcement.
fixed interval
A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response after a specified period of time will be reinforced is called a ____.
fixed interval schedule
____ is the removal of an aversive stimulus that serves to increase a behavior, and ____ is the removal of a reinforcing stimulus to decrease a behavior.
Negative reinforcement; negative punishment
What mechanism is responsible for the process of extinction?
New learning overrides old learning.
A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs after a set number of behaviors is called a ____ schedule.
fixed ratio
Stress hormones may facilitate the storage of ______.
flashbulb memories
Sometimes when making a decision, we exhibit loss aversion, which means that we make a decision that reflects a _____.
focus on the cost associated with a potential gain
Which of the following would be considered a primary reinforcer?
food