PSY 271 Final Exam

What were some of the techniques outlined in the slides and in Whistling Vivaldi that have been used to reduce stereotype threat and increase academic performance in both higher education and K-12 school settings?

*Note how certain forms of feedback are more powerful in reducing stereotype threat and how it has been demonstrated that stereotype threat occurs in elementary school. Be aware of the mentoring project for Texas middle school students where Dweck's idea that understanding that intelligence and intellectual abilities can be improved is crucial to motivating students and teachers to strive for their best. ---- Experiments show that girls in early elementary school experience stereotype threat about math After a few weeks of school students were asked to write essays on the values that were most or least important to them. Those in the groups where they could articulate the values of most importance to them and affirm themselves improved grades over the control group and this grade improvement lasted for at least three years. ---- Based on Dweck's theory about attributions of the ability to improve IQ test scores. Low SES students were assigned a college student mentor during their first year of junior high school In the experimental group mentors told students about how problem solving brought new connections in the brain and helped them design a website saying this. The control mentors talked about drugs. Improvement effect sizes were substantial.

What is "tokenism," and how does tokenism impact on individuals who are in a distinct minority in a setting? How is the concept of tokenism related to stereotype threat, and why is the concept of "critical mass" important to an understanding of the reduction of the impact of tokenism?

...Belief that one has been given a resource as a "token" of increasing diversity is highly stressful and reduces the individual's self esteem. Pressure from stereotype that one has gained a place through special favors. Pressure from being a "representative" of one's group. Pressure from labeling of behavior based on group membership. ---- Pressure from the "imposter phenomenon" when the person wonders if they are an imposter who doesn't really belong. Pressure from stereotype threat. If one is the representative of one's group then there is the threat of confirming the stereotype. A critical mass of people from diverse backgrounds adds to the welcome. Do I see "people who look like me" in my environment? **(Note the idea of critical mass is noted in chapter 9 of Whistling Vivaldi and discussed in more detail later in this section of the course.) Note how intergroup conflict justifies prejudice and how this conflict leads to a cycle of conflict, prejudice, and conflict.

How do our stereotypes impact the we we process information about others?

...People notice and remember behavior that is consistent with stereotypes and ignore that which is not consistent. People see stereotype consistent behavior as going with and being caused by group membership. People interpret the same behavior in different terms because of stereotypes.

What does the Hopkins v. Price Waterhouse case tell us about the role of gender stereotyping, evaluation of women, and employment discrimination?

A research study involved men completing a sexism scale and a questionnaire measuring acceptance of rape myths. Men who scored high on either or both measures of hostile and benevolent sexism accepted more rape myths than men who scored low on sexism scales. Benevolent sexists accepted myths related to token resistance and hostile sexism was related to such myths as women deserve to be controlled. ---- Ann Hopkins was an associate CPA with Price Waterhouse and she was denied partnership despite the fact that she had more billable hours than anyone in her cohort of associates. She was negatively evaluated because she was "brash" and she used foul language at work. The U. S. Supreme Court agreed that this was an example of discriminatory gender stereotyping. When gender stereotypes are violated often there is a boomerang effect. This may be a double bind for women politicians and leaders because they must be "strong" and "nurturant" at the same time. The court did rule for the accounting firm based on the burden of proof about. discriminatory intent. Some gender stereotyping may have been reduced in the past twenty years.

How can Acceptance Commitment Therapy be used as part of an educational campaign to reduce prejudice?

ACT Is primarily used to treat a variety of psychological disorders, but it has also been used to address prejudice. It is a behavioral technique but it also relies on other methods including "mindfulness." It tries to reduce psychological inflexibility that comes from the various associations we have developed in our lives. We may need to become aware of our assoications but also how our long term values may require adding to our psychological flexibility. In a pilot studies ACT classes were compared to traditional anti prejudice instruction. ACT students were given exercises to demonstrate how implicit prejudice works and made more "mindful" of their stereotypes. The ACT group accepted their prejudice and used awareness to commit to change.

How did the "shelter" exercise that we did in class illustrate the use of respect development interventions?

An experiment by Harris compared a control passage with three priming passage outlining one of the three approaches. This is a little different from a typical multimodal method of intervening but it does not confuse content with method. The outcome measure was the Race Implicit Association Test that allowed for testing nonconscious, implicit racial attitudes. The IAT showed the greatest effect for the cooperative prime and questionnaires measuring racial prejudice tended to show the respect manipulation as most powerful. More research is needed to examine the role of more intensive interventions and with a wider range of students. There is a definite need to understand what works and with what audiences a given intervention is effective.

Note that human tendencies to categorize people in terms of our identity groups and "out groups" and the negative identity contingencies represent particular barriers to developing an inclusive society and that aspects of identity groups within the ADDRESSING framework are particularly relevant to these barriers.

As humans we identify with groups and separate ourselves from other groups. We categorize ourselves and others in terms of this group membership. This categorization frequently results in prejudice, discrimination, and stereotyping of others. Negative identity contingencies both in terms of actual loss of privilege, stress, loss of sense of self worth, and situational overload may result. Aspects of the ADDRESSING framework are particularly associated with identity contingencies.

What were some of Dr. Steele's early observations that led him to begin to develop the concept of stereotype threat and begin a research program to study the phenomenon?

Be able to describe the elements of the prototypical experiment on stereotype threat. In Whistling Vivaldi, Claude Steele outlined the research that led him to the understanding of the importance of the concept of stereotype threat. His observations launched a program of research. The learning objectives of this section of the course include an understanding of stereotype threat and an increased knowledge of research methods, the importance of research programs, and the ability to examine critically evidence. ---- Dr. Steele's early observation that African American Students at Michigan did worse in math than whites at all levels of SAT scores. A correlational study where women English majors of high ability performed the same as men on a challenging verbal ability test while women high ability math students performed worse than men on a challenging math test. Reports of African American students that they felt they did not belong at schools such as Amherst and Stanford despite strong ability and good high schools. Research by scientists that African American students did not study together or seek each other out when concerned about their math performance. Asian American students studied math together and made it part of the social interchange. African American students did not give up they often studied even harder but used the same techniques as before and failed to work with the graduate teaching assistants.

What is the difference between "modern racism" and "old fashioned racism?"

Be aware in Chapter 10 of Whistling Vivaldi of research indicating that people in America are more and more choosing to live and work with people who have a similar identity.

What aspects of reduction of the many aspects of reducing prejudice and increasing inclusiveness are emphasized by psychologists/ How does identity threat separate people and reduce the contact among people from diverse identity groups?

Be aware of some of the experiments outlined in Dr. Steele's book in Chapter 10 that gave him evidence for his interpretations. As Dr. Steele notes in Chapter 10, identity threat and the increasing segregation into identity groups can suppress efforts for equal access and for contact to reduce prejudice. Identity threat may be involved because of fear by people of majority groups that they will confirm the stereotype that their group is insensitive. They may feel that they are walking on eggs. This may be something that is particularly true in the workplace or in diversity workshops. Teachers may also feel this threat.

What aspects of the situation make contact among diverse groups most effective in reducing prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination?

Be aware that meta-analytic studies indicate that contact works and that the factors associated with good contact situations facilitate prejudice reduction but are not necessary for beneficial effects to occur. ---- The Robbers Cave experiment indicated the power of super ordinate goals. Equal status contact with opportunities for informal contact, high self disclosure, high trust, and norms of cooperation and prejudice reduction. The jigsaw classroom allows for minority groups to have access to valued information. Recent meta-analysis confirms the value of contact, but some studies show that the factors of cooperation, common goals, equal social status, institutional norms, and informal contact may be facilitating factors. They are optimal but not necessary for contact to improve intergroup relationships. One criticism is whether contact merely reduces individual self reported prejudices but does not change society or larger intergroup relationship patterns? Is actual contact necessary for reduction in prejudice? This is an important problem because actual contact among groups may be rare in everyday life.

Why is cooperative learning so highly valued in the schools? *What is the "jigsaw classroom" and "recognition and appreciative (evaluative) respect?"*

By the early 1990s, 70% of elementary schools had cooperative learning programs. **In the jigsaw classroom each member of racially mixed small groups is given part of the information needed fro a regular curricular topic, and they need to pool it to succeed.** Sometimes if the minority group member hesitates this adds to the stereotype. They can enhance academic achievement, improve intergroup relations, and promote cross racial friendships, but if teachers feel poorly trained and uncomfortable this limits classroom utility.

What are the basics of cooperative learning, tolerance enhancement, and respect based programs in the schools that are designed to reduce prejudice, and what did the experimental study reported on the slides indicate about their relative effectiveness? What are some important limitations of this study?

Cooperative learning programs are based on the contact hypothesis and involve the idea that prejudice will be reduced among diverse groups that cooperate and work together. Programs promoting tolerance are based on early questionnaire research showing that better educated people are more tolerant. Programs promoting respect are based on philosophical positions that respect for one another and the rights of others with whom we may vehemently disagree is a type of social virtue. ---- Political tolerance promotes tolerance and acceptance over intolerance in civics curricula and has been used to promote social tolerance of disliked groups. It is based on questionnaire studies that show less knowledgeable and educated people are less tolerant. The School Violence Prevention Program was based on this premise. Research has shown limited change for primary and secondary students using tolerance curricula, but is still very popular. Research indicates that employees who are recognized and given an opportunity to participate in decision making and training opportunities feel more respected and are more respected by other employees. Public commitment to respect may increase respect and emphasize norms for respect. The UNCW Seahawk Compact may also allow all of us to have this norm salient in our classes and workplace.

Random info

Different neural substrate with affective leaning associated with the Amygdala. Reward and punishment based, learned quickly and extinguished slowly. Semantic association areas in the cortex are associated with cognitive process and semantic memory. These areas are not connected directly Implicit stereotyping is cognitive and implicit evaluation is affective. Stereotypes reflect instrumental behavior such as judgments and impression formation. Implicit evaluation emphasizes consummatory behavior such as interpersonal preferences and social distance. ---- White participants exposed to stereotype of black male criminals with pictures of "looting" in Katrina. Support reduced for help for blacks but not whites. In another experiment white participants were played rap music supporting negative stereotypes of black women. This resulted in lack of support for policies benefitting black but not white women.

How are our emotional responses related to prejudice, and how do our associations with the dimensions of "competence" and "warmth" relate to emotional responses and prejudice"

Emotional labeling of groups predicts behavior better than stereotype content. Labeling goes along two dimensions: Warmth (trustworthy, friendly, sincere) and competence (skillful, capable) These labels are related to emotional responses. Emotional labeling of groups predicts behavior better than stereotype content. Labeling goes along two dimensions: Warmth (trustworthy, friendly, sincere) and competence (skillful, capable) These labels are related to emotional responses. ---- High on warmth and competence=pride Low on both=disgust High on warmth, Low on competence=pity Low warmth, high competence=envy Envy often begets genocide U. S. and European cultures higher on in group pride while Asian cultures are lower on ingroup pride but have the same responses to other emotions.

What were some of the experimental tests of the importance of critical mass and other cues in determining the identity threat that existed in the situation? (This material is on the slides and in Whistling Vivaldi.)

Experimental tests include testing women along with other women or men on math tests and allowing minority or majority group participants to view brochures or videos which indicate different potential levels of "critical mass." This one cue alone tends to be enough to engender identity threat and to account for reduced performance on tests. ---- While there are many approaches to reducing stereotype threat including increasing critical mass, experiments suggest a number of potentially efficient and effective techniques to reduce situational threat. They do not provide the whole answer to the problem but they are important steps to assisting in identity threat reduction. Also note how much they may help reduce prejudice in people from privileged groups. Dr. Steele in Chapter 9 outlines projects to help college students. One involved feedback for an essay on favorite teachers. Neutral and positive feedback did not result in improved performance by minority participants, but feedback that indicated an ability to meet standards did. Minority students shown essays from advanced students on how things got better substantially improved their grades over the control group. Engaging in informal conversation among all students reduced threat cues and allowed for interpretations that all students had similar difficulties. .

What is the distinction between benevolent and hostile sexism, and how do these two types of sexism affect stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination against women?

Gender stereotypes associate various characteristics with gender as if they are inevitably tied to men or women. Also there is a tendency to see the other gender In terms of out-group homogeneity. Gender role stereotypes tend to exaggerate differences between the genders. ---- Gender discrimination continues in a number of areas of society. Benevolent sexism emphasizes that women deserve protection, are superior to men in such traits as purity and taste, and are necessary for the happiness and fulfillment of men. Hostile sexism involves demeaning, dominating, negative attitudes. Women are seen as objects. Studies show both women and men give more respect to men. ---- Although all societies display some gender inequity particularly in division of labor within the family, there is vast variability in the level of gender equity among various cultures. Particularly patriarchal cultures seem to display the highest level of inequity and role differentiation between genders. Education of girls and women is an important factor in fostering gender equity.

What are the advantages and limitations of using guilt as a mechanism to motivate change to reduce prejudice?

Guilt can be used with people who believe they are egalitarian, but there are limits to using guilt in any situation. People can derogate or distance themselves from the victim. Collective guilt may reduce racism. People can be trained to just say no. The influence of opinion leaders can bring both normative and emotional changes.

What were some of the groups who showed stereotype threat, and why was it important to demonstrate the generalizability of the phenomenon?

High ability women math students participants The GRE advanced math subject test was used. This test has a high top with questions that are difficult and frustrating. In one condition students were told that the test was proven to be gender neutral thus reducing the stereotype threat pressure but not the difficulty of the test. Women in the group with lower stereotype threat did better and equivalent to the men. European American did worse versus Asian American men advanced math students with a math test unless test presented as ethnic neutral African American students with the GRE test especially when told that it would be reviewed by a professor who believed in a genetic bias for intelligence test scores. French working class students on a test of French language and grammar. European American men in a test of golf ability in a laboratory miniature golf course. Older adults on a memory test or problem solving test. . Women math students who were or were not reminded that they were Stanford students. Physics and chemistry majors did better than psychology majors on the Raven Progressive Matrices test when it was presented as an IQ test but the same when presented as a pattern recognition test.

How are implicit prejudices related to explicit behavior?

High and low consciously prejudiced persons were given subliminal presentations of neutral words or words associated with stereotypes. They read description of individual who for example did not pay rent until apartment was fixed. Stereotypes expressed by individuals given prime.

What is the "imaginary contact hypothesis" for reducing prejudice, and what conditions are necessary for imagination to work to reduce prejudice?

Imagery and imagination are necessary for goal setting, planning, and emotional control. Imagination uses similar neural pathways as those for planning, emotion, perception, and memory. Imagining a countersterotypical strong woman reduces implicit stereotypes more than imagining g a weak woman or a strong man. The bystander apathy effect was reduced by imagining being in a large group. The effect occurs when people can imagine themselves in a specific situation. ---- Imaginary intergroup contact involves imagination of a positive contact with a member of an outgroup. This involves imagination of a specific situation. It helps with the issues of opportunity for contact and apprehension about a positive outcome of the interaction. The imagination activates positive associations and abstract values and relates them to the outgroup contact. It may not substitute for other contact interventions but it sets the stage for them.

Why is it difficult to reduce implicit prejudice? This notwithstanding, what level of explicit prejudice (high or low) makes it easiest to reduce implicit prejudice and why is this so?

Implicit attitudes form as easily as explicit ideas but they are harder to reduce because they form at an early age, are non conscious and easily denied, and operate in situations where we are stressed and pressed for time. The people most susceptible to change of implicit prejudice are those low on self reported prejudice and who express a desire to change. Mindfulness techniques are important because people need to reflect on their attitudes. It is hard to change behaviors in the heat of battle and mindfulness techniques may take repeated tries.

What does recent research relating parental support of autonomy; implicit attitudes towards attraction to same sex partners, and explicit homophobia tell us about unconscious defense mechanisms and explicit statements of prejudice?

In a series of studies, Weinstein et al. examined the relationship between perceived parental support for autonomy and implicit and explicit towards homosexuality. When perceived parental autonomy support was low, there was a greater discrepancy between implicit and explicit attitudes. When same sex attraction was high with implicit tests, there may have been a defensive reaction formation.

In a series of experiments, Dr. Steele and his colleagues looked at the differences in where white male Stanford students placed chairs when they anticipated a difficult conversation racial issues.

In an experiment white, male Stanford students were led to believe that they would be engaging in a conversation with black students on love relationships or racial profiling. In the racially charged topic condition they place chairs further from minorities than in the other condition. Scores on the IAT and the Modern Racism scale did not predict chair placement and the effect did not occur with conversations with white students ** Note that he found that prejudice was unrelated to chair placement. Also note that he measured conscious prejudice with the Modern Racism Scale and non-conscious prejudice with the Implicit Association Test.

How can we attempt to reduce implicit prejudice, and why is "mindfulness" important in this process?

Increasing peoples' "mindfulness" helps those with implicit attitudes and stereotypes recognize their prejudice. This is especially true for low prejudiced people. Recatagorizing out group members as having similar goals helps reduce prejudice.

ostracism

Involves ignoring or excluding a group or individual. May be intentional or unintentional. May be a type of discrimination. The cyber ball game involves a virtual game where people are excluded from catching the cyber ball. This results in activating the same centers of the brain associated with physical pain. Rejection often results in depression and loss of self worth, and is associated with suicide. Ostracism is often a form of aggression and bullying especially cyber bullying. It assures a lack of opportunity for those excluded and eliminates social networks necessary for economic and personal advancement.

How did Dr. Steele conceptualize stereotype threat as a psychological phenomenon? Particularly note the stereotype threat is related to situational context that is potentially frustrating and where stereotype relevant cues may cause threat that one might be seen as confirming that stereotype.

It is not limited to members of traditionally stigmatized groups although the impact for less privileged may be greater in important daily life situations. Stereotypes must be culturally relevant to threaten. Although burdens of self deprecation and frequent experience of prejudice, discrimination, and micro aggression might apply, stereotype threat is situation based and experimentally reversible. Situational factors lead to decreased performance that might otherwise be equivalent without stereotype threat.

What does the research indicate about the value of formal and informal diversity enhancement efforts in higher education?

Longitudinal studies show attitude change among students in higher education as a result of diversity activities. Participation in formal diversity activities in the first year of college is related to more openness to diversity and awareness of racism. In one major study engagement in cross racial friendships did not influence openness to diversity and awareness of racism, but the question remains as to who participates in both formal and informal diversity activities.

How does intergroup conflict reinforce prejudice and prejudice reinforce conflict?

Marilynn Brewer challenges the idea that identity groups necessarily lead to out group derogation and that they are formed for a self enhancement motive She asserts that in group attachment and positivity are primary motives and independent of out group perception Security motives, belongingness and distinctiveness underlie universal in group favoritism Out group derogations vary as a function of intergroup relationships and conflict associated with threats to belongingness and distinctiveness.

What is the "extended contact hypothesis," and how is it related to reducing prejudice? How might the extended contact hypothesis be related to the training of parents to reduce prejudice?

Merely knowing that members of the in group have friendships with out group members reduces prejudice These in group/out group friendships are important in reducing prejudice (the extended contact hypothesis.) Teaching parents to model low prejudiced behavior can aid in prejudice reduction.

Why is it so difficult to reduce prejudice despite the amount of research that has been done on the subject?

Most people deny that they are prejudiced. Many prejudices are at the implicit nonconscious level and social pressures cause people to refrain from examining themselves. Mere contact may actually increase prejudice. Prejudicial attitudes are learned from the culture early in life, are supported by social norms, and these norms are rarely challenged. Prejudices support the status quo and downward comparison with the out group. Reducing prejudice may threaten the sense of self.

What did the Robbers Cave experiment reveal about the causes and reduction of intergroup conflict?

Named for Robbers Cave State Park in Oklahoma. Sherif set up a boys camp for the study. First separate group identity was formed through naming the groups and insuring competition among them and that one group got more rewards.. At this stage mere contact had no value. In fact it made things worse because their interactions made the competition more salient. Competition was replaced by the need for the groups to work together to meet transcendent goals.

Why did he think that reducing stereotype threat is important in the increasing of inclusiveness in the society?

Note in Chapter 8 that Dr. Steele emphasizes the criticality of the situational cues in inducing identity threat and consequently in reducing the stress of stereotype threat.

What is the "minimal group effect," and what does the concept tell us about group formation and identity beyond the social psychology laboratory?

Note the discussion of minimal group effect in Whistling Vivaldi. ---- Minimal group effect studies indicate that people will identify with one another even over minor characteristics. Group identity involves a sense of shared fate and tends to increase the members' self esteem. Often conflict arises when that identity is threatened.

How are situational cue important in eliciting identity threat?

Note the role of "critical mass" and how the situation is organized in terms of power and inclusiveness in determining whether the cues indicate identity threat exists. ---- In Chapter 8, Dr. Steele contends that situational cues play a big role in establishing identity threat causing people to worry about whether they belong and adding stress reducing cognitive resources that impact on quality of performance Threat cues heighten vigilance and increase attributions of bad intent from others. A critical mass is particularly important as well as other cues as to how a place is organized along group lines. For example, power differential and the use of physical space are important cues. All human beings particularly when they enter a new environment search for threat and opportunity cues in an environment and among the people they encounter there. People need to trust in the environment and in the people there. This has been seen as a particularly important cue in the healthcare environment and may account for some of the disparities in participation by minorities in health promotion and screening programs.

How does such conflict become a part of a cycle?

Out group derogation involves moral superiority, distrust of out groups, and social comparison. This allows for exploitation for gaining power. When trust is based on the in group it is easy to fear outsiders and increase conflict.

PPT six

Parental modeling, cultural institutions, and other sources of social norms teach children at an early age the norms of prejudice, discrimination, and stereotyping. These norms involve prescriptions and proscriptions for beliefs, emotions, and behavior. They are often based on no direct knowledge or experience with the target groups. Implicit stereotypes and emotional labeling often arise from these norms. Children are not born to hate. They learn these behaviors, but those behaviors, cognitions, and emotions instilled at an early age may be difficult for individuals to recognize as prejudice. It may take generations for some of these norms to disappear in a group. This is often related to a history of conflict among groups. Because people live in communities of similar people especially in childhood, it is rare that contrary information or experiences that refute these norms. ---- Throughout history groups have been in conflict over resources and territory. Often these conflicts last for generations or even when over linger in group norms. There is often a need to "justify" their actions by a privileged group than dominates a less privileged group. Because of cycles of conflict and retaliation the sense of justification for group actions against one another becomes part of a cycle of conflict.

What is the impact of categorizing people as part of "in groups" and "out groups" impact upon intergroup relationships, prejudice, and stereotyping? What is "out group homogeneity," and why is it an important concept?

People categorize others as part to the "in group" or "out group." There is a tendency to view members of the out group as all the same (out group homogeneity.) Members of in groups are viewed as having more differences (in group heterogeneity.) In group members are seen as good.

What are some of the cognitive and emotional impacts of stereotype threat on stress, cognitive load performance, and how does stereotype threat lead to a cycle of frustration, stress, and lowered performance?

People under stereotype threat report low stress but studies such as that by Aron and Dutton indicate that we may mislabel our emotional experiences. Physiological measures indicate that people under stereotype threat may be stressed. People have limited operational span in working memory, and stereotype threat may increase cognitive load reducing working memory efficiency.

What are the basic concepts behind the definitions of "prejudice," "discrimination," and "stereotyping," and how do psychologists distinguish stereotyping from other types of schemas that people use to describe others?

Prejudice represents negative attitudes towards members of a social group because of membership in that group. Discrimination represents negative behaviors towards members of a social group that result from prejudice against members of that group. Stereotypes are beliefs about social groups in terms of the traits or characteristics that they are deemed to share. They are cognitive frameworks (schemas) that shape perceptions, but the difference from other schemas is that they inevitably tie the trait to the person because of group membership.

What are some of the major impacts of discrimination, prejudice, and stereotyping particularly in terms of ostracism and "microaggression?"

Prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior reduce the sense of well being, economic status, and place in society of the targets of these daily "micro aggressions". They add to stress and impact on health. They drive apart groups in society. They affect the moral and legal values *Prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior reduce the sense of well being, economic status, and place in society of the targets of these daily "micro aggressions". They add to stress and impact on health. They drive apart groups in society. They affect the moral and legal values

Why is group identity both a source of social change and intergroup prejudice and conflict?

Previously group identity was seen as a mechanism that limited contact among diverse social groups even for those who wished more contact. It is also a source of prejudice and discrimination for those who have no desire to interact with people with different social group identities. It is a basis of social categorization of "them" and "us."

What were the basic conclusions that Dr. Steele drew in the last chapter of Whistling Vivaldi on the importance of stereotype threat and on the overall question of increasing social justice and equality in the society? What does he believe is the best way to reduce intergroup conflict and increase inclusiveness in our society?

Removing identity threat alone does not enhance school performance unless individuals possess the skills and believe they possess the skills to do the work, but without identity threat reduction people may not use the skills they possess and believe that they can acquire more. Attribution and self efficacy theories tell us that our views of the reality of our environment make it so.

Why was it important for Irwin Staub to develop a program to reduce intergroup conflict in Rwanda, and what were the basic design and objectives in his media campaign? What were the results of its evaluation as reported on the slides for this course?

Staub reports a radio drama campaign using a radio drama designed to reduce chances of a recurrence of the Rwanda genocide events. It grew out of community workshops that reached a limited number of people. It was a drama that embedded the educational message in a story of conflict between two villages over water rights and fertile land. The poorer village raided the better off village. Mutual hostility and conflict ensued, then trauma recovery and reconciliation occurred. ---- AIMS: Belief and behavior change through embedded messages that describe what peers do to improve communication and prevent violence (descriptive norms) and what they should do (prescriptive norms.) Motivate and empower people to be active bystanders who will resist influence for violent behavior and aim toward preventing violence. They had the lofty aim of inducing cultural change to reduce prejudice. The idea was to start with individual listeners and progress to change within the larger culture. ---- EVAL: There was a treatment group and several control groups with various interviews, focus groups, and unobtrusive behavioral observational measures as methods of data collection. For the treatment group there was an increase in empathy for prisoners and genocide victims, a change in perception of norms but not of personal prejudicial beliefs, and some potential behavior change in terms of ability to propose more means of communication and conflict reduction. One of the values of a radio drama in Rwanda is the popularity of radio listening and its potential impact of the intervention on large audiences. It allows for a compromise between efficiency and efficacy. Perhaps group listening would allow for more behavior change because the modeling of adherence to the norms and the public commitment might increase conformity. This type of evaluation tells us more about process outcomes not large scale social changes or difficulties in implementation on a large scale.

Why did Dr. Steele and his colleagues employ the various research methods that they did, and what was the direction of his overall research program? What were some of the strengths and limitations of the evidence and conclusions derived from this program of research?

Steele asserts that some African American students may actually persist without new strategies of success and enter into a cycle of frustration often without reaching out to fellow students or others in their environment. The stereotype threat frustration may lead to a cycle where people try harder with less success. The cycle may also lead to questioning whether one belongs. ---- Why did Dr. Steele primarily rely on experiments for his series of systematic studies on stereotype threat? How can he rule out alternative explanations? Why did he primarily avoid correlational studies in his research? Why did he test so many groups to demonstrate stereotype threat? Why did he study the role of stress in stereotype threat? What underlying mechanisms did he discover to explain stereotype threat effects?

What is the difference between "self stereotyping" and "stereotype threat." And how do these two factors impact on motivation and performance?

Stereotype threat occurs when people believe they might be judged in light of a negative stereotype (page 140-141 Self stereotyping happens when people incorporate a negative stereotype. Both require cognitive capacity and affect performance negatively. Stereotype threat may also reduce identity with a group.

PPT 7 info

Stereotyping based on group norms and identity supports intergroup conflict in three ways: First the downward comparison associated with stereotypes justifies negative actions. Second "outgroup homogeneity" means that all members of the outgroup are seen alike in their negative character. Often stereotypes involve labels that stigmatize and dehumanize. Third, continuing conflict means people continually notice negative characteristics further justifying action. ---- The cycle of conflict involves actions, often long forgotten, and then retaliation. The retaliation usually involves escalation in the conflict and a downward spiral of responses and continually escalating retaliations. Each side in the conflict tends to stereotype and label members of opposing groups and to see that they have morality and right on their side. The more powerful group uses the stereotype to justify its retention of power and control.

How does the work on the use of expressive writing to increase working memory shed light on the possible mechanisms that relate stress to poor academic outcomes?

Studies by Klein et al. showed gains in working memory when participants in a semester long study wrote about coming to college verus a trivial topic. More working memory and fewer intrusive thoughts were related to expressive writing about negative events compared to positive events and trivial topic writing subjects. Grade point average improvements were noted when students engaged in expressive writing.

What is "deep diversity and why is it important to take into account both "surface" and "deep" diversity in maximizing the contributions of all individuals to organizational effectiveness?

Surface characteristics such as gender, race, and to a certain extent ethnicity result in perceptions and responses related to prejudice, discrimination (including micro aggression), and stereotyping and training should address such issues. Deep diversity refers to differential roles resulting from societal perception, cultural norms, and individual difference factors associated with such roles. Organizations should be sensitive to deep diversity and take advantage of what it has to offer organizations. There is a fine line between sensitivity and stereotype.

What is the difference between conscious self reported prejudices and "implicit" non conscious prejudice?

Techniques for measuring the implicit attitudes associated with stereotypes such as the Implicit Association Test and the Evaluative Priming Technique (bona fide pipeline) indicate implicit stereotypes even among those who claim low prejudice on self report questionnaires. Many people have such implicit stereotypes.

How are the concepts of deep diversity and appreciative or evaluative respect similar to one another? How is diversity in group composition related to effectiveness of group decision making?

The best decisions seem to come from groups that are either very diverse or very homogenous. The least efficient decisions come from groups that have a small level of diversity. Diverse groups may take a little longer to form efficient groups but they may be more effective in the long run where groups can take advantage of the multiple perspectives and talents that come from diversity in group composition.

What were some examples given in class of experiments to evaluate how well this method works and what were the overall conclusions of the research?

The core instructions for the task include ideas such as, "We would like you to take a few moments to imagine that you are meeting (a stranger who is a member of an outgroup) for the first time. Imagine that the interaction is positive, relaxed, and comfortable." The core principles are that the person must imagine a simulated encounter not just the person and the encounter must be positive. If there is prejudice the person would probably imagine something negative without these instructions. ---- CONC: Improved intergroup attitudes among students who imagined positive interactions with older adults or gay men. College students showed less stereotyped attitudes when asked to imagine a brief positive interaction with an older adult. Heterosexual men showed less outgroup stereotyping when asked to imagine an encounter on a train with homosexual men than they did when imagining an outdoor encounter. There are greater projected positive outcomes of interactions with a sense of more positive traits for the outgroup. There is a reduced sense of anxiety. This may particularly because the personal self rather than the collective or social self becomes more salient. The fears of the group may be less important. While the studies may represent demand characteristics, making these societal norms more salient may have a positive effect in itself.

What did the two "false starts" associated with the Robbers Cave project teach us about the difficulties of reducing intergroup conflict?

The well known successful results of the study came after some false starts. In one study the boys ganged up on one camper as a common enemy. Similar to the story of the Lord of the Flies. In a second study the boys turned on the experimenters. These results illustrate the difficulty of reducing intergroup conflict because of the cycles of conflict and self fulfilling prophecies that can develop.

What are the major factors identified by psychologists and other researchers that underlie prejudice and discrimination?

Threat to group and group identity Social Categorization: The ultimate attributional error Social Norms: Allowances for groups to "appropriately" have prejudice and discrimination. Intergroup Conflict: Realistic conflict theory

What does social neuroscience research tell us about the function of implicit and explicit prejudice?

Trained police officers outperformed a community sample in speed and accuracy in the decision to shoot game. Unlike the community sample the police officers did not set the threshold of shooting lower for black than white targets. The response latencies of both police and community samples indicated similar types of implicit stereotypes

How do threats to group and individual identities impact on the categorization of the self and others, and how do such threats impact on a tendency to categorize people in terms of in group and out group homogeneity?

When individual identity is threatened as in existential terror we identify with group when positive aspects of identity are there. When groups are threatened prejudice and discrimination increase. When identity is threatened both ingroup and outgroup homogeneity increase, and a sense of ingroup superiority is higher.

What are the limits of didactic lectures and one way media campaigns in reducing prejudice?

While education and media campaigns may set the agenda and define organizational or community norms of equality and support for equity, they may not be as effective in changing behavior or attitudes. The people who are least receptive to the message are those who have the highest prejudice. Psychological "reactance" may result from forced attendance at educational events.

Did Dr. Steele assert that the only way to reduce discrimination and prejudice was through reducing stereotype threat?

While reducing identity contingencies may involve changes in social institutions such as increasing access and social justice, psychological barriers that add stress, reduce performance, and increase fears about inclusiveness may need to be addressed as a precursor. Steele's research indicates some of the depth and breadth of the effect. See Steele Chapter 11 for an important discussion of the conclusions that he drew from his research for discussions of public policy.

How do the experiments on the "shoot or don't shoot" training exercise descriptive of this relationship, and what did the research on the behavior of trained law enforcement officers tell us about the relationship of this research to behavior in the everyday environment?

With subliminal presentation low prejudiced person finds it harder consciously to suppress stereotype. White or African American face presented with ambiguous object. With African American face more likely to be labeled hand gun than tool. ---- Pop up targets were presented holding either a gun or other object. Participants were to "shoot" the target if he had a gun. The were told to respond very quickly. Mistakes were made both by not shooting target with gun and shooting unarmed target, Mistakes were equal for the white target, but shooting the unarmed African American target was much more likely -*

Why is workplace diversity training so important?

Work organizations need to be concerned about diversity training for legal, economic, moral, and productivity reasons. A global economy, diverse customer base, EEO laws, diverse workforce, and maximally productive work teams all demand a workforce sensitive to diversity, inclusion, and multicultural competence. In addition to reducing prejudice, discrimination and stereotyping an understanding of workplace harassment and the hostile work environment is important. Clear support in policy, norms, and culture by senior management of diversity and inclusion is crucial.

Microaggressions

are pervasive brief verbal, behavioral, or environmental slights. They contain implicit messages that result in frustration, anger, rage, depression, and hopelessness. The effects are cumulative and frequent. The slights are often unintended, unknown, or dismissed by the sender. Who should decide if one is slighted?