PSY Module 2

Which of the following is likely to provide the BEST basis for generalizing about the attitudes or behaviors of people in a particular population?

a survey of a representative, random sample of the people in the population

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

To explain behaviors and clarify cause and effect, psychologists use ____________

experiments

SQ3R

a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review.

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

In an experimental study of the effects of dieting on weight loss, dieting would be the _____ variable.

independent

To enable potential research participants to choose whether they wish to participate, researchers need to obtain their ______ prior to the study.

informed consent

When conducting an experiment, it is important to _____ and to hold constant or control other factors.

manipulate the factor or factors of interest

The research method in which researchers observe and record behavior in various environments without trying to control the situation is called _____.

naturalistic environment

The laboratory environment is designed to

re-create psychological forces under controlled conditions.

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

You wish to survey a group of people who truly represent the country's adult population. The best way to ensure this is to question a _________ sample of the population, in which each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

representative

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

hindsight

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

In everyday conversations, we may use this word to mean a "hunch." In science, however, it refers to an integrated set of principles that organizes observations.

theory

What does a good theory do?

1. It organizes observed facts. 2. It implies hypotheses that offer testable predictions and, sometimes, practical applications. 3. It often stimulates further research.

What is an unrepresentative sample, and how do researchers avoid it?

An unrepresentative sample is a group that does not represent the population being studied. Random sampling helps researchers form a representative sample, because each member of the population has an equal chance of being included.

How are animal and human research participants protected?

Animal protection legislation, laboratory regulation and inspection, and local ethics committees serve to protect animal and human welfare. At universities, ethics committees screen research proposals. Ethical principles developed by international psychological organizations urge researchers using human participants to obtain informed consent, to protect them from harm and discomfort, to treat their personal information confidentially, and to fully debrief all participants.

We cannot assume that case studies always reveal general principles that apply to all of us. Why not?

Case studies involve only one individual or group, so we can't know for sure whether the principles observed would apply to a larger population.

How can critical thinking help you evaluate claims in the media, even if you're not a scientific expert on the issue?

Critical thinking examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. In evaluating a claim in the media, look for any signs of empirical evidence, preferably from several studies. Ask the following questions in your analysis: Are claims based on scientific findings? Have several studies replicated the findings and confirmed them? Are any experts cited? If so, research their background. Are they affiliated with a credible university, college, or institution? Have they conducted or written about scientific research?

How do psychologists use case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys to observe and describe behavior, and why is random sampling important?

Descriptive methods, which include case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys, show us what can happen, and they may offer ideas for further study. The best basis for generalizing about a population is a representative sample; in a random sample, every person in the entire population being studied has an equal chance of participating. Descriptive methods cannot show cause and effect because researchers cannot control variables.

What are positive and negative correlations, and why do they enable prediction but not cause-effect explanation?

In a positive correlation, two factors increase or decrease together. In a negative correlation, one item increases as the other decreases. A correlation coefficient can describe the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, from +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) through zero (no correlation at all) to -1.00 (a perfect negative correlation). A correlation can indicate the possibility of a cause-effect relationship, but it does not prove the direction of the influence, or whether an underlying third factor may explain the correlation.

In two recent studies, sexual hook-ups positively correlated with college women's experiencing depression; delaying sexual intimacy correlated with positive outcomes such as greater relationship satisfaction and stability (Fielder et al., 2014; Willoughby et al., 2014). Do these findings mean that sexual restraint causes better outcomes?

It might. But in this case, as in many others, causation might work the other way around (more depressed people are more likely to hook up), or some third factor, such as lower impulsivity, might underlie both sexual restraint and psychological well-being.

How does our everyday thinking sometimes lead us to a wrong conclusion?

Our everyday thinking can be perilous because of three phenomena: hindsight bias, overconfidence, and a tendency to perceive order in random events. Hindsight bias (also called the "I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon") is the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it. Overconfidence in our judgments results partly from our bias to seek information that confirms them. These tendencies, plus our eagerness to perceive patterns in random events, lead us to overestimate our intuition. Although limited by the testable questions it can address, scientific inquiry can help us overcome our intuition's biases and shortcomings.

Why, after friends start dating, do we often feel that we knew they were meant to be together?

We often suffer from hindsight bias—after we've learned a situation's outcome, that outcome seems familiar and therefore obvious.

How do theories advance psychological science?

Psychological theories are explanations that apply an integrated set of principles to organize observations and generate hypotheses—predictions that can be used to check the theory or produce practical applications of it. By testing their hypotheses, researchers can confirm, reject, or revise their theories. To enable other researchers to replicate the studies, researchers report them using precise operational definitions of their procedures and concepts. If others achieve similar results, confidence in the conclusion will be greater.

What measures do researchers use to prevent the placebo effect from confusing their results?

Research designed to prevent the placebo effect randomly assigns participants to an experimental group (receives the real treatment) or to a control group (receives a placebo), using a double-blind procedure (neither those who receive nor those who administer the treatment know who gets the placebo versus the actual treatment). A comparison of the results will demonstrate whether the real treatment produces better results than belief in that treatment.

Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?

Researchers intentionally create a controlled, artificial environment in the laboratory in order to test general theoretical principles. These general principles help explain everyday behaviors.

Why do psychologists study animals, and what ethical guidelines safeguard human and animal research participants? How do human values influence psychology?

Some psychologists are primarily interested in animal behavior; others want to better understand the physiological and psychological processes shared by humans and other species. Government agencies have established standards for animal care and housing. Professional associations and funding agencies also establish guidelines for protecting animals' well-being. The APA ethics code outlines standards for safeguarding human participants' well-being, including obtaining their informed consent and debriefing them later. Psychologists' values influence their choice of research topics, their theories and observations, their labels for behavior, and their professional advice. Applications of psychology's principles have been used mainly in the service of humanity.

What does the acronym SQ3R stand for?

Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, and Review

How can psychological principles help you learn and remember?

The testing effect shows that learning and memory are enhanced by actively retrieving, rather than simply rereading, previously studied material. The SQ3R study method—survey, question, read, retrieve, and review—applies principles derived from memory research. Four additional tips are (1) distribute your study time; (2) learn to think critically; (3) process class information actively; and (4) overlearn.

What are the characteristics of experimentation that make it possible to isolate cause and effect?

To discover cause-effect relationships, psychologists conduct experiments, manipulating one or more factors of interest and controlling other factors. Using random assignment, they can minimize confounding variables, such as preexisting differences between the experimental group (exposed to the treatment) and the control group (given a placebo or different version of the treatment). The independent variable is the factor the experimenter manipulates to study its effect; the dependent variable is the factor the experimenter measures to discover any changes occurring in response to the manipulations. Studies may use a double-blind procedure to avoid the placebo effect. Psychological scientists must design studies and choose research methods that will best provide meaningful results. (The Immersive Learning: How Would You Know? activities in LaunchPad show how testable questions are developed and studied.)

Why is replication important?

When other investigators are able to replicate an experiment with the same (or better) results, scientists can confirm the result and become more confident of its reliability.

placebo effect

[Latin for "I shall please"] experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

cofounding variable

a factor other than the factor being studied that might produce an effect.

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00).

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.)

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

double blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

random assignment pt 2

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

double-blind procedure

controls for the placebo effect; neither researchers nor participants know who receives the real treatment

The tendency to be more confident than correct in predicting one's own behaviors illustrates an error in thinking called _____.

confidence

By using random assignment, researchers are able to control for __________ , which are other factors besides the independent variable(s) that may influence research results.

confounding variables

Discerning the unstated assumptions and values that underlie conclusions best illustrates ________, which is an important learning tool.

critical thinking

placebo

false or ineffective treatment administered as if it were real

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

random assignment

helps minimize preexisting differences between experimental and control groups selecting subjects by chance for different groups in an experiment

random sampling

helps researchers generalize from a small set of survey responses to a larger population

To test the effect of a new drug on depression, we randomly assign people to control and experimental groups. Those in the control group take a pill that contains no medication. This is a ____________

placebo

A _____ is all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

population

According to the SQ3R method, when you read only the headings and study the organization of a chapter, you are _____ that chapter.

surveying

The __________ describes the enhanced memory that results from repeated retrieval (as in self-testing) rather than from simple rereading of new information.

testing effect

control condition

the "treatment absent" condition in an experiment

experimental condition

the "treatment present" condition in an experiment