Psych 100 Test 100

Permissive parenting

characterized by parents being very involved with their children, with much expressed parental warmth and responsiveness, but placing few limits and controls on the children's behavior (pg.182) Low demandingness, high responsiveness

co-sleeping

children continue to sleep in the same bed as their parents until they are well into their primary school years (pg.173). Common in other U.S subcultures, including African Americans, Asian Americans, and Hispanic Americans. American parents are the only ones in a survey of 100 societies who created a separate room for the baby to sleep in. Co-sleeping is not seen as a matter of personal choice; it's a behavior that reflects the parents' moral values. Sleeping arrangements (Indians) are guided by four moral principles: incest avoidance, protection of the vulnerable, female chastity anxiety, and respect for hierarchy. Sleeping arrangements (Americans) are guided by three moral principles: sacred couple, incest avoidance, and autonomy ideal.

Shibboleths

choice of phrasing or single word that distinguishes one group of people from another. Words in a non-native language that are difficult to pronounce. Ex. ww2: "lollapalooza" difficult word for Japanese. Japanese language mix of "r" and "l" sound.

Schemas

concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

What is personal distance and what cultural differences were reported regarding this concept?

"Personal" distance is defined as 1.5 - 4ft and is reserved for people we know well and feel comfortable with, as well as personal acquaintances, such as coworkers. Latine America, Saudi Arabia, and France prefer a small personal distance, whereas Germany and Japan prefer a large personal distance.

What is the "tyranny of the beautiful"? What empirical evidence supports this concept?

"Tyranny of beautiful" is the idea that physically attractive people have more positive life outcomes than those who are less physically attractive. Empirical evidence that supports this concept includes: (1) essays that have been written by an attractive author are evaluated more positively than ones written by a less-attractive author; (2) attractive politicians get more votes than unattractive ones; (3) attractive children are rated as smarter and better behaved by their teachers; (4) attractive MBA graduates can earn more money than less-attractive grads; and (5) attractive criminals get lighter sentences than less-attractive ones.

Simpatico

(Used in Latin American cultures) a relational style where people place emphasis on maintaining harmonious relationships, and on making expressive displays of graciousness, hospitality, and congeniality.

Neglectful parenting

(least healthy) marked by parents being cold, unresponsive, and indifferent to their children (pg.182) Low demandingness, low responsiveness

Authoritative parenting:

(most healthy) child-centered approach in which parents hold high expectations of the maturity of their children, try to understand their children's feelings, teach them how to regulate those feelings, and encourage their children to be independent while maintaining limits and controls on their behavior. This approach is associated with parental warmth, responsiveness, and democratic reasoning (pg.182) High demandingness, high responsiveness

What cultural principles supported different sleeping arrangements for Asian Indian and American cultures?

Asian Indian cultures are guided by four moral principles: incest avoidance, protection of the vulnerable, chastity anxiety, and respect for hierarchy. In incest avoidance, postpubescent family members of the opposite sex should not sleep in the same room. In protection of the vulnerable, young children who are needy and vulnerable should not be left alone at night. In female chastity anxiety, unmarried adolescent women are vulnerable to shameful sexual activity and should always be chaperoned. In respect for hierarchy, adolescent boys achieve social status by not having to sleep with parents or young children. US cultures are guided by three moral principles: incest avoidance, sacred couple, and autonomy ideal. In incest avoidance, postpubescent family members of the opposite sex should not sleep in the same room. In sacred couple, married couples should have their own space for emotional intimacy and sexual privacy. In autonomy ideal, young children who are needy and vulnerable should sleep alone in order to learn self-reliance.

What cultural differences were reported in math performance between the US and East Asian cultures? What were the cultural explanations provided to support these math performance differences?

Asian children spent more days in school (240 days per year in Japan versus 180 days per year in the United States); a greater percentage of class time was devoted to math education in Asian schoolday than in American; Asian teachers spent a greater percentage of time lecturing in the classroom compared with their American counterparts (90% in Taiwan compared with 46% in the United States); and Asian math lessons were far more likely to contain real-world examples than American lessons (approximately 80% of examples were real-world in Japan compared with about 10% of examples in American classes). Asian teachers also assigned more homework to students. Asian parents seem to view education as more central to their children's lives than American parents do. One study revealed that 98% of Taiwanese fifth-graders had a desk in their home, compared with only 63% of American kids. American mothers report being far more satisfied with their children's performance than East Asian mothers—and this difference in standards seems to change with age. Compared with mothers of first-grade children, Chinese and Japanese mothers of fifth-grade children reported that a higher standard of achievement was necessary for them to be satisfied with their children's math performance. In stark contrast, the standards of American mothers were lower for their fifth-grade children than for their first-grade children. Over time, Chinese and Japanese mothers set higher and higher standards (Chua's "Tiger Moms") whereas American mothers set lower and lower standards.

What is attachment theory and how does this apply to attachment styles for American, German, and Israeli parents and their infants?

Attachment theory proposes that infants and parents are biologically prepared to establish close attachments with each other. American: German: Israeli:

What are the four elementary forms of basic relationships and how are they culturally similar/different?

Communal sharing: the emphasis, by members of a group, is on their common identity rather than their idiosyncrasies. Authority ranking: people are ordered along a hierarchical social dimension, and those with higher ranking have prestige and privileges that those with lower ranking do not. Equality matching: people keep track of what is exchanged and are motivated to pay back in equivalent terms. Market pricing: all of the features of benefits that are exchanged can be reduced to a single dimension.

What were some cross-cultural differences in communication messaging between Americans and East Asians?

For Americans, they used noun bias, were more analytic in using words, and objects are independent, discrete, and separate. For Asians, they did not use noun bias, were more holistic in using words, and objects were a part of relationships.

How does relational mobility influence friendship and enemy choices for people in Ghana and the US?

Ghanaians have lower relational mobility than Americans, which means they don't get to choose their friends. However, Americans do. Because they are allowed to choose who is a part of their ingroup, they feel less threatened by their friends, than Ghanaians. Ghanaians are more likely to view their enemies as coming from within their ingroups, such as neighbors, friends, or relatives. Only 26% of Americans in one study reported that they had any enemies. In contrast, 71% of Ghanaians claimed they were the target of enemies.

4. What were the major findings in the linear vs. non-linear thinking study for the Chinese and Canadians?

Identification with Chinese culture was not predicted by any of the variables in the study-whether people moved to Canada at a young or old age, and whether they had been there for a short or long time did not influence their Chinese identification. Identification with Canadian culture, however, yielded a different result. Immigrants who arrived in Canada before the age of 15 more strongly identified with Canadian culture the longer they lived there. Those who had been in Canada for 20 years identified with Canada more than those who had been in Canada for only 5 years. Chinese who moved to Canada between the ages of 16 and 30 did not come to identify more with Canada the longer they were in Canada. Those who arrived in Canada after age 31 came to identify with Canada slightly less the longer they were in Canada.

What were the findings of the fMRI studies on early vs. late bilingual speakers?

If both languages are learned early, words with the same meaning in both languages light up the same area of the brain. If the second language is not learned early, the brain lights up in different places.

How does physical appearance affect assumptions about personality traits, social traits, sexual maturity, etc?

In the US, individuals that are viewed as attractive are considered to be: More sensitive, kind, and pleasant. More sociable, likable, and interesting. More competent and intelligent. Those with taller height → high leadership, competence, and salaries. Those with "babyface" features → warmth, kindness, submissiveness, and naivete. Those with mature facial features → high physical strength, worldly, and dominant. Those that are neat dressers → conscientious of details. Those with poor eye contact → dishonest. Positively correlates with: Social skills and sociability Sexual warmth Mental health Intelligence

14. How did the length of time in marriage play a role in the rating of "romantic love" in "love" vs. "arranged" marriages?

Initially, men and women in love marriages feel stronger love for each other than those in arranged marriages. However, as time progresses, those in arranged marriages feel stronger love than those in love marriages. Early (strength of love): Love marriages > arranged marriages Later (strength of love): Arranged marriages > love marriages

What cultural differences were reported for "romantic love" (ex. Intimacy, commitment, disclosure, emotions, passion)?

Intimacy: cultures differ in terms of the amount of intimacy individuals express and share. On average, Western couples experience a great deal of intimacy, especially in terms of self-disclosure, compared to East Asian couples. Studies have also shown that East Asians and Mexicans who are more acculturated to Western ways confide in, and reveal more to, their romantic partners than those who are less acculturated A reason for lower levels of intimacy in some non-Western cultures is that people with an interdependent self-concept have their intimacy needs met across a larger network of close relationships, and the spouse or partner does not occupy such a central position. Passion: although feelings of passion are universal in all romantic relationships, they do not play as strong a role everywhere. Westerners report having higher degrees of passion for their romantic partners than people from East Asian cultures, and relationship satisfaction is based more on feelings of passion among Westerners than East Asians. American participants reported stronger feelings of passionate love than the Japanese, and Americans scored higher on a measure of relational mobility. Feelings of passionate love were predicted by a sense of relational mobility. Commitment: There is also cultural variation in commitment. On average, feelings of commitment are stronger in Asian cultures than in the West and among Asian Canadians who identify with their heritage culture. The Asian strong sense of commitment might reflect the culture's lower relational mobility.

Personal space

Intimate distance (0 - 1.5ft) for close friends and romantic partners. Personal distance (1.5 - 4ft) for people we know well and feel comfortable with, or personal acquaintances (ex. coworkers). Social distance (4 - 12ft) for people that we do business with or strangers. Public distance (12ft or more) for speeches and formal occasions. Cultures w/ small personal distance include Latin America, Saudi Arabia, and France. Cultures w/ large personal distance include Germany and Japan.

Why is language so important to cultural transmission and what examples are there to support this?

Learning a language is a necessary aspect of being socialized into a particular culture. Language and culture are both meaning systems that we acquire through our social interactions, and they depend greatly on each other.

How are romantic love and love marriages related to family structure, cultural orientation, and partner idealization?

Marriages based on love were more likely in cultures with nuclear family structures than in cultures with extended family structures. Romantic love becomes more important in cultures as the strength of extended family ties became weaker. Powerful feelings of romantic love could be somewhat irrelevant, or even problematic, for marriage in cultures with strong extended family ties. People who idealized their partner the most also loved their partners the most and were more likely to be together in their relationship several months later. This is more common in individualistic cultures.

What do we know about the overall quality and satisfaction with "love" and "arranged" marriages? Do culture and gender play a role in these assessments?

Much evidence suggests that couples in arranged marriages are at least as satisfied with their marriages as those in love marriages. Gender: In one study, men in Japanese arranged marriages were found to be more satisfied than those in love marriages, and men in Chinese arranged marriages were as satisfied as those in love marriages. However, women in Japanese and Chinese arranged marriages were found to be less satisfied in arranged than in love marriages. This suggests that the costs of arranged marriages are carried largely by women in those cultures. In another study, people in love marriages in India report more love than those in arranged marriages during the first few years. In later years, however, those in arranged marriages profess more love than those in love marriages. Culture: Arranged marriage is declining in popularity. Perhaps the declining rate of arranged marriages reflects changing norms in what people expect from their closest relationships. In addition, the way marriages are arranged has been changing, and in some communities, it is more common for children to work together with their parents in selecting partners.

What were the major findings in the phoneme study for English-and-Hindi-speaking households?

Native English-speaking babies of 6-8 months can reliably distinguish between two sounds from the Hindi language, but 10-12-month-old native English speakers cannot.

What makes studying acculturation so complex

Naturally, people respond differently to the many challenges of acculturation, depending on their temperament and the situation they're in. Acculturation experiences are diverse enough that it's impossible to predict how well a person has adjusted to his or her new culture based on how many years he or she has spent there. The immigrant paradox refers to the common finding that children of immigrants have a variety of negative outcomes, such as lower educational achievement and poorer physical and mental health, than their parents. This pattern is paradoxical because children of immigrants are more acculturated, or assimilated than their immigrant parents.

How does culture impact specific ratings about the attractiveness of body types, ideal body preferences, etc?

One aspect of people's bodies that varies considerably in perceived attractiveness across cultures is weight. In Western culture, a slender or thin female body is viewed as attractive. Many studies have found that in some non-Western cultures, the idealized female body is far heavier than the typical Western preference. After looking at the standard of beauty in the United States and the cultures of the rest of the world, they concluded it was a human universal that heavier women are viewed as more attractive The standard in numerous African cultures is for heavier body weight for both men and women, compared to norms in the West, and the same is true in the South Pacific. The word "fat" is considered a compliment, indicating strength and beauty.

What is relational mobility? How is it associated with interdependent and independent selves?

Relational mobility is the amount of freedom people have to move between relationships. Interdependent self: ingroup relationships are not so much chosen by individuals as they are perceived to exist by default; leads to low relational mobility. Independent self: one can choose to make efforts to start a relationship, or one can choose to dissolve that relationship; leads to high relational mobility.

1. What are sensitive periods and how are they important to childhood development (ex. Language acquisition, cultural acquisition)?

Sensitive periods are defined as a period of time during development when it is relatively easy to acquire a set of skills. Sensitive periods are important to childhood development, in regard to language acquisition because language skills are important for our survival. Language is used as a form of communication. It is critical to build this skill during our sensitive period to ensure our ability to communicate with others. Sensitive periods are important to childhood development, in regard to cultural acquisition because individuals (for example immigrants) may have to adapt to a new culture at some point in their lives. If an individual moves to a new culture after a sensitive period has ended, they will have more difficulty adjusting to their new culture. When people attempt to learn a second culture later in life they preserve an echo of the emotional repertoire of their host culture. Repeated exposure to a culture they have difficulty relating to, they can become increasingly frustrated over time.

What are the four types of parenting styles and their relationship to positive outcomes for ethnic groups?

The four types of parenting styles are: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and neglectful. The general pattern is that a parenting style that's typical in a particular culture, leads to more positive outcomes for children than parenting styles that are at odds with local cultural norms. Strong parental control has been associated with increased family cohesion, perceived parental warmth and acceptance, and better academic achievement.

What are the major theories of interpersonal attraction (ex. Propinquity, similarity) and the empirical evidence that supports these theories?

The propinquity effect proposes that people are more likely to become friends with those with whom they frequently interact. A study investigated the friendships that developed at the Maryland State Police Academy in the early 1970s. The new recruits were lined up according to the alphabetical order of their last names, and this order influenced where they sat in class and where their dorm rooms were located. They were asked to nominate their closest friends at the academy. When plotted, the choices cluster in a diagonal pattern, meaning that the alphabetical ordering of the recruits' last names played a large role in determining their choice of friends. 45% of all friendships were among those whose last name was adjacent to the chooser's name alphabetically, and the majority of the other friendships were with people whose last names were within a few letters of the chooser's last name. The similarity-attraction effect proposes that people tend to be attracted to those who are most like themselves. A study investigated whether chickens were attracted to Similar others. the chicks were dyed either green or red while still in their eggs to make them look either small or different from each other. it turned out that the chickens showed no hint of a similarity-attraction effect. They were no more attracted to the similarly colored chickens than to the different colored ones. This raises the possibility that the similarity-attraction effect is not as fundamental a psychological process as the mere exposure effect. Canadians showed evidence of the similarity-attraction effect, replicating much past research; they liked the highly similar person more than the dissimilar one. For the Japanese, in contrast, their liking for the stranger was unaffected by their apparent similarity. The pattern of results was identical regardless of whether participants found out about the stranger's personality or social background.

Which two dimensions create the 4 major acculturation strategies? Which of these strategies were viewed as most healthy or unhealthy? How do cultural shock, fit, and distance impact acculturation?

The two dimensions are: (1) whether people attempt to participate in the larger society of their host culture, (2) and whether people strive to maintain their own heritage culture and identity as members of that culture. The most healthy strategy people pursue is integration, and the most unhealthy strategy is marginalization. Cultural distance is the difference between two cultures in their overall ways of life. This impacts acculturation because it can predict how difficult acculturation experiences can be. Cultural fit is the degree to which an individual's personality is compatible with the dominant values of the host culture. This impacts acculturation because the greater the cultural fit, the more easily he or she should acculturate to the host culture. Cultural shock is the feeling of being anxious, helpless, irritable, and generally disoriented and homesick on moving to a new culture. This impacts acculturation because the basic acculturation pattern characterizes the experiences of many migrants.

Are the concepts of "Terrible Twos" and "Adolescence" culturally universal or specific? What predicts this?

Two-year-olds in many other cultures are not as obstinate and difficult as in the United States. Some forms of non-compliance among American children have been shown to predict fewer behavioral problems later in life. The tantrums of the terrible twos are seen to serve an important function in the young child's socialization to be a mature, verbally assertive individual. The majority of the cultures studied did not expect adolescents to behave especially dis- obediently. Furthermore, the notion that adolescence is universally associated with violence received little support. Even by the very young age of 2, toddlers raised in American environments seem to be embracing aspects of autonomy and individualism through their clumsy efforts to exert control over their worlds. When, in contrast, children are raised with cultural goals of interdependence, such signs of noncompliance often appear to be replaced by efforts to fit in and belong. Both individualism and modernity seem to increase the difficulties in adolescence.

Phonemes

Units of sound (p.163) Humans are capable of producing, recognizing, and using approximately 150 phonemes in communication, however, no language uses more than 70 of them. Research suggests that young infants can discriminate all the phonemes humans are able to produce; within the first year, infants start to lose the ability to distinguish between closely related sounds that are not in their own language.

What facial features were associated with different types of physical attractiveness for men vs. women?

Universal characteristics include: One characteristic of appealing faces is a clear complexion. Skin that is free of blemishes, blotches, sores, and rashes is viewed as more attractive than skin that does not. According to evolutionary psychology, people should be attracted to healthy mates who would likely produce healthy offspring that would survive. Responding to an individual's complexion could have been useful for sizing up the health of a potential mate. A second characteristic that is attractive is bilateral symmetry. According to evolutionary biologists, the reason is that bilateral symmetry, of the face and body, is an indicator of developmental stability. A third characteristic of appealing faces is that they tend to be average. This refers to facial features that are close to the average in terms of size and configuration. People with average features are less likely to have abnormalities, thus reflecting genetic health. In addition, people prefer average features because it's easier to mentally process something that resembles a prototype, and quick processing is associated with good feelings and a sense of attraction.

How do Western and non-Western cultures view the concept of "love" vs. "arranged" marriages?

Western cultures believe that you will only love someone that you have chosen for yourself. However, even though many arranged marriages start out with no feelings of love between the couple, typically the husband and wife come to feel strong feelings of love toward each other. Non-westerners believe "getting a husband is not all that different from getting a new puppy. When you first receive a new puppy, you have not yet developed feelings of love for it. However, you expect that you will come to love that puppy, and invariably, with time, you do." Non-westerners believe that arranged marriages are more likely to succeed than love marriages.

Romantic idealization

a gross exaggeration of the difference between one person (ex. Romantic partner) and everybody else. The researcher's reasoning for why it seems to foster successful relationships is that positively distorted views of one's partner should protect one from having to entertain thoughts about the partner's unlovable characteristics.

Sensitive periods

a period of time during development when it is relatively easy to require a set of skills (p.162)

Market pricing

a relational model where all features of benefits that are exchanged can be reduced to a single dimension, usually money. Both sides of the exchange occur at once, and different kinds of goods can be exchanged. Based on proportionality and ratios.

Authority ranking

a relational model where people are ordered along a hierarchical social dimension, and those with higher rankings have prestige and privileges that those with lower rankings do not. Ex: military; rank determines benefits, powers, duties, prestige, and obligations.

Equality matching:

a relational model where people keep track of what is exchanged and are motivated to pay back in equivalent terms. Based on the idea of balance and reciprocity.

Communal sharing

a relational where the emphasis, by members of a group, is on their common identity rather than their idiosyncrasies. Every person is treated equally, with the same rights and privileges. Typical within family; people in a family don't usually keep track of what is taken and what is contributed by each member.

Romantic love

evolutionary psychologists contend that the impetus for romantic love is the long vulnerable period of human childhood. Because we are all part of the same species, people from all cultures should be capable of feeling romantic love. Romantic love occurred in 89% of cultures; 11% in others possibly due to ethnographic oversight, rather than the genuine absence of love. Therefore, romantic love is universal. Romantic love is made up of three elements: intimacy-feelings of closeness and connection, passion-physical attraction and sexual desire, and commitment-the decision to maintain a loving relationship.

Integration

involves efforts to fit in and fully participate in the host culture, while at the same time striving to maintain the traditions of the heritage culture

Assimilation

involves efforts to fit in and fully participate in the host culture, while making little or no effort to maintain the traditions of the heritage culture

Separation

involves efforts to maintain the traditions of the heritage culture, while making little or no effort to participate in the host culture

Marginalization

involves little or no effort to participate in the host culture or to maintain the traditions of the heritage culture

example of sensitive periods

language If an individual misses the chance to acquire these skills, doing so after this period has ended would be difficult. Trade-off b/w learning new behaviors for new environments or specializing in behaviors for specific environments.

Extended Families

larger groups of relatives, beyond the nuclear family, often living in the same household.

Demandingness

level of demandingness sets high expectations and monitors the child's behaviors.

Responsiveness

level of responsiveness provides emotional warmth, nurturing, and sensitivity.

Arranged marriages

marriages arranged by the parents or relatives of the bride and groom (opposite of love marriage). Common in non-Western cultures.

Propinquity effect

people are more likely to become friends with those whom they frequently interact. The propinquity effect is powerful: the simple fact of proximity has a more important influence on friends than personality, background, or religious belief.

Similarity-attraction effect

people tend to be attracted to those who are most like themselves. One of the most powerful and reliable predictors of the development of interpersonal relationships.

Authoritarian parenting

places a high demand on children, with strict rules and little open dialogue between parent and child. It typically involves low levels of warmth and responsiveness by the parents to the child (pg.182) High demandingness, low responsiveness Common in US

Noun bias

preponderance of nouns relative to verbs and other relational words (pg.184) Indicates that nouns are more noticeable, refer to more concrete concepts, and are easier to isolate from the environment than other words, such as verbs, and this is why children learn them first. Majority of research has been on N. Americans; children tend to learn nouns much quicker than verbs. Noun bias is harder to identify in other cultures (ex. East Asians); due to nouns being dropped and verbs in salient places.

Bilateral symmetry

property of being divisible into symmetrical halves, particularly in the face. a characteristic that is universally viewed as attractive. Reasoning: bilateral symmetry is an indicator of developmental stability.

Secure attachment

seek their mother's presence when she is around, and intensify their desire to be close to her after being left alone in an unfamiliar situation (pg.178) Infants are confident and exploratory when in a new environment with their mother present.

Anxious-ambivalent attachment

show frequent distress when their mother is either present or absent. They sometimes want to be near their mother, but often after being near her they will resist and push her away.

Avoidant attachment

show little distress at their mother's absence, and avoid her on her return (pg. 178)

Nuclear families

social groups consisting of one or two parents and their biological, dependent children, living in a household with no other kin.

Relational mobility

the amount of freedom people have to move between relationships. High relational mobility: people have flexible ties, with plenty of opportunities for forming new connections, rather than being bound by existing ones. Relationships are primarily determined by choice. Low relational mobility: people have few opportunities to form new relationships, and their commitments and obligations to existing ones continue to guide them. Relationships are primarily determined by circumstances.

Reciprocity

the exchange of resources, goods, and services among people of relatively equal status; meant to create and reinforce social ties.

Mere exposure effect

the more we're exposed to someone or something, the more we like it because it becomes familiar. Explains why proximity is considered attractive.

Mate selection

the process by which people choose each other for sexual or romantic relationships.

Acculturation

the process in which people who have moved to a new unfamiliar location learn and adapt to a culture that is different from their own

Proportionality

the size of facial features relative to one another.

Attachment

theory proposes that infants and parents are biologically prepared to establish close attachments with each other (pg.178) The majority of research has been conducted with Americans. The most common attachment style is secure attachment (62%). Avoidant attachment (23%). Anxious-ambivalent (15%).

Immigrant

those who intend to stay permanently

Sojourners

those who intend to stay temporarily

Migrant

those who move from their heritage culture to a host culture

Clustering process

when an individual lumps items together using an abstract concept.

Love marriages

when people get married based on love (opposite of arranged marriage). Individualism appears to be related to the likelihood that one emphasizes romantic love in marriages. Common in Western cultures.

Socialization

who we are is greatly influenced by the cultural worlds into which we are socialized, and all humans have been socialized into some kind of cultural environment that influences how they perceive and understand themselves and their worlds (p.161)