Psych 301 Final Exam-Concepts with which you need to be very familiar

abstract

2. (most important and hardest to write), always begins on page 2 and is a short summary of the article. contains: the problem under investigation, the subjects, the research method, the results, the conclusion

In an ANOVA, MSf measures

whether MStreat is reliably greater than MSw, and thus whether the IV is affecting the DV

mathematical relationship between the t and F distributions

(t(x))^2=F(1,X)

properties of scales of measurement

1. Identity: occurs when different entities receive different scores 2. Magnitude: occurs when the ordering of values on the scale reflect the ordering of the trait being measured 3. Equal intervals: occurs when a difference of one represents the same amount of the trait being measured everywhere on the scale 4. Absolute zero: occurs when 0 on the scale represent a complete absence of the trait being measured

multiple baseline design

1. Several behaviors of one subject are monitored 2. A treatment is applied to one of the behaviors 3. The researcher determines if that behavior changes relative to the others 4. The process is repeated for each of the other behaviors

overcoming placebo and rosenthal effect

1. Single Blind Study: study in which subject doesn't know which treatment they received-solves placebo effect but not rosenthal 2. Double Blind Study: study in which neither the subject nor anyone having contact with the subject knows which treatment the subject received-solves both

title page

1. contains: title (15 or fewer words), author's name, author's affiliation

types of scales of measurement

1. nominal: have only the identity property (zip codes, football jersey #) 2. ordinal: have only the identity and magnitude properties (basketball rankings, class rank) 3. interval scale: have only the identity, magnitude, and equal properties (Fahrenheit and Celsius temp.) 4. ratio: has the identity, magnitude, equal intervals, and absolute zero properties ( lbs, # correct on a test)

introduction

3. always begins on page 3 of the manuscript. purpose of the introduction: introduce the problem ***review the previous literature***, state the purpose and rationale of the current research

method

4. a recipe for conducting the reported research. the method is typically divided into three subsections: a. participants-reports the number of subjects and the compensation they received. b. apparatus-describes how each piece of the equipment was used. c. procedure: describes design aspects (what were the IV levels, what were the DV levels), describes the subject's task, mentions anything else necessary to duplicate the research

results

5. reports the data collected in the research, includes: graphs or tables showing the data, ***reports the statistical tests that were conducted (including obtained values, degrees of freedom, and p-values)***

discussion

6. contains: a discussion of the theoretical implications of the research, potential limitations of the research, ideas for future research

How does the Nuremberg code of ethics differ from the APA code?

APA code allows deception and coercion

time series design

a class of quasi-experiments in which the performance of a single group is measured both before and after some experimental treatment

experimenter expectancy effect (rosenthal effect)

a demand characteristic that occurs when subjects change their behavior b/c of unintentional cues from the researcher

non-equivalent before-after design

a design in which both a pre-test (prior to IV manipulation) and a post-test (after IV manipulation) are given to 2 non-randomly assigned groups of subjects. the difference between the post-test and pre-test scores serves as the DV.

ex post factodesign

a design in which the researcher uses archival data to study an event that occurred in the past

positively skewed distribution

a distribution with a few extreme high scores. Ex. annual income- tail towards positive

frequency distribution

a graph showing the # of times each score occurred in the data set

counterbalancing

a method of assigning subjects to treatment orders in a within subject design so that across subjects practice effects are controlled

probability sampling

a method of sampling that involves random selection

participant observation

a naturalistic observation in which the researcher becomes a member of the group being studied

positive relationship

a relationship in which as one variable increases the other variable also tends to increase

quasi-experiment

a research technique in which the researcher manipulates the IV, but which fail to have random assignment

correlation co-efficient

a statistic used between two variables measured on an interval or ratio scale indicate the direction and strength of the linear relationship between two variables measured on an interval or ratio scale

reversal design

a subject's behavior is recorded prior to treatment, then a treatment is introduced and behavior is measured again. then the treatment is withdrawn to see if behavior reverses to pre-treatment levels and then the treatment is reintroduced.

hypothesis

a tentative statement about the possible relationship between variables

single group, pretest-posttest design

a time-series design in which only one test of the DV is made prior to treatment and only one test is made after treatment

quota sampling

a type of sampling in which people are selected on the basis of pre-specified characteristics such that the characteristics of the sample match those of the population

galley proofs

a typeset copy of the article that is sent to the first author for final approval

advantage of the experimental approach

allows the researcher to infer a causal relationship between the IV and the DV

theory

an explanation for a phenomenon that can be falsified and that involves entities that cannot be directly observed

negative relationship

as one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease

demand characteristics

aspects of a study that indicate to subjects how they're expected to respond

placebo effect

demand characteristic that occurs when subjects change their behavior as a result of their expectation that change should occur -ex) bringing fake beer to a party

hawthorne effect

demand characteristic that occurs when subjects change their behavior b/c they know they are being observed

function of a latin square

designed to solve practice effects, a method of counterbalancing

simple random sampling

every member of a population is listed, and members are then randomly selected for questioning

external validity

extent to which the results of a study can be applied outside the research situation

internal validity

extent to which your research provides a valid test of the relationship between the IV and DV

negatively skewed distribution

few extreme low scores. Ex. Exam scores- tail towards negative

modus pones

if p is true then q is true. p is true, therefore q is true. valid argument but it is not useful to science because it assumes our theory is true

modus tollens

if p is true then q is true. q is true, therefore p is not true. both valid and useful to science

affirming the consequent

if p is true, then q is true. q is true, therefore p is true. invalid argument, so it is logically impossible to prove a theory true.

multistage sampling

in a first random selection stage, natural groups (e.g. zip codes, colleges, voting precincts) are randomly selected. then, in a second random selection stage, individuals in each group selected in stage one are randomly selected for questioning

explain what the margin of error in survey research means

it means that there is a 95% chance that if the survey were conducted on the entire population exactly as it was conducted on the sample, the results would be within the margin of error`

cannot prove the null hypothesis

logically impossible to prove that an IV has no effect on a DV

carry-over effects

occur when the effects of one treatment persist when another treatment is introduced

sensitization effects

occur when the subject changes their behavior because they realize what the manipulations are in a study

practice effects

occur when the subject's performance on the experimental task changes (either for better or worse) as a result of experience with the task

random selection

occurs when every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate in the research

novelty effect

occurs when the IV effects the DV only b/c the IV is something new -EX) blinking lights on car bumper

range restriction

occurs when there is a floor or ceiling effect on one of the variables in a correlation

random assignment

once the participants are chosen, each participant has an equally likely chance to be assigned to each IV level (in between-subjects design) or to each treatment order (in a within-subjects design)

statistical power

probability a particular experiment will find the relationship between the IV and DV given that a relationship exists -Power + B = 1 - it is desirable for an experiment to have high statistical power IN ORDER TO LOWER TYPE 2 ERROR

alpha

probability of making a type I error given that the experiment found an effect of the IV on the DV

beta

probability of making a type II error given the experiment failed to find an effect of the IV on the DV

proportion of variance accounted for

r^2, for example r=.7 -> .49

survey research

research in which data is collected by directly asking subjects questions

convenience sampling

sampling individuals who are readily available without regard to their characteristics

normal distribution

symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution. Ex) height, IQ scores

regression to the mean

tendency for extreme values of a variable to fall closer to the group when retested

parametric statistical tests

tests that require assumption about the distribution of the DV (e.g. normality) in order to obtain correct p-values

levels of the independent variable

the actual values of the IV that a researcher uses in an experiment

comparison of mean and median

the mean is more affected by extreme scores than the median -Normal distribution: mean = med - Neg. skewed: mean < med - Pos. skewed: mean > med Mean is ALWAYS closest to the tail

in press

the status of an article that has been accepted for publication, but which has not yet appeared in the journal

stratified random sampling

the total population is divided into demographic groups and then a certain percentage of each group is randomly selected for question

In an ANOVA, MSwithin measures

the variability in the DV due to error

In an ANOVA, MStreat measures

the variability in the DV due to the IV and error

interrupted time series design

time series design in which more than one measurement of the DV is made prior to treatment and more than one measurement is made afterwards

best use of surveys (according to Dr. Cooper)

to compare changes in response over time or across different demographic groups

multielement design

used to test multiple treatments for one behavior. during each testing period, one treatment is selected randomly and the DV is measured during that period. this procedure is repeated multiple times for all the treatments. the treatment with the best average effects is deemed the best treatment.

possible values of a correlation co-efficient

varies from +1 (meaning a perfect positive relationship) to -1 (meaning a perfect negative relationship)

explain why the logic of experimentation is ruined by confounds

we assume the only difference between subjects at the different IV levels in the IV. if there is a confound in the experiment, IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO KNOW WHETHER IT WAS THE IV OR THE CONFOUND THAT INFLUENCED THE DV