Psych AP Ch. 2 Test
surveys and interviews can be problematic because of ________ and ___________ _____________________
bias and social expectation
In internal validity, we want to know whether the results are free from ________ and logical ___________
bias, error
regardless of research method some of the most important decisions are (1) and (2)
1) who will be the participants 2.) where will the research be conducted
what involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time
longitudinal design
the ________________ of the correlation tells us about the strength of the relationship (the closer the number is to +1/-1, the stronger the relationship)
magnitude
experimental research ________________ variables to see if the outcome is then affected; demonstrates cause and affect
manipulates
give mean, median, and mode definitions
mean- average median- middle score mode- most occurring number
what is a single number that indicates the overall characteristics of a set of data; mean, median, and mode
measure of central tendency
what describes how much the scores in a sample differ from one another; range, standard deviation
measure of dispersion
what is an in-depth look at a single individual
case-study
correlation does not equal _______________; only states that there is a relationship between the two variables
causation
longitudinal designs provide ways by which correlational researchers may attempt to demonstrate causal relationships but cannot prove ________________
causation
What is a statistical procedure that summarizes a large body of evidence from the research literature on a particular topic
meta-analysis
Nuns who wrote happier autobiographies were associated with high ______________
mortality/longevity
a ______________ is a harmless substance that has no physiological effect; allows researchers to determine whether the results are due to manipulation or participants results
placebo
what occurs when participants' expectations, rather than the experimental treatment, produces an experimental outcome without influence
placebo effect
Why was the nun study so important
potential extraneous third variables are relatively identical for all when in the group, so there is little chance that differences would arise in the study
case studies are mainly performed by _____________ __________________ and test __________ groups to figure out specific info (not generalizable to the wider population)
clinical psychologists; small
psychologists often manipulate the social context of an experiment with the help of a _________________ which is a person who is given a role to play in a study
confederate
conclusions and publications enhance the __________________ and _______________ of experiments
confidence and reliability
a(n) ____________________ group is as much like the experimental group as possible except for the manipulated variable
control
Dan McAdams used _________________ research to probe individuals descriptions of their most powerful positive experiences
correlational
The purpose of ________________ research is to examine whether and how two variable change together
correlational
____________________ research is interested in discovering relationships between two variables
correlational
What is the degree of relation between two variables that is expressed as a numerical value
correlational coefficient (r)
____________________ research is also helpful in cases where it would be unethical to do the research in any other way and can measure _______________ variables
correlational, multiple
what is a type of correlational study in which variables are measured at a single point in time
cross-sectional design
________ is all the information researchers collect in a study
data
conclusions are based on the results of the ________ ________________
data analyses
A key aspect of the process of testing hypotheses is _______ _______________
data analysis
what is any aspect of a study that communicates to participants how the experimenter wants them to behave; can be difficult to avoid
demand characteristic
what is the variable that may change as a result of manipulations
dependent variable
Abraham Maslow believed people who were healthiest and happiest were capable of having intense moments of awe; used _______________ case study approach
descriptive
________________ research involves finding out about the basic dimensions of some variable and describing some phenomenon
descriptive
__________________ research methods include observation, surveys, interviews, and case studies
descriptive
what are mathematical procedures researchers have developed to describe and summarize sets of data in a meaningful way and reveal the bigger picture
descriptive statistics
a _______________________ design does not randomly assign participants to condition because such assignment is either impossible or unethical and does not allow for strong causal conclusions
quasi-experimental
what is the essential aspect of experimental research called when participants are assigned by researchers to groups at chance
random assignment
a __________________ gives every member of the population an equal chance of being selected
random sample
give definition of range and standard deviation
range- distance between smallest and largest number standard deviation- how much scores vary around the mean; used most commonly in psychological research
If the same results are produced again and again with different researchers and different specific methods, it is ________________
reliable
A key step after a study has been published is ___________________
replication
What is the difference between external and internal validity
external refers to the degree to which a experiment actually reflects real world issues while internal refers to the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are genuinely due to manipulation
What does the satisfaction with life scale do
helps to operationally define variables
Descriptive research allows researchers to get a sense of a subject, but it cannot answer questions about what
how and why things are the way they are
A theory can generate _________________
hypotheses
What is an educated guess that derives logically from a theory; an expectation that can be tested
hypothesis
What are some differences between theories and hypotheses
hypothesis is logically derived from a theory; a theory is a testable set of PROPOSITIONS while a hypothesis is a testable EXPECTATION
what occurs when the behavior of research participants during the experiment is influenced by how they think they are supposed to behave
research participant bias
what occurs when the experimenter's expectations influence the outcome of the research
experimenter bias
what occurs when an outside variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationship bt 2 other variable
3rd variable problem
David Snowdan conducted the what
Nun study (longevity and happiness study)
What is the difference between direct replication and conceptual replication
direct replication does the study precisely as it was conducted originally while conceptual uses different methods and different types of samples
a correlation experiment CAN be conducted on variables but correlation cannot tell us the _______________ of a link
direction
you can interview people ______________ or __________________
directly or indirectly
a design in which neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of which participants are in the experimental group or control group
double-blind experiment
What is gaining knowledge through the observation of events, the collection of data, and logical reasoning (gaining knowledge by observing objective evidence)
empirical method
__________________ is the step of the scientific method that never really ends
evaluating
What may be used in correlational research to track individuals in their natural setting
experience sampling method (ESM)
____________________ research concerns establishing causal relationships between variable
experimental
a(n) ______________________ group consists of the participants in an experiment who are exposed to the change/manipulation
experimental
researchers cannot demonstrate causation without ___________________ research
experimental
a negative sign means that as one variable ________________, the other variable ________________
increases, decreases
a positive sign means that as one variable ________________, the other variable _________________
increases, increases
what are two of the most important concepts in psychological research
independent and dependent variable
what is the manipulated experimental factor
independent variable
________________ ________________ gives the odds that observed differences were due to chance
inferential statistics
in order to test predictions about a samples, a researcher needs _________________ ______________
inferential statistics
what are the mathematical methods used to indicate whether the data sufficiently supports a research hypothesis
inferential statistics
What are the 5 steps of the scientific method
observing some phenomenon, hypothesizing and predicting, testing, drawing conclusions, evaluating the theory
what provides an objective description of how a variable is going to be measured and observed in a particular study
operational definition
The __________ of the correlation tells us about the direction of the relation between variable
sign (+,-)
observation requires an important set of ___________ and also are required to be _________________ (who, when, where, how)
skills, systematic
The correlation coefficient tells of about the ___________ and _________________ of the relationship between 2 variable
strength and direction
researchers combine results to strengthen the __________/_________________
study/knowledge
Theories are a _______________ ______ ___ __________________ that describe something important about the world and allow scientists to make predictions
testable set of propositions
science is defined not by _________ it investigates but by _______ it investigates
what; how
external validity refers to if the experimental methods and results are applicable to what
the real world
What is a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain observations; tells us about the relations between variables on a conceptual level
theory
True or false: there is not just one operation definition for any variable, but multiple diverse operational definitions given by researchers
true
true or false: all three types of research can be used to address the same topic
true
_____________ refers to the soundness of the conclusions that a researcher draws
validity
what is anything that can change
variable
correlational studies allow researchers to make predictions about ________________ and are helpful for studying ____________________/____________________ events
variables, real-world/everyday
The critically thinking psychologist sees something in the world and wants to know what
why or how something is the way it is