psych chapter 14

happiness

enduring state of mind consisting of joy, contentment, and other positive emotions; the sense that one's life has meaning and value. For practical purposes, a precise definition of happiness might incorporate each of these elements: an enduring state of mind consisting of joy, contentment, and other positive emotions, plus the sense that one's life has meaning and value.

stressors

environmental events that may be judged as threatening or demanding; stimuli that initiate the stress process

Psychoneuroimmunology

field that studies how psychological factors (such as stress) influence the immune system and immune functioning

distress

bad form of stress; usually high in intensity; often leads to exhaustion, fatigue, feeling burned out; associated with erosions in performance and health. But when stress exceeds this optimal level, it is no longer a positive force—it becomes excessive and debilitating, what we term distress (from the Latin dis = "bad"). People who reach this level of stress feel burned out; they are fatigued, exhausted, and their performance begins to decline. If the stress remains excessive, health may begin to erode as well.

immunosuppression

decreased effectiveness of the immune system

cardiovascular disorders

disorders that involve the heart and blood circulation system

excercise

A common technique people use to combat stress is exercise. It is well-established that exercise, both of long (aerobic) and short (anaerobic) duration, is beneficial for both physical and mental health. There is considerable evidence that physically fit individuals are more resistant to the adverse effects of stress and recover more quickly from stress than less physically fit individuals.

Family and other social relationships appear to be key factors correlated with happiness.

Studies show that married people report being happier than those who are single, divorced, or widowed. Can money buy happiness? In general, extensive research suggests that the answer is yes, but with several caveats. While a nation's per capita gross domestic product (GDP) is associated with happiness levels, changes in GDP (which is a less certain index of household income) bear little relationship to changes in happiness. On the whole, residents of affluent countries tend to be happier than residents of poor countries; within countries, wealthy individuals are happier than poor individuals, but the association is much weaker. To the extent that it leads to increases in purchasing power, increases in income are associated with increases in happiness. However, income within societies appears to correlate with happiness only up to a point. In a study of over 450,000 U.S. residents surveyed by the Gallup Organization, researchers found that well-being rises with annual income, but only up to $75,000. Happy people, compared to those who are less happy, are more likely to graduate from college and secure more meaningful and engaging jobs. Once they obtain a job, they are also more likely to succeed. While education shows a positive (but weak) correlation with happiness, intelligence is not appreciably related to happiness. Does religiosity correlate with happiness? In general, the answer is yes. However, the relationship between religiosity and happiness depends on societal circumstances.

coping strategies

Suppose Bradford receives a midterm notice that he is failing statistics class. If Bradford adopts a problem-focused coping approach to managing his stress, he would be proactive in trying to alleviate the source of the stress. He might contact his professor to discuss what must be done to raise his grade, he might also decide to set aside two hours daily to study statistics assignments, and he may seek tutoring assistance. A problem-focused approach to managing stress means we actively try to do things to address the problem. In some cases, emotion-focused coping strategies involve reappraisal, whereby the stressor is construed differently (and somewhat self-deceptively) without changing its objective level of threat; its when you do not deal directly with the stressor (say, when you go run after an argument with your spouse, as opposed to taking to them).

sympathetic nervous system and hpa axis

When a person first perceives something as stressful (Selye's alarm reaction), the sympathetic nervous system triggers arousal via the release of adrenaline from the adrenal glands. Release of these hormones activates the fight-or-flight responses to stress, such as accelerated heart rate and respiration. At the same time, the HPA axis, which is primarily endocrine in nature, becomes especially active, although it works much more slowly than the sympathetic nervous system. In response to stress, the hypothalamus (one of the limbic structures in the brain) releases corticotrophin-releasing factor, a hormone that causes the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). The ACTH then activates the adrenal glands to secrete a number of hormones into the bloodstream; an important one is cortisol, which can affect virtually every organ within the body. Cortisol is commonly known as a stress hormone and helps provide that boost of energy when we first encounter a stressor, preparing us to run away or fight. However, sustained elevated levels of cortisol weaken the immune system. In short bursts, this process can have some favorable effects, such as providing extra energy, improving immune system functioning temporarily, and decreasing pain sensitivity. However, extended release of cortisol—as would happen with prolonged or chronic stress—often comes at a high price. High levels of cortisol have been shown to produce a number of harmful effects. For example, increases in cortisol can significantly weaken our immune system, and high levels are frequently observed among depressed individuals. In summary, a stressful event causes a variety of physiological reactions that activate the adrenal glands, which in turn release epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol. These hormones affect a number of bodily processes in ways that prepare the stressed person to take direct action, but also in ways that may heighten the potential for illness.

alarm reaction

first stage of the general adaptation syndrome; characterized as the body's immediate physiological reaction to a threatening situation or some other emergency; analogous to the fight-or-flight response. describes the body's immediate reaction upon facing a threatening situation or emergency, and it is roughly analogous to the fight-or-flight response described by Cannon. During an alarm reaction, you are alerted to a stressor, and your body alarms you with a cascade of physiological reactions that provide you with the energy to manage the situation. A person who wakes up in the middle of the night to discover her house is on fire, for example, is experiencing an alarm reaction. If exposure to a stressor is prolonged, the organism will enter the stage of resistance.

job burnout

general sense of emotional exhaustion and cynicism in relation to one's job; consists of three dimensions: exhaustion, depersonalization, and sense of diminished personal accomplishment

eustress

good form of stress; low to moderate in intensity; associated with positive feelings, as well as optimal health and performance. (from the Greek eu = "good"), is a good kind of stress associated with positive feelings, optimal health, and performance. A moderate amount of stress can be beneficial in challenging situations. For example, athletes may be motivated and energized by pregame stress, and students may experience similar beneficial stress before a major exam.

General Adaptation Syndrome

han selye's three-stage model of the body's physiological reactions to stress and the process of stress adaptation: alarm reaction, stage of resistance, and stage of exhaustion. is the body's response to stress.

Qualities that help promote psychological well-being (e.g., having meaning and purpose in life, a sense of autonomy, positive emotions, and satisfaction with life) are linked with a range of favorable

health outcomes (especially improved cardiovascular health) mainly through their relationships with biological functions and health behaviors (such as diet, physical activity, and sleep quality). The quality that has received attention is positive affect, which refers to pleasurable engagement with the environment, such as happiness, joy, enthusiasm, alertness, and excitement. There has also been much work suggesting that optimism—the general tendency to look on the bright side of things—is also a significant predictor of positive health outcomes. Another factor that seems to be important in fostering a deep sense of well-being is the ability to derive flow from the things we do in life. Flow is described as a particular experience that is so engaging and engrossing that it becomes worth doing for its own sake.

cardiovascular system is composed of the

heart and blood circulation system. For many years, disorders that involve the cardiovascular system—known as cardiovascular disorders—have been a major focal point in the study of psychophysiological disorders because of the cardiovascular system's centrality in the stress response.

hypertension

high blood pressure

primary appraisal

judgement about the degree of potential harm or threat to well-being that a stressor might entail

secondary appraisal

judgement of options available to cope with a stressor and their potential effectiveness. perception of a threat triggers

appraise

judge—demanding or threatening events (often referred to as stressors); these appraisals, in turn, influence our reactions to such events. Two kinds of appraisals of a stressor are especially important in this regard: primary and secondary appraisals.

coping

mental or behavioral efforts used to manage problems relating to stress, including its cause and the unpleasant feelings and emotions it produces

daily hassles

mirror irritations and annoyances that are part of our everyday lives and are capable of producing stress. (e.g., rush hour traffic, lost keys, obnoxious coworkers, inclement weather, arguments with friends or family)—can build on one another and leave us just as stressed as life change events. Researchers have demonstrated that the frequency of daily hassles is actually a better predictor of both physical and psychological health than are life change units. In a well-known study of San Francisco residents, the frequency of daily hassles was found to be more strongly associated with physical health problems than were life change events. In addition, daily minor hassles, especially interpersonal conflicts, often lead to negative and distressed mood states

perceived control

peoples' beliefs concerning their capacity to influence and shape outcomes in their lives. Extensive research has demonstrated that perceptions of personal control are associated with a variety of favorable outcomes, such as better physical and mental health and greater psychological well-being.

psychophysiological disorders

physical disorders or diseases in which symptoms are brought about or worsened by stress and emotional factors. Physical disorders or diseases whose symptoms are brought about or worsened by stress and emotional factors are called psychophysiological disorders. The physical symptoms of psychophysiological disorders are real and they can be produced or exacerbated by psychological factors (hence the psycho and physiological in psychophysiological).

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)

popular scale designed to measure stress; consists of 43 potentially stressful events, each of which has a numerical value quantifying how much readjustment is associated with the event

stress

process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that one appraises as overwhelming or threatening to one's well-being. A critical element of this definition is that it emphasizes the importance of how we appraise

type b

psychological and behavior pattern exhibited by a person who is relaxed and laid back

type a

psychological and behavior pattern exhibited by individuals who tend to be extremely competitive, impatient, rushed, and hostile toward others (particularly those who get in the person's way). Extensive research clearly suggests that the anger/hostility dimension of Type A behavior pattern may be one of the most important factors in the development of heart disease. Type A individuals are at a higher risk for heart attacks

asthma

psychophysiological disorder in which the airways of the respiratory system become obstructed, leading to great difficulty expelling air from the lungs

positive psychology

scientific area of study seeking to identify and promote those qualities that lead to happy, fulfilled, and contented lives

stage of resistance

second stage of the general adaptation syndrome; the body adapts to a stressor for a period of time. During this stage, the initial shock of alarm reaction has worn off and the body has adapted to the stressor. Nevertheless, the body also remains on alert and is prepared to respond as it did during the alarm reaction, although with less intensity. For example, suppose a child who went missing is still missing 72 hours later. Although the parents would obviously remain extremely disturbed, the magnitude of physiological reactions would likely have diminished over the 72 intervening hours due to some adaptation to this event. If exposure to a stressor continues over a longer period of time, the stage of exhaustion ensues.

fight or flight response

set of physiological reactions (increases in blood pressure, heart rate, respiration rate, and sweat) that occur when an individual encounters a perceived threat; these reactions are produced by activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system. During the fight-or-flight response, the body is rapidly aroused by activation of both the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system. This arousal helps prepare the person to either fight or flee from a perceived threat.

Hypothalmic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis

set of structures found in both the limbic system (hypothalamus) and the endocrine system (pituitary gland and adrenal glands) that regulate many of the body's physiological reactions to stress through the release of hormones

heart disease

several types of adverse heart conditions, including those that involve the heart's arteries or valves or those involving the inability of the heart to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs; can include heart attack and stroke. Each year, heart disease causes approximately one in three deaths in the United States, and it is the leading cause of death in the developed world. Research has demonstrated a link between depression and heart disease; one study found that the death rate among institutionalized patients with depression was six times higher than that of the population. A classic study in the late 1970s looked at over 8,000 manic-depressive persons in Denmark, finding a nearly 50% increase in deaths from heart disease among these patients compared with the general Danish population. By the early 1990s, evidence began to accumulate showing that depressed individuals who were followed for long periods of time were at increased risk for heart disease and cardiac death. In one investigation of over 700 Denmark residents, those with the highest depression scores were 71% more likely to have experienced a heart attack than were those with lower depression scores.

traumatice events

situations in which a person is exposed to actual or threatened death or serious injury. Stressors in this category include exposure to military combat, threatened or actual physical assaults (e.g., physical attacks, sexual assault, robbery, childhood abuse), terrorist attacks, natural disasters (e.g., earthquakes, floods, hurricanes), and automobile accidents. Men, non-Whites, and individuals in lower socioeconomic status (SES) groups report experiencing a greater number of traumatic events than do women, Whites, and individuals in higher SES groups. Most stressors that we encounter are not nearly as intense as the ones described above. Many potential stressors we face involve events or situations that require us to make changes in our ongoing lives and require time as we adjust to those changes. Examples include death of a close family member, marriage, divorce, and moving - what we call life changes.

social support

soothing and often beneficial support of others; can take different forms, such as advice, guidance, encouragement, acceptance, emotional comfort, and tangible assistance. Longitudinal studies show that social connectedness reduces mortality. In one classic study, nearly 7,000 Alameda County, California, residents were followed over 9 years. Those who had previously indicated that they lacked social and community ties were more likely to die during the follow-up period than those with more extensive social networks. Compared to those with the most social contacts, isolated men and women were, respectively, 2.3 and 2.8 times more likely to die. These trends persisted even after controlling for a variety of health-related variables, such as smoking, alcohol consumption, self-reported health at the beginning of the study, and physical activity. Social support appears to work by boosting the immune system, especially among people who are experiencing stress. In addition, social support has been shown to reduce blood pressure for people performing stressful tasks, such as giving a speech or performing mental arithmetic.

flow

state involving intense engagement in an activity; usually is experienced when participating in creative, work, and leisure endeavors

positive affect

state or a trait that involves pleasurable engagement with the environment, the dimensions of which include happiness, joy, enthusiasm, alertness, and excitement

cortisol

stress hormone released by the adrenal glands when encountering a stressor; helps to provide a boost of energy, thereby preparing the individual to take action

relaxation response technique

stress reduction technique combining elements of relaxation and meditation

Biofeedback

stress-reduction technique using electronic equipment to measure a person's involuntary (neuromuscular and autonomic) activity and provide feedback to help the person gain a level of voluntary control over these processes

health psychology

subfield of psychology devoted to studying psychological influences on health, illness, and how people respond when they become ill

negative affectivity

tendency to experience distressed emotional states involving anger, contempt, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness

optimism

tendency toward a positive outlook and positive expectations

stage of exhaustion

third stage of the general adaptation syndrome; the body's ability to resist stress becomes depleted; illness, disease, and even death may occur. At this stage, the person is no longer able to adapt to the stressor: the body's ability to resist becomes depleted as physical wear takes its toll on the body's tissues and organs. As a result, illness, disease, and other permanent damage to the body—even death—may occur. If a missing child still remained missing after three months, the long-term stress associated with this situation may cause a parent to literally faint with exhaustion at some point or even to develop a serious and irreversible illness.

immune system

various structures, cells, and mechanisms that protect the body from foreign substances that can damage the body's tissues and organs. body's surveillance system. The immune system may sometimes break down and be unable to do its job. This situation is referred to as immunosuppression, the decreased effectiveness of the immune system. Psychoneuroimmunology is the field that studies how psychological factors such as stress influence the immune system and immune functioning.

learned helplessness

when you acquire the belief that you are powerless to do anything about the damaging stimulation you are receiving

lymphocytes

white blood cells that circulate in the body's fluids and are especially important in the body's immune response

job strain

work situation involving the combination of excessive job demands and workload with little decision making latitude or job control