Psychology 001- Chapter 10- Intelligence

central tendency

mean, median, mode

David Wechsler

created a deviation IQ tests.

Homework: Based on Wechsler's IQ test, how many people had an IQ between a 70 and 130?

95%

Homework: Jensen made use of which operationalization of processing speed?

Choice reaction time

How to calculate IQ?

IQ = (mental age/ chronological age) X 100

Homework: Which of the following contain the four components of Emotional Intelligence?

Perceiving emotions accurately, emotional facilitation of thought, understanding emotions, and managing emotions.

Metacognitive control

allows one to expand or shrink the field of attention and thereby alter what is salient.

normal distribution

(some may have heard of it described as a bell-shaped curve), the mean, median, and mode are the same value.

Spearman's levels of Intellegence:

1. General Ability (g) 2. Specific Ability (s)

The 8 Multiple Intelligences by Gardner

1. Music: Music Smart 2. Bodily-Kinesthetic: Body Smart 3. Interpersonal: People Smart 4. Verbal-Linguistic: Word Smart 5. Logical-Mathematical: Logic Smarts 6. Naturalistic: Nature Smart 7. Intrapersonal: Self Smart 8. Visual-Spatial: Picture Smart

Homework: Using concrete and abstract thinking processes, what would a crow and a fish have in common? 1. Concrete thinking 2. Abstract thinking

1. They both have eyes. 2. They are both living organisms.

Aristotle distinguished between two dimensions of behavioral flexibility:

1. practical wisdom: Practical wisdom was the application of knowledge. Practical wisdom is the use of action. 2. theoretical wisdom: theoretical wisdom was the pontification of ideas across contexts. Theoretical wisdom is the conceptualization of underlying explanations of thoughts and actions across situations.

Thurstone's 7 Primary Mental Abilities:

1. word fluency: Generate as many words that start with S in 5 minutes then how many start with C in 4 minutes. 2. verbal comprehension: Recognizing antonyms and synonyms. 3. numeric abilities: What is 23 x 5? 4. spatial visualization: Similar to the mental rotation task. 5. memory: Repeat back a sequence given to you. 6. perceptual speed: Trying to identify the differences and similarities between two stimuli. 7. reasoning: induction of a pattern from a sequence and deduction of a conclusion from some premises.

Homework: Based on Wechsler's IQ test, what percentage of the population has an IQ below 100?

50%

Homework: Thurstone believed that there were ______ components to intelligence.

7

functional magnetic resonance imagery (fMRI)

A scanning technique that provides information about the activity of regions of the brain when people perform certain cognitive or motor tasks.

Homework: With regard to general cognitive abilities (g), what is factor analysis?

A statistical procedure that breaks down g into separate clusters of similar abilities.

Homework: Imagine you are asked to write a brief essay on the flaws in Galton's approach to intelligence. Which of the following would be a justifiable argument?

Although many biological features are normally distributed, it is poor logic to assume that normally distributed traits are necessarily biologically innate.

Intellect/nous

Aristotle identified the ability to engage in reasoning that is both cross-contextual and contextually-sensitive as nous, which is often translated as intellect.

Homework: You are participating in a game show with your friend, Sandra. In this game, she answers questions and you place bets based on how confident you are her answers are correct. The final question asks who created the first assessment of intelligence with physiological measures, and Sandra's answer is Galton. Based on what you know about the history of intelligence assessment, you should:

Bet all your money, and start planning your dream vacation. She is correct.

Homework: Sonja, a four-year-old girl, participated in a series of tests designed to measure her intelligence. Initially, the tests were quite simple, but they became more difficult as the tests progressed. Because Sonja was able to answer questions that an average seven-year-old can answer, she was given a mental age of seven. It is most likely these tests were inspired by the work of _______.

Binet

Homework: Karina is an Olympic gymnast. According to Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, Karina is likely to score high in:

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

Homework: Which of the following testing methods measures the speed of processing?

Choice reaction time

Homework: What area of psychology developed out of the understanding of intelligence using flowcharts and conceptualizations of the mind (e.g., how memory is organized)?

Cognitive

Homework: Which of the following is true regarding measures of reaction time?

Correlations with traditional measures of intelligence are relatively weak.

Homework: Susan is trying to determine how many gallons of paint to buy based on the number of square feet that she is painting. The ability to apply previous mathematical skills to solve the current problem would be considered the use of her __________.

Crystallized intelligence

emotional intelligence (EI)

Emotional intelligence was originally proposed by Mayer and colleagues (Mayer et al., 1990; Salovey and Mayer, 1990) and then popularized by the journalist Daniel Goleman (1995). According to Mayer et al., emotional intelligence is made up of four components: (1) the ability to perceive emotions accurately; (2) the ability to use emotions to facilitate thought; (3) the ability to understand emotions; and (4) the ability to manage emotions. Emotional intelligence includes concepts such as sympathy and empathy. EI is more likely a measure of the personality trait "social effectiveness" than a form of intelligence. Persons with damage to various emotion centers become quickly overwhelmed by the information and options available to them, which ultimately means that they cannot zero in on the relevant information. Emotions contribute significantly to our intelligence by helping us to zero in on the information that is relevant to us.

Homework: The movement to try to improve humanity by sterilizing people of low intelligence was known as ________.

Eugenics

factor analysis

Factor analysis is the use of statistical measures to determine how much variables are related to each other in order to find clusters called "factors."

Homework: Advances in measuring IQ plateaued with the Wechsler measures and they are not a primary focus in modern psychology.

False

Homework: Robin is an engineer and is faced with an unusual problem. She has not had prior experience solving this problem. Robin carefully considers the situation and then finds a creative solution. Robin's ability to solve the problem would be influenced by her ______.

Fluid intelligence

Charles Spearman (1863-1945)

He found that school children's grades in various subjects were positively correlated with each other. Students tended to score similarly across different academic subjects despite the dramatic differences in the subject matter.

Sternberg's Theory of Triarchic Intelligence,

He identified four components of intelligence, where each component is applied in three different content areas: 1. Analytical Intelligence 2. Creative Intelligence 3. Practical Intelligence 4. Successful Intelligence (incorporating all 3 above)

Arthur Jensen

He proposed that intelligence was the speed of neuronal conduction, i.e., how quickly neurons transmit information. Jensen's hypothesis is based on the plausible conjecture that intelligence is based on how fast neurons could transmit information because an increase in neuronal conduction might be analogous to how computers have become more powerful as their processing speed has increased.

Homework: Jacob has just attained a fairly low score on a test designed to measure his reasoning. Based on Thurstone's theory of intelligences, when Jacob takes a test designed to measure his perceptual speed, you can predict that:

His score on that test will be independent of his verbal fluency test score.

Robert Sternberg (1983)

His work showed that more intelligent people took longer to encode the problem and to come up with a general strategy for it. More intelligent people concentrate their effort on formulating a problem well, and while this initially slows them down, it speeds them up overall (i.e., they are faster at producing an answer than individuals who rush through the problem formulation)

the concept of Multiple Intelligences (1983) by Howard Gardner

Howard Gardner proposed the concept of Multiple Intelligences (1983), which purports that there are multiple kinds of intelligence that are distinct from each other. Gardner argued that there are distinct and independent systems functioning within specified domains, and each one is intelligent on its own. For Gardner, the evidence for such intelligences comes from a variety of interdisciplinary sources. He proposed eight sources but considered four to be central sources. Each intelligence should have its own separate symbol system, such the notation system of music, or the numbers functions and variables representations in math, etc.

reverse engineering

In reverse engineering, one first identifies a complex problem that human beings solve. One then tries to break the problem up into smaller component problems that have to be solved in order to solve the overarching problem.

choice reaction time by Arthur Jensen

In such a test, the person has to select one answer from a set of possibilities. Although the speed of choice may play a role in intelligence, one cannot simply measure intelligence by measuring reaction times.

Performance Tests

Instead of testing vocabulary or cultural knowledge, these tests are designed to assess an individual's ability to detect non-obvious patterns and use them to answer a question. They are a standardized way of seeing how well people can "read between the lines."

Homework: Lenore tells you that her 10-year-old recently completed an intelligence test that translated raw scores into deviation IQ scores. Lenore knows that her 10-year-old's score was 130. This means that her 10-year-old:

Is above average for a 10-year-old.

Homework: The use of performance tests, such as Raven's progressive matrices, over other traditional methods of measuring IQ is beneficial because ______. (Select the best answer.)

It can be used across cultures and different languages.

Homework: Maia's IQ was calculated using the formula developed by Terman, and the result was greater than 100. This indicates that:

Maia's mental age is greater than her chronological age

componential analysis

Robert Sternberg (1983) applied the same technique of componential analysis to trying to understand a complex problem often found on IQ tests, namely, completing analogies. Sternberg's work revealed several types of components in the analogy task such as encoding, inferring relations, mapping relations, and applying the mapped relations

Homework: Girls are often told that boys are better at math. Prior to taking an achievement test, female students were told that their scores were important because it was important for the school to show that there were no differences in mathematical ability across genders. How would this likely affect the performance of female students?

Scores of female students would decrease relative to males.

Homework: When researching intelligence, who developed the notion of general cognitive ability or g?

Spearman

Lewis Terman

Terman believed the white people of European ancestry had the highest intelligence, especially if they were in the upper classes of society. Terman thought he had good evidence for this claim, for when he applied his tests to non-white ethnicities he inevitably came up with lower scores for the individuals he tested. Terman believed that these people should be steered into lower status and more menial jobs. He also argued that people of low IQ should be sterilized without their consent in order to prevent them from reproducing and thereby increasing the number of individuals with low intelligence. Basically a racist piece of shit. So was Galton for being the founder of eugenics.

GThe Wisdom Paradox, by Eikonon Goldberg

The Wisdom Paradox, neuropsychologist Eikhonon Goldberg proposes that we initially have to rely on problem-solving abilities that deal with novelty and complexity. As we do so, we build up templates in the brain for recognizing patterns. Increasingly, we can shift from effortful problem solving to more effortless pattern recognition. This helps to explain the wisdom paradox: the fact that people seem to be able to become wiser even though many measures of cognitive functions show decline in later adult life.

Social Darwinism

The belief that only the fittest survive in human political and economic struggle. Social Darwinism relied on the idea that one group is superior to another. This is a moral evaluation, which is not any part of Darwin's theory.

mindset

The cognitive view, either fixed or growth, that individuals develop for themselves.

Homework: Which of the following was not part of Wechsler's method of calculating IQ?

The concept required chronological age in its calculation.

Wechsler's tests: 1. the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III) 2. the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III0) 3. the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)

The first is they are unaffected by the age of the participant. The second advantage of Wechsler tests is the use of a point system. Wechsler's tests, are grouped according to content (see Figure 10.7). An individual does not have to answer a set number of questions in order to receive a score. Also, each item answered on the test is assigned a score. So, in addition to an overall score, participants could be assessed according to certain content areas. The third advantage is the addition of the Performance IQ tests.

the Binet-Simon Test, originally written in French.

The first written (i.e., paper and pencil) measure of intelligence was a function of Simon's and Binet's work.

standard deviation (SD)

The magnitude of the SD indicates the degree to which scores cluster around the mean. Large SD's are associated with higher levels of discrepancy between the scores and the mean, whereas low SD's indicate that scores are more tightly clustered around the mean (i.e., less variability).

Flynn effect

The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations. The first explanation involves an overall improvement in nutrition and medical care over time, which results in significant positive effects on the healthy development of the brain and cognitive abilities. The second underlying theory focuses on improvements in education; in the post-industrial society, the demands of life required a shifted from the mundane to the importance of abstract thinking, the necessity of scientific reasoning and classification, and the focus on logical and mathematical analysis. The third explanation examines the increase in environmental complexity that is a byproduct of rapidly changing technology; these changes are believed to have necessitated adaptations in the use of one's working memory and attention, both of which leads to increased IQ scores.

self-enhancement bias

The tendency to overestimate our performance and capabilities and to see ourselves in a more positive light than others see us.

stereotype threat

The theory of stereotype threat is based on research demonstrating that when people are taking such tests, they feel pressure to not provide evidence supporting negative stereotypes of the group to which they belong (Steele, 1997; Nisbett et al., 2012). So in addition to trying to answer the test questions, they feel a particular threat if they fail to answer the questions correctly. This increases their anxiety while taking the test and divides their attention from the task at hand.

learning styles

The ways people think and learn. Based on which type of intelligence is dominant within them and that individuals should be taught according to their styles.

Homework: The concept that intelligence is malleable means that intelligence level can change.

True

Homework: According to Flynn, which of the following statements is NOT correct?

We have made equal strides on all fronts to increase knowledge.

Homework: Jack is looking at Anne, but Anne is looking at George. Jack is married, but George is not. Is a married person looking at an unmarried person?

Yes

Sir Francis Galton

a psychologist and statistician (among other specialties), focused on the empirical measurement of man using empirical methods to ensure precise measurement. Galton conceptualized that one's general cognitive ability (g) was the product of heredity, and he believed that intelligence was related to how well one uses one's senses. Galton tried to equate physical measures of the body with mental measurement. Galton used seventeen tests that evaluated abilities such as weight discrimination (i.e., the ability to notice small differences in weight), and pitch sensitivity (i.e., the ability to notice differences in pitch). The lack of statistically significant relationships between Galton's measures and the expected outcome (e.g., school performance) means that scores on physiological measures were not valid predictors of constructs related to school grades which are perceived indicators of intelligence. With regard to academic performance, Galton's tests were not predictive of academic success, which suggests that the tests do not measure intelligence.

deviation IQ

a statistic obtained by dividing a person's test score by the average test score of people in the same age group and then multiplying the quotient by 100.

confounding variables

are variables that affect scores but are not accounted for when explaining relationships between variables.

Atkinson and Schiffrin

developed a model to explain the cognitive processing involved in memory (see Figure 10.9); this model explained memory in terms of how information flowed between different types of processors (i.e., sensory, short-term, and long-term memory) and various methods of processing (i.e., selective attention, maintenance, and elaborative rehearsal). Atkinson and Shiffrin model can be conceptualized using a flowchart. While the flowchart is a schematic representation of information processing. One could also attempt to create a computer program that uses artificial intelligence to carry out various sequence and functions that mimic human cognitive processing (Artificial intelligence).

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon

focused on behavioral measures of intelligence in their work. Thought of intelligence in much more cognitive terms and defined it as the ability to "judge well, to comprehend well, to reason well." They developed tests of attention, memory, imagination, reasoning, common sense, and abstraction, which they later claimed reflected three basic abilities: direction, adaptation, and criticism (Binet and Simon, 1916). One important consequence of Binet and Simon's work is that it helps to standardize the measure of intelligence.

general cognitive ability (g)

g. This is a variable that stands for the general factor of intelligence, often simply called general intelligence or general cognitive abilities. There is a higher-order level of general intelligence (g). Measures of general intelligence (g) have been found to predict how well persons perform in university classes (Neiser et al., 1996); how long students stay in school; how much a person earns in his or her chosen career (Ceci and Williams, 1997); and even mortality (Gottredson and Deary, 2004). Measures of general intelligence are a better predictor of how you will do in a job than either level of education or how well you performed in the job interview (Schmidt and Hunter, 1998). Explanations of what general intelligence (g) is. One proposal was that general intelligence involved the following: (1) apprehension of one's own experience; (2) the education of relations; and (3) the education of correlates. Spearman's (1923) second proposal was that g reflected the mental energy available throughout the whole cortex. The idea was that more intelligent people had more energy to devote to mental tasks and could therefore perform more difficult mental tasks.

cognitive flexibility

having knowledge and knowing how, when, where and what degree to apply that knowledge.

Intelligence: Fixed Trait vs. Malleable Trait

how a person's level of intelligence is part of that person's self-identity, which can ultimately affect a person's behavior choices. 1. Fixed Trait: does not change over time or context. You would likely perceive personal failures as the result of your lower intelligence, thus trying seems futile if you just don't have the innate abilities. 2. Malleable Trait: something that can change over time. Effort, learning, or strategy use, then failure is not so devastating as it simply indicates that more effort is needed, or different strategies are needed, etc.

Successful Intelligence

involves being able to appropriately use all three components of intelligence so that one performs in the greatest possible variety of contexts.

Adaptation

is the ability to create strategies for implementing this knowledge and monitoring its progress

Direction

is the ability to know what to do and how to do it.

crystallized intelligence

is the ability to solve problems by applying previously accumulated knowledge such as when you do a multiplication problem.

Criticism

is the ability to step back and find error in one's thinking.

Fluid intelligence

is the ability to think flexibly and to handle complex and novel situations. It is what you use to solve new problems that are not based primarily on knowledge you already possess.

Practical Intelligence

is when the components are applied to real-world settings.

Analytical Intelligence

is when the components are applied to the kinds of problems found in standard I.Q. tests.

Creative Intelligence

is when the components are applied to unfamiliar situations where novelty is important.

Encoding the information

means creating representations of the elements of the analogy that connect to stored information.

normal distribution

most of the results are found around some central values.

Lewis Terman

of Stanford University made the american version of this Binet-Simon test. He did was follow the suggestion of William Stern to divide the person's mental age by their chronological age in order to get an Intelligence Quotient (IQ). This would indicate if the child was above or below the average performance of their age group. Simply knowing that a child's mental score was seven did not tell you whether they were above or below average intelligence. Terman had reason to believe that his test was actually measuring what it claimed to measure. In this way, Terman's test was superior to Galton's. Due to this success, the Stanford-Binet test became the standard for years for intelligence testing.

Inspection Time Testing by Nettelbeck and Lalley (1976)

proposed that a good way to measure intelligence was to measure how quickly an individual could identify which of two lines was the longer line. The idea is that this is a simple task that anyone can do, and therefore the only difference between people will be how quickly they can do it.

Apprehension

refers to how one sizes up situations (Matson, 1976). When you apprehend a situation, you make something the focus of your attention, perhaps this text, while you are less aware of the less salient information in the background, such as the room in which you are reading.

eugenics

science dealing with improving hereditary qualities. First became popular in the United States (U.S.) in the early 1900s as a means of preventing perceivably less-desirable persons from having children and passing on their perceivably inferior DNA. Sir Francis Galton is credited as the founder of the eugenics movement, which was advocated by Terman in the United States. ​Eugenics is the idea that different races and different socioeconomic classes naturally have differences in intelligence, and that governments should encourage the "superior" races and classes to reproduce while preventing the "lower" races and classes from reproducing. Eugenics is based on social Darwinism. The Eugenics movement was a major influence on the development of Nazism.

Social learning

takes place in a wide variety of different contexts and requires the coordination of skills of attention, working memory, and problem solving, thus leading to the behavioral flexibility and innovation that are central to general intelligence.

Raven's Progressive Matrices

tests that are supposed to be relatively free of cultural bias.

Intelligence

the ability to discern true or important information from information that was false or unimportant. Those with this capacity have a deeper level of understanding that allows them to discern patterns that are not readily apparent, which may facilitate future problem solving. Intelligence is thought to generate more behavioral flexibility

selection effects

the likelihood that a non-representative sample may lead to inaccurate results. A threat to internal validity that occurs in an independent-groups design when the kinds of participants at one level of the independent variable are systematically different from those at the other level

mode

the most commonly occurring score.

"knowledge illusion" by Sloman and Fernback (2017)

thinking we know more than we do and understand more than we do.

Raymond Cattell (1971)

tried to reconcile the Spearman's theories regarding two levels of intelligence with Thurston's theory of primary mental abilities. Cattell proposed that the top of the hierarchical structure was general intelligence, which was comprised of two major factors found at the intermediary level: fluid general intelligence (Gf) and crystallized general intelligence (Gc).

Louis Thurstone

used factor analysis to contradict Spearman's theory of a general intelligence factor. Thurstone concluded that intelligence is made up of seven factors that he referred to as primary mental abilities.

mean

which is the average of all the results obtained.

median

which is the middle score.

variability

which represents how far scores differ from the mean.

The Standford-Binet test had a flaw:

which was that the IQ growth capped off at around 16 years old and steadily declined as we age.

Homework: According to the data shown in the normal distribution of IQ scores, the average IQ score is:

100

Specific level (s)

lower-order specialized abilities that are specific to certain subjects or tasks.

Homework: Intelligence is determined by one specific chromosome.

False

Homework: Which best explains the heritability of intelligence?

General intelligence is a function of both nature and nurture.

Homework: Human intelligence went through a significant increase during what period?

The Upper Paleolithic Transition

Upper Paleolithic Transition

Theory- seems to mark a change in the human mind-set. People now are projecting value onto objects in ways they never had before. A spear point is not just tool in the UP, but its also an expression of craftsmanship that was not present before. Humans begin to use visual media to signal things about themselves in very new ways. Seems to be the period when many of the traits of intelligence we regard as distinctly human came into fruition. Between 60,000 and 30,000 years ago, there was a significant change in human behavior. We have clear evidence for a wider variety of tools made using different materials, the invention of projectile weapons, the invention of calendars and season-specific hunting, ceremonial burial, cave paintings, sculptures, musical instruments, and personal jewelry. Rituals, especially shamanic rituals that invoke altered states of consciousness in order to improve hunting and healing (both physical and psychological), and are widespread in hunter-gather societies (Winkelman, 2010). The use of rituals may be how we first learned to direct the fine-tuning of our cultural intelligence.

Contextual focus

is the ability to shift between defocused attention and focused attention.

defocused attention

states trigger more associational and intuitive thought. The defocused mode allows one to break out of stuck or fixated modes of thought and re-filter what one considers relevant.

focused attention

triggers more logical and directed thought. Then more focused processing can kick in and order the newly relevant information into a solution. This is plausibly what happens when one is experiencing insight.