Q and A Khan

If destroyed, still have old memories intact, just can't make new ones (anterograde amnesia).

What happens when the hippocampus is damaged?

i. crescendo then decrescendo breathing followed by stop in breathing. Normal breathing pattern is inhale/exhale changes from a normal fixed pattern. ii. Believed heart failure/stroke/renal failure is the cause.

What is Cheynes-Stroke breathing?

Lexical access refers to identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning, which has been stored in long-term memory.

What is lexical access?

when Skin is stroked, baby moves/swings to the side it was stroked. Disappears at 6 months.

Galant reflex?

a. Photopic vision occurs at levels of high light levels. b. Mesopic vision occurs at dawn or dusk and involves both rods and cones. c. Scotopic vision occurs at levels of very low light.

Identify photopic, mesopic, and scotopic vision.

i. severe memory loss, accompanied by confabulation (patients make up stories, sometimes to fill in memories). ii. Individuals with Korsakoff syndrome have problem forming new memories and recalling old memories (anterograde and retrograde amnesia respectively)

If untreated, Wernicke's will progress to Korsakoff's with what symptoms?

i. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus. ii. In operant conditioning, extinction can occur if the trained behavior is no longer reinforced or if the type of reinforcement used is no longer rewarding.

In which types of conditioning does extinction occur?

Slow, which seems odd

Temperature and nociception are fast/slow?

i. hippocampus and frontal cortex (impulse control, reasoning, judgment, planning) ii. see atrophy in these areas due to stress

What 2 areas of brain have most cortisol receptors?

i. 1. Mastery of experience - strengthens self-efficacy ii. 2. Social modeling - seeing people similar to ourselves complete the same task increases self-efficacy iii. 3. Social persuasion - when someone says something positive to you, helps overcome self-doubt. iv. 4. Psychological responses - learning how to minimize stress and control/elevate mood in difficult/challenging situations can improve self-efficacy

What 4 factors determine if a person has a strong/weak sense of self-efficacy?

Primary Processes (Forming a mental image of the desired object)

What action does the id use to realize it's pleasure principle?

a. - synthetic drug between a stimulant and hallucinogen. b. Like stimulant - Increases dopamine and serotonin and euphoria. Also stimulates the body's CNS. Effects include: high BP, dehydration, overheating, death i. Can damage neurons that produce serotonin, which has several functions including moderating mood. No serotonin = depressed mood c. heightened sensations, ex. artificial feeling of social connectedness and intimacy

What is Molly/MDMA/Ecstasy?

The main effect of NPY is to promote increased food intake and decreased physical activity in response to a plummeting blood sugar level. In addition to increasing food intake, it increases the percentage of calories stored as fat and blocks pain receptor signals to the brain (cue emotional eating).

What is Neuropeptide Y?

theory of behaviour change that emphasizes interactions between people and their environment. Unlike behaviourism (where environment controls us entirely), cognition is also important.

What is Social Cognitive Theory?

characterized by difficulty understanding spoken words and sentences, as well as difficulty producing sentences that make sense. Receptive aphasia Fluent aphasia

What is Wernicke's aphasia? Fluent or Non-fluent?

Xenocentrism: judging another culture as superior to one's own culture

What is Xenocentrism?

we have three levels of the first variable crossed with two levels of the second variable. Such a design gives us 3x2=6 treatment conditions in the experiment. Two independent variables, 3 of first, 2 of 2nd.

What is a 3x2 factorial design (read "three by two")?

A confounding variable is a third, oft-unintended variable in an experiment that could provide an alternative explanation to the relationship between the variables of interest.

What is a confounding variable?

i. If destroyed, mellowing effect ii. Kluver-Bucy syndrome - bilateral destruction (destruction of both) of amygdala can result in hyperorality (put things in mouth a lot), hypersexuality, and disinhibited behaviour. These are all drunken behaviours, so it is treated like such.

What happens when the amygdala is damaged?

genes, physical stress during pregnancy (such as infection during pregnancy), and psychosocial factors (negative family interaction styles effect development of brain)

What have been some purported causes of schizophrenia?

Broca's aphasia is characterized by apraxia, a disorder of motor planning, which causes problems producing speech. Non fluent

What is Broca's aphasia? Fluent or Non-fluent aphasia?

theorizes that males + females have different mating strategies that influence costs associated with passing on genes. Males can have many mates, females more selective due to cost of pregnancy.

What is David Buss' (UT Austin) Evolutionary psychology theory?

This method of therapy uses musical elements, including melody and rhythm, to improve expressive language by capitalizing on preserved singing abilities and possibly engaging language-capable regions in the undamaged right hemisphere. MIT works best with non-fluent forms of aphasia.

What is Melodic Intonation Therapy (MIT)? What type of aphasia does it work best with?

i. A slum is a heavily populated urban informal settlement characterized by substandard housing and squalor. ii. Ghettoes are defined as areas where specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities are concentrated, usually due to social or economic inequities.

What is difference between a slum and a ghetto?

a. Proprioception includes sense of balance/position, while kinesthesia includes sense of movement. b. Proprioception is cognitive, kinesthesia is behavioral

What is difference between kinesthesia and proprioception?

A cone-shaped set of points, radiating outwards from a location midway between an organism's ears, from which a sound source produces identical phase delays and transient disparities, making the use of such binaural cues useless for sound localization. All of the points on the cone of confusion have the same interaural level difference and interaural time difference.

What is the cone of confusion?

Almost same thing as fundamental attribution error. We are victims, but others are willful actors.

What is the actor-observer bias?

a group of structures linked to the thalamus in the base of the brain that don't have UMNs but are involved in coordination of movement

What is the basal ganglia?

The behaviorist theory says personality is the result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment - it's deterministic, in that people begin as blank states and the environment completely determines their behavior/personalities. Environment BEHAVIOR

What is the behaviorist thesis?

a. Connects all parts of the brain i. 12 pairs of cranial nerves are attached here b. Midbrain- important functions in motor movement, particularly movements of the eye, and in auditory and visual processing c. Pons- involved in the control of breathing, waking/relaxing, communication between top and bottom parts of brain d. Medulla- autonomic activity of heart and lungs e. Reticular formation: a diffuse network of nerve pathways in the brainstem connecting the spinal cord, cerebrum, and cerebellum, and mediating the overall level of consciousness. i. Long tracts - collections of axons connecting cerebrum and brainstem. 2 long tracts that are important: motor (UMNs), and somatosensory.

What is the brainstem's function?

gives an estimated range of values which is likely to include an unknown population parameter, the estimated range being calculated from a given set of sample data.

What is the confidence interval?

the mucous membrane that covers the front of the eye and lines the inside of the eyelids.

What is the conjunctiva?

a neural map of the connections within the brain.

What is the connectome?

The diathesis-stress model suggests that people have, to different degrees, vulnerabilities or predispositions for developing depression. In the language of this model, these vulnerabilities are referred to as diatheses. Some people may have more of these diatheses for developing depression than other people. However, this model suggests that having a propensity towards developing depression alone is not enough to trigger the illness. Instead, an individual's diathesis must interact with stressful life events (of a social, psychological or biological nature) in order to prompt the onset of the illness. According to the model, the greater a person's diatheses for depression, the less environmental stress will be required to cause him or her to become depressed. Until this critical amount of stress has been reached, people will generally function normally, and their diatheses are considered to be "latent" or hidden.

What is the diathesis stress model of abnormality?

Difference couldn't be attributed to environment, so we'd say their IQ differences were 100% heritable because environment was 100% same.

What is the heritability in the following scenario: Four boys with a 100% controlled environments, yet IQ still is different amongst the boys?

converts carbohydrates into glucose cells need for energy. Important for normal functioning of neurons.

What is the importance of thiamine?

describes the difference in sound pressure level between the ears. The head dampens the overall sound to the far ear and reduces the intensity of the high frequency tones due to the acoustic shadow, but not the low frequency tones.

What is the interaural level difference?

contains many important pathways, including the corticospinal tract

What is the internal capsule of the inner cerebrum?

language influences thought. It makes it easier/more common for us to think in certain ways based on how our language is structured.

What is weak linguistic determinism (relativism)?

i. Weak social constructionism proposes that social constructs are dependent on: 1. Brute facts, which are the most basic and fundamental facts. Ex. brute facts are what explain quarks (or what makes the quarks) in atoms, not the atoms themselves (something that is not defined by something else). 2. Institutional facts are created by social conventions and do rely on other facts. Ex. money depends on the paper we have given value.

What is weak social constructionism?

i. experience of emotion depends on how the situation is cognitively appraised (labelled). ii. If we label emotion as good, it is positive iii. If we label emotion as bad, it is negative iv. Event > Label the event (appraisal) > emotion + PR based on appraisal.

What it is the Lazarus theory of emotion?

Medial temporal lobe

Amnesia is usually due to brain injury in what part of the brain?

Women are poorly represented in higher position in companies

What is the glass -ceiling effect?

i. Monoamines include adrenaline (epinephrine), norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and melatonin (involved in onset of darkness). 1. Catecholamine (Subclass) includes dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine (2 OH groups on phenyl) ii. Ex. monoamine oxidase inhibitors (increase amount of monoamines in synapse)

(Depression) Medications that target what class of NTs often improve symptoms?

Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory - Attention, Memory, Imitation, Motivation (Acronym: "AM I Motivated?")

According to Bandura's Social Cognitive/Observational Learning Theory, what is the process we take towards learning something and acting upon it consistently?

i. Growth is nurtured by when individual is genuine. One has to be open and revealing about themselves without fear of being wrong. ii. Second is growth is nurtured through acceptance - unconditional positive regard from others. This allows us to live up to our ideal selves. Allows us to be open and learn without fear of others looking at us differently if we do something wrong.

According to Carl Rogers, what are the characteristics of the growth-promoting climate required to achieve Maslow's idea of self-actualization?

congruency between self-concept and our actions allows us to feel fulfilled.

According to both Rogers and Maslow, What is the importance of congruency?

self-concept - achieved when we bring genuineness and acceptance together to achieve growth-promoting climate.

According to both Rogers and Maslow, what is the central feature of our personality?

Adaptation is at the sensory level, and habituation is at the perceptive/cognitive level

Adaptation is at the ________ level and habituation is at the _________ level?

a. At same time dopamine goes up (increase sense of euphoria), serotonin goes down. i. Serotonin - partially responsible for feelings of satiation. So if serotonin goes down, you are less likely to be satiated or content.

As dopamine increases, serotonin (increases/decreases) and does what to the perception of satiety?

a. Non-associative learning - when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus i. ex. habituation and sensitization. In habituation, person tunes out the stimulus. Dishabituation occurs when previously habituated stimulus is removed. Sensitization is increase in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus. b. Associative learning - when one event is connected to another, ex. classical and operant conditioning.

Associative vs. non-associative learning?

Inductive, always correct, and begins with stimulus.

Bottom-up processing is (inductive/deductive), is (always/sometimes) correct and begins with (stimulus/background knowledge and expectations).

the frontal lobe and limbic structures. Decreased activity in frontal lobe and increased activity in limbic structures. Show a role in regulation of emotions and response to stress.

Depression, what are associated areas of abnormality?

a. Socialization also shapes our self-image and self-concept, and Charles Cooley used the term "looking glass self" to describe this process - idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others. b. Thought this happened in 3 steps i. 1) How do I appear to others? ii. 2) What must others think of me? (are we: shy, intelligent, funny, or awkward) iii. 3) Revise how we think about ourselves (based on correct OR incorrect perceptions on others evaluations).

Describe Charles Cooley's theory?

a. done to try to understand why some babies have stranger anxiety and some don't. This research focused on mother-child interactions primarily (not child-caregiver ones). i. Experiment: 1. #1. Mother and child in room with a stranger (stranger was part of experiment). Child allowed to exaccoplore. Neither stranger nor mother interact with child. Purpose: would they explore the space? 2. #2. Then mom leaves the room (without calling too much attention to herself) and quietly leaves. Baby left alone with stranger. Purpose: what is child's response when mother leaves (does child keep playing or does child start crying) 3. #3. Then mother returns. Mother + stranger + baby in the room. Purpose: What is the child's response when mother returns (are they happy, sad about her return, or ignore her) ii. Researchers found children could be split into 2 groups - those with secure attachment and those with insecure attachment. iii. 60% were secure attachment 1. #1: Child was secure with parent and explored room, might have stayed with mother and eventually explored room (aka. child might walk back to mother at times or look back at mother, but comfortable exploring) 2. #2: When parent left, child became really distressed/upset 3. #3: when parent comes back, they would go to the mother and be happy iv. 40% were classified as having Insecure attachment 1. #1: children cling to mother, and stayed with mother and did not explore. 2. #2: When mother left became upset/distress 3. #3: distress did not go away when she came back. 4. Others were avoidant - were not upset when they left the room and were indifferent to her when she returned.

Describe Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation?

i. the mind and self-emerge through the process of communicating with others (beginning of symbolic interactionism). ii. Infants + children were not influenced by others in any way, merely imitate others, and display egocentrism. iii. As we grow up, our belief on how others perceive us is more important, this happens through 3 stages: preparatory, play stage, and game stage. These occur overtime as a child grows. b. 1. Preparatory stage -interaction through imitation, As they grow older, focus more on communication with others instead of simple imitation, and get practice using symbols (gestures/words). Can't take perspective of others. c. 2. Play stage - more aware of social relationships, reflected in children's tendency to pretend play as others like firefighters, doctors, etc. Mentally assuming perspective of others and acting based on their perceived point of view. Focused on role-taking: mentally taking perspective of another person and acting on that perceived viewpoint. i. Way beyond imitation. They create social-interactions (not just mimicking) ii. Children consider attitudes, belief, and behaviors of individuals closest to them. d. 3. Game stage - Start to understand attitudes/beliefs/behavior of "generalized other" (society as a whole). Children start to realize that people perform in ways not only on what they personally believe but what also in the ways society more broadly expects of them and they understand that people can take on multiple roles. Also realize others have opinions about them and those perceptions others have are based on how they act and what they say. They begin to be influenced by these perceptions and are concerned by reactions of others to what they do. But don't care about reactions of everyone, only significant others (people with important relationships to individual, ex. parents/teachers/close peers). e. Believe this last stage led to development of the "I" and "me". i. Me = what we learn through interactions with others. How individual believes the generalized other perceives us, the social self, and learned through interactions with others. Socialized and conforming aspect of self ii. I = the response of the individual to the "me". "I" is the personal response to society's views, which is often nonconforming. The spontaneous, less socialized component of the Self. iii. Our actual self is the balance between the I and the me. iv. Me = society's view (that's me!), the part of self-formed in interaction with others and social environment, and I = individual identity stepping in and our personal responses to what society thinks. The "I" is the spontaneous and autonomous part of our unified self.

Describe Meads' theory of social behaviorism?

a. stress arises less from physical events but more from the assessment/interpretation of those stresses/events b. Two Stages: i. Primary appraisal: assessing stress in present situation, with 3 categories of response: 1. Irrelevant - I see the stress but it's not important. 2. Benign/Positive - Ex: a dinosaur takes out the dog - the rabbits enemy 3. Stressful/Negative - the stressor is actually threatening. Ex. Rabbit having to run away from the dog. ii. If negative, then move on to secondary appraisal: 1. Harm: what damage has already been caused 2. Threat: How much damage could be caused 3. Challenge: How can the situation be overcome or conquered.

Describe Richard Lazarus' Appraisal Theory of Stress?

i. Meso = "midbrain" where VTA (Ventrotangmental area). Specifically, the soma of neurons that use dopamine are located at VTA. ii. cortico = "cerebral cortex", axons project to frontal and temporal lobe of cerebral cortex. (axons of the VTA neurons project to other areas of the brain and release dopamine to cerebrum areas). iii. limbic = "collection of structures inside of the brain" involved in emotions/motivations/etc. iv. Often divided into mesocortical pathway (VTA to the frontal lobe) and mesolimbic pathway (VTA to limbic structures)

Describe how the mesocorticolimbic pathway is related to schizophrenia?

i. Ex. Take flaky friend, friend forever cancels on us. Consistent behavior over time. High level of consistent behavior over time, we are more likely related to them as a person as opposed to the world working against them in this situation. 1. When consistency is high = attribution to internal factors ii. Ex. Very nice friend Jim, but one day he gets so mad at the pizza place. Out of character and distinctive. So much more likely to be related to the environment. Distinctiveness = situational. 1. Distinctiveness of a situation = attribution to external factors iii. Third factor in covariation model - "group lateness" - if you arrive late at meeting but if you are with 20 other people are late too, high degree of consensus. When a lot of people demonstrate same behavior, we are more likely to attribute behavior to situational cause. 1. Consensus of people = attribution of external factors

Describe the 3 cues of Kelley's covariation model of attribution?

a. Upper and lower membrane, and little hair cells. As fluid flows around the organ, it causes hair cells to move back and forth. b. At the upper membrane: The hair cell/cilia is called the hair bundle and it is made of little filaments. Each filament is called a kinocilium. Tip of each kinocilium is connected by a tip link which is attached to gate of K+ channel. When the tip links get pushed back and forth by endolymph movement, they stretch and allows K+ to flow inside the cell from the endolymph (which is K+ rich) c. Ca2+ cells get activated when K+ is inside, so Ca2+ also flows into the cell, and causes AP, which then activates a spiral ganglion cell, which then activates the auditory nerve.

Describe the Organ of Corti and how the hair cells are activated in it?

a. Conservative strategy - always say no unless 100% sure signal is present. Bad thing is might get some misses. b. Liberal strategy- always say yes, even if you get false alarms.

Describe the conservative and liberal strategies to signal detection. What errors do you get with the conservative and liberal strategies respectively?

i. Fixed-ratio schedules are those where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer. ii. Variable Ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. iii. Fixed interval schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer. iv. Variable interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.

Describe the overall response pattern of each schedule?

i. 3 types of intelligences - analytical intelligence (Academic abilities - to solve well defined problems), creative intelligence (ability to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas and adapt) and practical intelligence (solve ill-defined problems, such as how to get a bookcase up a curvy staircase ii. Higher intelligence doesn't equal= better marriages, greater physical/mental wellbeing, raise their kids better

Describes Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence?

i. Patients want to be sick. The patient will falsify or disease their signs or symptoms to get a diagnosis/treatment. Ex. They might injure themselves, falsify tests. This is often called Munchausen's syndrome. People do this to be in sick roll (not for money) 1. Munchausen's by proxy -when one person makes another person look ill so medical attention/treatment provided further for another individual. ii. Malingering is done for $$$

Difference between factitious/Munchausen's and malingering?

Rods have slower recovery time than cones (why it takes while to adjust to dark)

Do cones or rods have a slower recovery time?

a. is a consequence of the accumulation of adenosine. Cells responsible for arousal are inhibited by adenosine monophosphate (AMP). b. can be caused by a large sleep debt

Excessive sleepiness is a consequence of?

We have red/green and blue/yellow pairings of cones that oppose each other. Only one color can dominate at a time

Explain Young-Helmholtz/Opponent Process Theory of color vision

a. Like depressants: Decrease CNS function, decrease HR/BP, cause relaxation, induce sleep (hence can be used to treat pain and anxiety) b. BUT it is NOT a depressant. Work on different mechanisms at the neurochemical level and can cause euphoria i. Different class than depressants, even though overlapping for anxiety, because opiates act on endorphin receptors

How are opiates related to depressants?

via neurochemical means. Muscimol can bind to GABA receptors and inhibit those neurons.

How are temporary lesions created?

a. Molecule will come in and activate receptor on basal cell/apical cell here. Basal cell sends axon through accessory olfactory bulb to glomerulus, then mitral or tufted cell which eventually goes to the amygdala (part of the brain) b. Signal transduction is where signal binds to receptor, which binds to GPCR. Depolarization. Signal goes to brain

How do basal/apical cells cause pheromones to be released?

People have consistent behavior patterns because we have specific response tendencies, but these can change, and that's why our personality develops over our entire lifespan.

How do behaviorists explain personality development?

a. A surgical procedure that attempts to restore some degree of hearing to individuals with sensorineural narrow hearing loss - aka `nerve deafness` b. Sound -> microphone -> transmitter (outside the skull) sends info to the receiver (inside skull). Then it sends info to the stimulator, into the cochlea, and cochlea converts electrical impulse into neural impulse that goes to brain. Restores some degree of hearing

How do cochlear implants work?

LSD modifies serotonin neurotransmission, especially the 5-HT2 receptor family.

How do hallucinogens work?

a. Subscribed for same things as barbiturates - sleep aids (to treat insomnia) or anti-anxiety or seizures (anticonvulsant) b. Enhance your brain's response to GABA. They open up GABA-activated chloride (Cl-) channels in your neurons, and make neurons more (-) charged. c. 3 types: short, intermediate, and long-acting. Short and intermediate are usually for sleep, while long acting is for anxiety. d. -zelam, -zolam

How do the most commonly prescribed suppressants, benzodiazepines, work?

The utricle senses horizontal motion while the saccule senses vertical acceleration. This occurs when calcium carbonate attached to hair cells is moved during body motion and triggers an action potential.

How do the otolithic organs contribute to the vestibular sense? Which does vertical and horizontal?

i. you rate a woman while crossing a bridge higher because you are experiencing sympathetic arousal as when compared to rating the same woman while walking across the street ii. When you are physically attracted to someone you experience this fast heartbeat (sympathetic arousal too). iii. Our brain recognizes the sympathetic arousal from high height and being attracted together.

How does Unrelated physiological arousal influence attraction?

a. The molecule binds to the GPCR receptor on odor molecule GPCR on olfactory epithelia G-protein dissociates and causes a cascade of events inside the cell G protein binds to ion channel which allows cells outside the cell to come inside opens and triggers an AP goes to cribriform plate glomerulus activate mitral/tufted cell synapse to brain. b. Idea: 100 of different olfactory epithelial each sensitive to one particular molecule. They all send projections to one glomerulus respective to their specialization. Then they synapse onto a mitral/tufted cell which signals to the brain

How does a molecule bind to a receptor and cause an AP?

i. inability to experience pleasure, so perceive more stressors, which leads to depression ii. Biological backing: The anterior cingulate (anterior part of the frontal cortex) stops responding to serotonin. iii. Learned helplessness - you learn from having control ripped out of hands that you don't have control, so lose ability to identify coping mechanisms, which becomes a cycle

How does anhedonia cause depression?

Sound waves travel different lengths along the cochlea.

How does the ear break up noises of different frequencies?

i. norms and deviance and how changes in norms can occur at the individual level. ii. when large numbers of individuals rapidly behave in ways that are not inline with societal norms called collective behavior

How is collective behavior different from norms?

i. Incentive theory focuses on Positive reinforcement is done through continuous positive stimulation. A positive reinforce is given after a response to increase the response. You need to be constantly given positive reinforces. ii. A negative reinforcement - removal of a stimuli to encourage a response would, is not what incentive theory is focused on. (this was drive-reduction theory)

How is incentive theory different from drive-reduction theory?

people with longer dopamine-4 receptor gene are more likely to be thrill seekers.

How is the dopamine-4 receptor gene one of the genes associated with personality?

i. 12 cranial + 31 spinal = 43 total pairs ii. includes nerves and ganglia, afferent and efferent neurons

How many total pairs of nerves make up the PNS?

Ipsilateral

Is taste contralateral or ipsilateral?

Touch is both. Fine touch travels in fast neurons, less precise info travels in slower ones.

Is touch fast or slow in terms of its neurons?

a. Very slow Delta waves b. Where sleep walking/talking in sleep happens c. declarative memory consolidation.

Memory consolidation in N3?

An implicit memory effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably influences the response to the same stimulus. Caused by experiencing the stimulus, and then ignoring it. Negative priming lowers the speed to slower than un-primed levels A positive prime speeds up processing. caused by simply experiencing the stimulus. Positive priming is thought to be caused by spreading activation. This means that the first stimulus activates parts of a particular representation or association in memory just before carrying out an action or task. The representation is already partially activated when the second stimulus is encountered, so less additional activation is needed for one to become consciously aware of it.

Negative vs. positive priming?

Fluid filled regions have been enlarged because there is less tissue of the brain.

Schizophrenia is associated (enlarged/shrunken) fluid-filled regions of the brain?

Dopamine. This is why Antipsychotic medicines reduce dopamine.

Schizophrenia is associated with high levels of...

Voxels. Each voxel typically represents the activity of a particular coordinate in three-dimensional space. The exact size of a voxel will vary depending on the technology used.

Such brain scanners produce maps of the scanned area that are represented with units called...

Cerebral cortex (layer that is outermost part of cerebrum) seems to have decreased size, in frontal and temporal lobes. These areas have to do with cognitive and perceptual functions which are abnormal in schizophrenia.

The frontal and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex have been seen to (increase/decrease in size)?

Negative effects

The mesocortical pathway has been associated with (+/-) symptoms of schizophrenia?

Positive effects

The mesolimbic pathway has been associated with (+/-) symptoms of schizophrenia?

Deductive, sometimes, background knowledge and expectations

Top-down is (inductive/deductive), is (always/sometimes) correct and begins with (stimulus/background knowledge and expectations).

a. Biologically i. Lateral Hypothalamus-In normal conditions, LH sends positive signal to us to start eating.) ii. Ventromedial Hypothalamus- when functioning properly, it signals to us to stop eating. Leptin present in high amounts in blood when full (appetite suppressing hormone) iii. Another hormone is insulin. Brain can detect level of insulin to see amount of sugar and fat stored in blood. Too much insulin = lots of sugar/fat store. iv. Metabolism rate. In dieting we get a slowdown in metabolism. Makes it easier for people to gain weight when resuming normal eating. v. Genetic predisposition to our weight, - set point influenced by parents. b. Socio-culturally: We Eat for different occasions, time, desire, appeal, availability

What are Biological and Sociocultural Factors that affect food intake?

a. Biological (found by Masters and Johnson) i. Sexual response cycle. 1. First part of cycle is excitement phase, marked by increased heart rate, muscle tension, BP, etc. 2. Second is plateau. 3. Then 3rd - orgasm. 4. 4th is resolution/refractory period. 5. M&J also noted sexual drive/activity was related to testosterone for women and men (sexual activities increased testosterone which in turn increased the sex drive). ii. Also have genetic predisposition to sexuality, and found by looking this by studying at homosexuality. iii. Hormones: 1. Prolactin is related to sexual gratification and is associated with relieving sexual arousal after an orgasm. 2. Endorphins produce feelings of euphoria and pleasure, and are released post-orgasm. 3. Oxytocin is released after an orgasm to facilitate bonds and feelings of connectedness between sexual partners b. Socio-cultural factors: i. Age ii. cultural background (certain practices acceptable in certain cultures but not others), iii. stimulus (determined by how responsive we are to visual/tactile stimuli) iv. emotions (psychological influence), and desires (to procreate or not).

What are Biological and Sociocultural Factors that affect sexual response?

a. Biological: i. Genetic: family member or family history/genetic predisposition - then you have a higher chance of abusing the drug. ii. withdrawal and cravings iii. biochemical factors - imbalance in our brains iv. Drugs like marijuana and heroin mimic neurotransmitters of our brain. Cocaine causes the abnormal release of natural NTs like dopamine - affects our limbic system. 1. Dopamine overstimulates/activates our brain limbic system (which controls movement, emotion, motivation, pleasure). Why we perceive emotions and mood altering properties of drugs. We become in a state of euphoria - total happiness. 2. If we continue to use a drug, we abuse the drug. Reinforcing effect - we want to constantly stimulate the brain by using drugs. b. Socio-culturally: curiosity, novelty of drug, rebel, poor control of user, cope with stress, low self-esteem (remember: one of Maslow's Hierarchy of needs, right below self-actualization), relief from fatigue, feel good, and more prevalent in areas of higher poverty

What are Biological and Sociocultural Factors that affect sexual response?

a. Reciprocity - People tend to return a favor, thus the pervasiveness of free samples in marketing. b. Commitment and Consistency - If people commit, orally or in writing, to an idea or goal, they are more likely to honor that commitment because of establishing that idea or goal as being congruent with their self-image. c. Social Proof - People will do things that they see other people are doing. d. Authority - People will tend to obey authority figures, even if they are asked to perform objectionable acts. e. Liking - People are easily persuaded by other people that they like.. f. Scarcity - Perceived scarcity will generate demand. For example, saying offers are available for a "limited time only" encourages sales. i. While conveying scarcity, in general, can influence others, in the case of an opinion, the more people that agree, the more likely others are to follow, so scarcity is not desirable.

What are Cialidini's 6 Key Principles of Influence?

a. Division of labor - people are trained to do specific tasks. i. Pro - people are better at tasks, and increased efficiency. ii. Con - increase alienation in workers, separating them from others (conflict theory), and they don't see work from beginning to end. Can lead to less satisfaction which leads to less productivity. iii. Also can lead to trained incapacity, where workers are so specialized in tasks they lose touch with overall picture. b. Hierarchy of organization - each position is under supervision of higher authority. Not all people of an organization are equal. i. Pro - clarify who's in command ii. Con - deprive people of voice in decision making (especially of those lower in chain of command) and shirk responsibility, especially in unethical tasks ("I was just following orders"). Also allows individuals to hide mistakes (often serious mistakes because no one person interacts with all members). c. Written rules and regulations i. Pro - clear expectations, uniform performance, equal treatment of all employees, and sense of unity/continuity to organization (laws/structures of organization stay same as members come/go) ii. Con - stiffens creativity, and too much structure discourages employees from taking initiative. Goal displacement (rules become more important than goals of organization) d. Impersonality - how individuals and officials conduct activities in unbiased manner i. Pro - equal treatment ii. Con - alienation, discourage loyalty to the group e. Employment based on technical qualifications -hiring in bureaucracy is based on qualifications on person has and not favoritism/personal rivalries i. Pro - decrease discrimination ii. Con - decrease ambition (only do what is necessary to secure job and do nothing more). Leads to Peter Principle, where every employee in hierarchy keeps getting promoted until they reach level of incompetence (they remain at a position because they are not good enough at the job to get promoted any further).

What are Max Weber's 5 main characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy, regardless of the organization's goal?

a. used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety (calm them down) Depress your CNS. b. Anesthesia or anticonvulsant (drugs that reduce seizures) c. Not often prescribed due to negative side effects such as reduced memory, judgment and concentration, with alcohol can lead to death (most drugs w/ alcohol are bad)

What are barbiturates medically used for?

i. We are placed in new situations every day. These situations affect our behavior. Under the branch of social psychology ii. Can also be used to describe personality

What is the Situational Approach to Behavior/Personality?

i. Must look like Neurological symptoms only - like problems with speech, swallowing, seizures, paralysis 1. individual Must exhibit at least one symptom of altered voluntary motor or sensory function that shows internal inconsistency, causes distress or impairment, and cannot be explained by another mental or medical disorder (DSM-5)

What are conversion disorders?

i. Causes inflammation - acute stress can lead to overuse of immune system. Can attack our own body. Good example is arthritis (joint become overly inflamed) ii. Chronic stress: stop activating immune system response and it suppresses you. Doesn't make you sick, but makes you more susceptible to illness.

What are damaging effects of stress on immune function?

i. During stress, body secretes cortisol and glucagon, which converts glycogen to glucose. Glucose increases in our blood which remains floating around in blood vessels (we don't need all this extra glucose, which can exacerbate metabolic conditions like diabetes). ii. Too much blood sugar can also cause heart disease

What are damaging effects of stress on metabolism?

Increased B.P, B.V distention, so they build up more muscle and become more rigid. Can lead to hypertension (HBP) and vascular disease (disease of blood vessels - get damaged with higher force of blood movement). Spots attract fat and narrow blood vessels. Worst place to experience this is coronary arteries - coronary artery disease.

What are damaging effects of stress on our heart?

i. In women - FSH/LH and then estrogen/progesterone can be inhibited which reduce reproductive abilities ii. Impotence /erectile dysfunction also often caused by stress because your blood vessels are being constricted (less blood flow to penis) and allows more blood to remain in core (stress is most common cause of impotence in US)

What are damaging effects of stress on reproduction?

Elimination Disorders - distress/disability from urination/defecation at inappropriate times or places.

What are elimination disorders?

i. Group size - more likely to conform in groups of 3-5. ii. Unanimity - when opinions of group are unanimous (everyone agrees). In the Ash experiment, there was one supporter who answered correctly before the experimenter, and full-compliance of experimenter dropped from 37% to 5%. Individuals claimed that the response of the supporter influenced their response - they said they didn't. Shows that supporter shows reduced likelihood of conformity. We're not aware of effects a defector can have (someone who conform). iii. Group status - why children more likely to go along with popular group. Why we trust four doctors over four gardeners about our health. iv. Group cohesion- if we feel no connection with group, feel less of need to go along with that group. v. Observed behaviour - whether we believe our behaviour is observed. In Ash experiment, when the participant came in late, they said his response would be recorded on paper and not shared with the group. If response in Asch line was not shared with group, the experimenter was much less likely to conform. vi. Public response - if we think we're met with acceptance vs. shunning. (happy to conform if we will be met with shunning, but will happily not conform if we think we will be met with acceptance) vii. Internal factors - 1. prior commitments (if we say something earlier that goes against group, we will decrease conformity because we are less likely to say something different later. If we said something earlier that is along the lines of the group, we will have increased conformity because we will say the same thing now. We are not likely to change what we say). 2. feelings of insecurity - more likely to follow judgements of others (conformity)

What are factors that influence conformity and obedience?

Filiform papillae do not contain taste buds and exist all over the tongue. The center of the tongue contains only filiform papillae. This is why stimulation of the center of the tongue does not cause a taste sensation, while the back and perimeter produce a broad range of taste sensations.

What are filiform papillae and where are they found?

i. Projection - throw your attributes to someone else - like accusing another person of being jealous when you are the one being jealous. 1. Can cause projective identification - that person targeted with projection can starting believing, feeling, having thoughts of the attributes that were projected to them ii. Passive aggression - white girls

What are immature defense mechanisms?

abnormal structures inside Dopaminergic neurons of Substantia Niagra. The Lewy bodies contain a protein alpha synuclein, a normal protein present in brain cells under normal conditions are clumped together in Parkinson's disease. (research op: Do lewy bodies kill the dopaminergic neurons? Or is something else killing these dopaminergic neurons and the lewy bodies are formed in the process?

What are lewy bodies?

Dependences of language on context and pre-existing knowledge.

What are linguistic pragmatics?

efferent neurons of the PNS that synapse to control skeletal muscle at a neuromuscular junction. Skeletal muscle cells it contacts is the other end of the motor unit.

What are lower motor neurons (LMNs)?

i. Humor - expressing humor/jokes to be truthful and alleviate feelings but make them socially acceptable. ii. Sublimation - channeling negative to positive energy. Ex. Violent energy, instead of expressing violence you become a boxer. Transform into socially acceptable behaviors. iii. Suppression - conscious thought get pushed to unconscious but can access thoughts at a later time. iv. Altruism - in service of others - we feel fulfilled and gain pleasure/satisfaction.

What are mature defense mechanisms?

At the glomerulus, the receptors then synapse on another cell known as a mitral/tufted cell that project to the brain. This organization is there because it's easier for one cell to send a projection to the brain instead of thousands.

What are mitral/tufted cells and what is their purpose?

a. MUCH MORE PRECISE METHOD. Excitotoxic lesions (excitotoxins are chemicals that bind to glutamate receptors and cause influx of calcium that causes so much excitement that it kills the neuron/excites it to death) i. One example is kainic acid. Destroys cell bodies but doesn't influence axons passing by. Don't severe connections like in knife cuts/radiofrequency lesions. ii. Also oxidopamine (6-hydroxydopamine) selectively destroys dopamine and NE neurons. Can model Parkinson's Disease. 1. Oxidopamine is very similar to dopamine. In reuptake, the presynaptic cell takes the oxiopamine back for recycling (normal mechanism) but then this neuron is destroyed. It destroys substantia niagra neurons completely.

What are neurochemical lesions?

◦ Intellectualization - taking intellectual aspects and detaching to the emotional aspects of the situation. Separating emotion from ideas ◦ Rationalization - making yourself believe you were not on fault - avoids blame to oneself. Can have false logic or false reasoning. ◦ Regression - acting like a baby in some situations ex. throwing temper tantrum, start whining. ◦ Repression - unconscious process where thoughts pushed down to unconscious ◦ Displacement - person anger at someone but displaces it to someone else (a safer target).

What are neurotic Defense Mechanisms?

i. distort reality 1. Denial - person pretends something hasn't happened. Most important defense mechanism. (acronym: PATHOLOGICAL liar)

What are pathological defense mechanisms?

i. mental disorders manifesting in physical (somatic) symptoms. 1. May or may not be able to explain what we see (the physical condition). May or may not be related to a physical condition 2. Must cause functional impairments

What are somatic symptom disorders?

i. Also genetic mutations, many involved in processing of amyloid protein. ii. Also ApoE4 involved in metabolism of fats is strongly related to AD. iii. Also, high blood pressure increases risk of disorder too.

What are some factors that are related with risk of AD?

achievement, closeness

What are some of the major traits that researchers found were not shared by monozygotic twins raised in different environments (which shows that these similar traits don't have strong genetic components)?

i. Social potency trait - the degree to which a person assumes leadership roles and mastery of roles in social situations. Common in twins reared separately. ii. Traditionalism - tendency to follow authority also shown to be common in twins.

What are some of the major traits that researchers found were shared by monozygotic twins raised in different environments (which shows that these similar traits have strong genetic components)?

i. atrophy of skeletal muscle, ii. fasciculations (involuntary twitches of skeletal muscle) iii. hypotonia (decrease in tone of skeletal muscle - how much muscle is contracted when person is relaxed) iv. hyporeflexia (decreased muscle stretch reflex)

What are some signs of lower LMN signs?

a. are drugs that excite your CNS, increase HR/BP, alertness, more awake, more energetic. Can cause people to feel glittery b. effect is similar to stress, with increased glucose metabolism in brain i. Cocaine: blocks dopamine reuptake. ii. Amphetamines both block dopamine reuptake and stimulate presynaptic dopamine release. iii. Caffeine inhibits phosphodiesterase (enzyme) that breaks down cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate). The increase in cAMP increases glutamate production. This increase in cellular activity results in action potentials that are briefer and released in bursts. iv. Nicotine acts on acetylcholine (receptor agonist) v. THC works on anandamide. Increase dopamine and GABA activity.

What are stimulants and common examples?

i. Escape conditioning occurs when the animal learns to perform an operant to terminate an ongoing, aversive stimulus. It is a "get me out of here" or "shut this off" reaction, aimed at escape from pain or annoyance. The behavior that produces escape is negatively reinforced (reinforced by the elimination of the unpleasant stimulus). ii. Avoidance behaviors are incredibly persistent. This is true even when there is no longer anything to avoid. The reason is that an animal that performs an avoidance reaction never experiences the aversive stimulus. But it receives negative reinforcement in the form of relief. Because of this, avoidance behavior is self-reinforcing. Negative reinforcement.

What are the 2 types of aversive control?

i. Reflexes - Sensory and motor nerve loop response w/o thinking. (e.g. knee-jerk response) ii. Orientation Behaviors - regulated with regard to environment 1. Ex. Kinesis, our change in speed (orthokinesis), change in rate in turning (klinokinesis). Can be in response to a stimulus (like tripping on a sidewalk - your body would change speed/kinesis). 2. Ex. Positive taxis and Negative taxis: movement towards/away from stimulus, respectively. Ex. Insects and light. Insects have positive taxis towards light (phototaxis) iii. Fixed-action pattern (FAP) - sequence of coordinated movement performed without interruption. Similar to a reflex, but more complicated. Ex. Praying mantis. Any prey-sized movement praying mantis experiences elicits a strike response, once strike initiated - can't be changed/altered at all.

What are the 3 main types of innate behavior?

Psychologists conclude that people can be categorized into four basic types of temperament: sanguine, choleric, melancholy and phlegmatic. Two of the basic temperament types are more introverted or inward-directed and the other two are extroverted or outgoing.

What are the 4 major temperaments?

i. Modify our cognitions - Change/alteration in the cognition (thinking process) in a person's action/behavior to reduce the discomfort a person has with that attitude/behavior. 1. ex. smoker might say, I really don't smoke that much. (went from "I smoke" to "I really don't smoke that much") ii. 2. Trivialize - make less important/make trivial, change the importance of their cognition 1. ex. Smoker might say, evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer. iii. 3. Add - adding more cognitions, to make contradictions more comfortable. 1. ex. I exercise so much it doesn't matter (cognition 3). You added another cognition to deal with cognitive dissonance. iv. 4. Deny - denying the facts 1. ex. Smoker might say, there is no evidence that smoking and cancer are not linked.

What are the 4 things we might do to reduce dissonance? (example used is of a smoker. Cognition 1: I smoke. Cognition 2: Smoking causes cancer)

i. Compliance -situations where we do behaviour to get a reward or avoid punishment. Tendency to go along with behaviour without questioning why. Compliance goes away once rewards/punishments removed. ii. Identification - when people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect. Will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual. iii. Internalization - idea/belief/behaviour has been integrated into our own values. We conform to the belief privately. Stronger than other types of conformity.

What are the three types of conformity/obedience?

a. Fungiform papillae are mushroom-shaped structures located on the tip and sides of the tongue, which contain taste buds. b. Foliate papillae are folded structures at the back of the tongue on both sides, which contain taste buds. c. Circumvallate papillae are flat mound structures that are found at the back of the tongue and contain taste buds.

What are the three types of papillae that cause taste sensation?

a. 1) Stage 1: High birth rates due to limited birth control, economic advantage for more workers, and high death rate due to disease/poor nutrition. Most countries at this stage prior to 18th century when death rates fell in Western-Europe. Large young and small old population. Overall population remains fairly stable i. Pyramid Model: Stationary Pyramid. Large young population and small old population (y axis) b. 2) Stage 2: Seen in beginnings of developing populations/countries. Population rises as death rate decreases/lower death rate (availability of food, improvement in health and sanitation). Trend was seen in 19th century Western-Europe after Industrial Revolution. High birth rates remain. Overall population growth. i. Pyramid Model: Early Expanding Population Pyramid. High birth rates and death rate declining so you get a nice pyramid shape. c. 3) Stage 3: Death rates continue to drop and birth rates begin to fall. Ex. Middle East. Population continues to grow i. Birth rates fall because of birth control, social trend towards smaller families. ii. Death rate drops because Society has better healthcare, iii. Occurs in countries that are becoming more industrialized (fewer childhood deaths, and children no longer needed to work or not allowed to work by law - no longer economically beneficial to have children). In this stage children are sent to school instead of working to support the family. iv. Slower population expansion and longer lived elderly. v. Pyramid Model: Late Expanding Population Pyramid. Birth rates decline (fewer young people) and people are living longer lives as people are getting older. d. 4) Stage 4: Population stabilizes, both birth and death rates are low and balance each other out. Population is large because it has been growing until Stage 4. i. Low Birth Rates: improvement in contraception and high percentage of women in workforce. Many Couples focus on careers over children. Ex: US/Australia ii. Pyramid Model: Low Stationary Pyramid. Low birth rates and low death rates (longer life expectancy) e. 5) Stage 5: Speculation. World population will be forced to stabilize.

What are the 5 stages of the demographic transition model?

somatosensory cortex (touch/pressure/pain), spatial manipulation (orient in 3D)

What are the functions of the parietal lobe?

i. EEG (Electroencephalogram) - external, can't tell us about activity of individual/groups of neurons. Can only look at sum total. Can tell us about seizures, sleep stage, cognitive tasks. Not invasive! We don't get a picture of a brain from this method, but we get an EEG. Easier set up than MEG. ii. MEG (Megnetoencephalogram) (aka SQUIDS - Superconducting quantum interference device)- better resolution than EEG, but more rare because requires a large machine and special room to shield it. Records the magnetic fields produced by electric currents in the brain. Measured by using SQUIDS. (acronym: MEGa SQUIDS are invasive)

What are the main tests that study brain function?

i. Negative controls are groups where no phenomenon is expected. They ensure that there is no effect when there should be no effect. ii. Positive controls are groups where a phenomenon is expected. That is, they ensure that there is an effect when there should be an effect, by using an experimental treatment that is already known to produce that effect (and then comparing this to the treatment that is being investigated in the experiment). iii. Vehicular control - what experimental group does without the directly desired impact. You would want to know if the mode of treatment as such has any role in the effect of the substance.

What are the main types of control groups in an experiment?

i. Visuo-spatial sketchpad: Visual + spatial info are processed here ii. Phonological loop: verbal info (any words + numbers in both iconic and echoic memory) is processed. Ex. Repeating a phone # to yourself. The phonological store capacity is approximately 2 seconds

What are the processing components of working memory?

a. Decreased inhibitions, so decreasing cognitive control b. Lack of coordination, slurring of speech c. Think more slowly, disrupt REM sleep (alcoholic blackout) d. Binds to site on GABA receptor complex

What are the symptoms of the most popular depressant, alcohol?

i. To determine the attribution of a behavior, one must determine if the behavior: ii. Consistency (does person usually behave this way), iii. Distinctiveness (does person behave differently in different situations), and iv. Consensus (do others behave similarly in situation?). 1. If person behaves different in different situations (distinctive) and others behave similarly in the same situation (consensus) then we know the behavior is due to the situation (external). Situation is effecting behavior.

What are the three main parts of external attribution (looking at the situation/environment and how it influences behavior; opposite of fundamental attribution error)?

i. Alerting is the process involved in becoming and staying attentive toward the surroundings. It appears to exist in the frontal and parietal lobes of the right hemisphere, and is modulated by norepinephrine produced in the locus ceruleus. ii. Orienting is the directing of attention to a specific stimulus. iii. Executive attention is involved in goal-directed behavior, monitoring conflicts between internal processes, and anticipating the effects of behavior. Dopamine from the ventral tegmental area is associated with executing attention.

What are the three parts of Posner's model of attention?

i. Id at the bottom, it's the unconscious part. It develops after birth and demands immediate gratification. ii. 2) Ego - part of conscious and unconscious. Involved in our perceptions, thoughts, and judgments, and seeks long-term gratification. Uses the reality principle: have to play by the rules of the real world and might have to compromise. iii. 3) Superego - develops around age of 4, and it's our moral conscience. Also part of conscious and unconscious minds. iv. Our libido impulses are what want to be gratified - when over-gratified or partially/not gratified at all, fixation occurs at a certain stage. Face conflict/anxiety. It's a conflict between these 3 mental structures - ego, id, and superego. They're all competing for demand, so in conflict.

What are the three parts of the mind according to Freud and describe them? What part seeks long term gratification?

a. The labeled-line theory of olfaction describes a scenario where each receptor would respond to specific stimuli and is directly linked to the brain. b. The vibrational theory of olfaction asserts that the vibrational frequency of a molecule gives that molecule its specific odor profile. c. Steric theory of olfaction, or shape theory, asserts that odors fit into receptors similar to a lock-and-key.

What are the three theories of how receptors maintain specificity with regards to an olfactory stimulus?

i. Random mating- all individuals within a species are equally likely to mate with each other. Mating not influenced by environment/heredity or any behavioral/social limitation. Ensures a large amount of genetic diversity. {Bridge: Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium assumes this} ii. Assortative Mating - Non-random mating where individuals with certain phenotypes/genotypes/similarities/genes/physical appearance tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency, ex. large animals mate with large animals and small animals mate with small animals. 1. Con- Can result in inbreeding. iii. Disassortative Mating (Non-Assortative Mating) - opposite of assortative mating - situation where individuals mate with individuals with different or diverse traits with higher frequency than with random mating.

What are the three types of animal mating strategies?

people do and report what's expected of them, like actors caught up in their roles

What is the Social Influence Theory of hypnosis?

i. the same stimuli results is a decreased response with episode of stimuli ii. repeated administrations of a stimulus results in the progressive amplification of a response.[1] Sensitization often is characterized by an enhancement of response to a whole class of stimuli in addition to the one that is repeated. For example, repetition of a painful stimulus may make one more responsive to a loud noise.

What are the two forms of non-associative learning?

Acetylcholine and epinephrine

What are the two main neurotransmitters of the peripheral nervous system?

a. CAT (Computerized Axial Tomography) scans (CT scan). X-rays to create image of the brain (tumor/abnormal swelling/bleeding...but it can't tell us anything about what areas of the brain are active in a given time) . i. CT scans are a computerized composite of X-ray images that are slightly lower resolution than MRI and are not as good for soft tissue but are faster than MRIs. Sometimes CT scans are combined with a radioactive dye (like a PET scan) to show structure and activity imposed in one image. b. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)- This method uses radio waves and they are exposed to a magnetic field. The radio waves are then added to the magnetic field and disrupts orientation of atoms. As atoms move back to alignment with magnetic field they release signals and those are used to create image. This also doesn't tell us anything about brain function either.

What are the two main tests for brain structure?

i. corticospinal tract: UMN starts in cerebral cortex, axon travels down through brainstem, and where it meets the spinal cord most of these axons cross and travel down other side until they reach LMN. ii. corticobulbar tract: If it goes to brainstem only

What are the two tracts UMNs can take?

i. Primary deviance - no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild and does not affect person's self-esteem. Individual is able to continue to behaves in same way without feeling immoral/wrong ii. Secondary deviance - more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that produces a stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behavior.

What are the two types of deviance according to Labeling Theory? Which is worse, primary or secondary?

loss of neurons, plaques (made of beta-amyloid. Occur in spaces between cells, outside of neurons in abnormal clumps), and tangles (neurofibrillary tangles, clumps of a protein tau. Located inside neurons. Develop proteins normally in the brain, but changed so it's abnormal and causes them to clump together).

What are three main abnormalities in Alzheimer's under a microscope?

a. Transmission is the electrical activation of one neuron by another neuron. b. Perception is conscious sensory experience of neural processing. c. Processing is the neural transformation of multiple neural signals into a perception. d. Transduction occurs whenever energy is transformed from one form to another; in this case, light energy is transformed to electrical energy by rods and cones.

What are transmission, perception, processing, and transduction with regards to vision?

i. Hyperreflexia - increase in the muscle stretch reflexes. Cause is unclear, but when muscle spindle receptors are activated, without periodic stimulation of LMNs by UMNs, they become hypersensitive and you get bigger reflex. ii. Clonus - rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle. Ex. Foot goes involuntarily up and down. Cause is hyperflexia, because if doctor pulls on foot activates muscle stretch reflex, so triggers antagonist muscles. iii. Hypertonia - increased tone of skeletal muscles. Increase muscle tension, reduce muscle stretch. iv. Extensor Plantar Response - if you take a hard object and scrape along bottom of foot, normal response is flexor - toes will come down on the object. But with extensor, toes extend up.

What are upper motor signs?

Could visually process objects in left visual field, but may not be able to name it (anomia/anomic aphasia) because right hemisphere (which processes left visual field) can't communicate with left hemisphere (where language is usually processed)

What can happen if the corpus callosum is severed but the hemispheres alone work fine?

Recall, episodic memory formation (old memories are stable), processing speed, divided attention (multitasking), and prospective memory (remembering things to do in future)

What cognitive abilities decline during aging?

Crystallized IQ (experience), emotional reasoning (wisdom), and semantic memories until 60 years

What cognitive abilities improve during aging?

Implicit memory and recognition memory

What cognitive abilities stay stable during aging?

a. Ciliary muscle + suspensory ligaments= focus lens in a process called accommodation b. Ciliary body secretes aqueous humor

What components make up the ciliary body, and what are the functions of these components and the body as a whole?

arcuate fasciculus: When this is damaged, conduction aphasia (also called associative aphasia) - ability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted. Makes it difficult for people with this to repeat things even when they understand what is being said.

What connects Wernicke's and Broca's area and what happens when this is damaged?

Critical aspect of this theory is Cooley believed we are not actually being influenced by opinions of others, but what we imagine the opinions of other people to be.

What critical thing did Cooley believe about the last revision step?

proposed extroversion level is based on differences in the reticular formation (controls arousal and consciousness)- introverts are more aroused than extroverts so they seek lower levels of stimulation.

What did Hans Eysenck believe controlled extroversion levels?

language and thought are both independent, but converge through development. Eventually learn to use them at same time via socialization - Believed children developed language through social interaction with adults who already knew the language. Through the interaction, they learnt to connect the thoughts and the language they eventually learn

What did Vygotsky believe about language development?

thought determines language completely. human cognition shapes language and language is created from a set of universal semantic distinctions and constructions

What do universalists believe with regards to language?

Specialized part of olfactory epithelium in animals that sends projections to accessory olfactory bulb, which then sends signals to brain

What is the accessory olfactory epithelium?

i. persistent changes in our behavior that result from our experiences. Not present at birth, but is acquired after experience with the environment. Have the following characteristics: 1. Non-inherited - acquired only through observation/experience 2. Extrinsic - absent when animals are raised in isolation, ex. social skills 3. Permutable - pattern/sequence that is changeable 4. Adaptable - capable of being modified in response to changing conditions 5. Progressive - subject to improvement or refined through practice over time

What is a learned behavioral trait?

a. Linear regression - degree of dependence between one variable and another. Data is on scatter plot, one-way influence of one variable on another. b. all variables examined are continuous

What is a linear regression?

i. A mediating variable is one which explains the relationship between the IV and DV. The mediator adds to the overall variance accounted for in the data and can explain how the dependent and independent variables are related. 1. IV variations account for variations in mediator 2. Mediator variation account for variations in DV 3. When mediator is added to the mode, the relationship between the IV and DV decreases As an example, let's consider the relation between social class (SES) and frequency of breast self-exams (BSE). Age might be a moderator variable, in that the relation between SES and BSE could be stronger for older women and less strong or nonexistent for younger women. Education might be a mediator variable in that it explains why there is a relation between SES and BSE. When you remove the effect of education, the relation between SES and BSE disappears. Mediator variable is the middle variable / "middleman" between an independent variable (IV) and a dependent variable (DV). Objective of the mediator variable is to explain the relationship between IV & DV e.g. IV is not directly influencing DV but rather IV is indirectly influencing DV through mediator variable. Pictorially, Independent variable --> Mediator variable --> Dependent variable. For example, salary (IV) is positively influencing education (mediator variable) and then education is positively influencing health-screening expenses (DV). When the effect of education is removed, the relationship between salary and health-screening disappears..

What is a mediating variable?

i. A moderating variable is a third variable that affects the strength of the relationship between the independent and dependent variable in data analysis. Examples of moderating variables include sex and race. 1. Changing the strength or direction of the relationship between IV and DV

What is a moderating variable?

A quasi-experimental design is similar to an experimental design (with independent and dependent variables) but lacks random assignment. This type of design describes an effect on a specific cohort of the population.

What is a quasi-experimental design?

i. compares mean values of a continuous variable (dependent) between 2 categories/groups, ex. comparing mean of a group to a specific value. Can also compare means of 2 groups. 1. Two-tailed = possibility of relationship in both directions, one-tailed = one direction.

What is a t-test?

Buildup of beta amyloid plaques in brain.

What is a theory of the causation of Alzheimer's Disease?

i. released by frontal lobe ii. sent to LMNs and the autonomic nervous system (parasympathetic specifically) iii. acetylcholine functions in the peripheral nervous system and central nervous system both as an activator and inhibitor. In the peripheral nervous system, it causes skeletal muscles to contract. In the central nervous system, it inhibits the activation of the cholinergic system. iv. Acetylcholine plays an important role in the signal of muscle movement, sensation of pain, learning and memory formation, the regulation of the endocrine system and rapid eye movement (REM) sleeps cycles.

What is acetylcholine? What does it do in CNS and PNS respectively?

i. similar to t-test, compare distributions of continuous variable between groups of categorical variable, but can be used for 3+ groups. 1. If value doubles, 100% increase

What is an ANOVA test?

Substance that reduces pain perception

What is an analgesic?

i. genetically programmed behavior. present at birth and requires no experience with the environment. Have the following characteristics: ii. Inherited - innate behaviors are encoded by DNA iii. Intrinsic - present even if you're raised in isolation. Ex. Pooping, peeing, etc. iv. Stereotypic - performed the same way each time. v. Inflexible - not modifiable by experience. vi. Consummate - fully developed right away, at first performance. Not influenced by experience.

What is an innate behavioral trait and what are its characteristics?

The process involves pairing a habit a person wishes to break, such as smoking or bed-wetting, with an unpleasant stimulus such as electric shock or nausea.

What is aversive conditioning?

behavioral conditioning technique in which noxious stimuli are associated with undesirable or unwanted behavior that is to be modified or abolished.

What is aversive conditioning?

situations where behavior is motivated by threat of something unpleasant - examples of negative reinforcement in operant conditioning

What is aversive control, and what type of conditioning does it fall under?

a. involves cooling down neurons until they stop firing. i. Cryoloop - surgically implanted between skull and brain. Most important part is it's temporary/reversible, unlike other techniques. K/O nerves - see effect, and then bring the animal back to normal functioning.

What is cortical cooling (Cryogenic blockade)?

i. is a form of respondent conditioning that involves the conditioning of an unwanted behavior or response to a stimulus into a wanted behavior or response by the association of positive actions with the stimulus. 1. One of the most widely used types of counter conditioning is systematic desensitization.

What is counterconditioning (stimulus substitution)?

Stratification is the process of dividing members of the population into homogeneous subgroups before sampling. The strata should be mutually exclusive: every element in the population must be assigned to only one stratum. The strata should also be collectively exhaustive: no population element can be excluded. Then random, which often improves the representativeness of the sample by reducing sampling error.

What is data stratification?

region of reduced amplitude of a sound because it is obstructed by the head.

What is the acoustic shadow?

a. idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it, it can get used up, and less of it to use in the future which can affect a later unrelated task that also requires self-control. This is true because self-control requires lots of energy and focus. i. Demonstrated by experiment that those who resisted eating cookies ended up giving up sooner on another unrelated task that also requires self-control than those who didn't resist. ii. Muscle is used as a metaphor for self-control. Can be strengthened with practice, but can also be fatigued/depleted with overuse.

What is ego depletion?

Enhanced memory when testing takes place under the same conditions as learning.

What is encoding specificity?

Study of particular people and places. It is a more of an approach than a single research method in that it generally combines several research methods including interviews, observation, and physical trace measures. Good ethnography truly captures a sense of the place and peoples studied.

What is ethnography?

the study of causation, or origination, of an abnormal condition/disease

What is etiology?

Reduces variable and detects structure between variables. We get a final classification of personality after the factor analysis.

What is factor analysis?

When urban renewals they target a wealthier community which increases property value. People there before are pushed out because they can't afford property anymore and it leads to great inequality in cities.

What is gentrification?

global aphasia is often the result of damage to a large portion of the left hemisphere. This person will have difficulty producing speech, understanding speech, and will likely be unable to read or write.

What is global aphasia?

i. - most common excitatory neurotransmitter ii. Glutamate is associated with increased cortical arousal. iii. Sent by reticular formation to cerebral cortex

What is glutamate?

Haptic perception is the exploration of objects through touch, most often by the hand or fingers.

What is haptic perception?

i. Sent by hypothalamus to cerebral cortex ii. Immune response

What is histamine?

i. When we are not able to ventilate our lungs fully and remove all CO2. Results in a buildup of CO2, and a decrease in O2. Can occur due to medications that repress respiratory functions (narcotic pain killers such as opioids) or if there is a problem with the lungs or chest wall. A common occurrence is due to obesity. 1. High CO2 can cause right sided heart failure 2. Low O2 effects all organs/tissues of bodies. Cognitive impairment, heart problems (arrhythmias - abnormal heart rhythms), and polycythemia (elevated RBC in blood)

What is hypoventilation disorder?

i. Implicit/non-declarative memory is a type of unconscious memory in which previous experiences aid the performance of a task without conscious awareness of these previous experiences. Thus, you may not be able to articulate this memory. ii. All memories formed by conditioning are implicit memories. iii. Procedural memory is long-term memory for actions or habits such as how to kick a ball or washing hands before eating. Procedural memory is type of implicit memory.

What is implicit memory and what is contained within it?

i. Therapists force patient into an overwhelming encounter with phobia, which produces a lot of anxiety ii. the idea that if they face their fear and survive, they will overcome their fear

What is implosive therapy, and how is it different than systemic desensitization?

Intensity - how quickly neurons fire for us to notice. Slow = low intensity, fast = high intensity.

What is intensity in terms of neural activity?

describes the difference in time it takes a sound to reach the left vs the right ear.

What is interaural time difference?

Joint attention is the focusing of attention on an object by two separate individuals.

What is joint attention?

i. children aren't born with anything; they only acquire language through operant conditioning ii. doesn't explain how they can produce words they've never heard before or unique sentences. iii. Associated with BF Skinner.

What is learning (behaviorist) theory of language development?

With repeated stimulation, the same pre-synaptic neuron stimulation (Pre-synaptic neurons release neurotransmitters on post-synaptic neurons, allowing Na+ and Ca2+ to flow in) converts into greater post-synaptic neuron potential (The greater the postsynaptic potential, the more ion channels will open in the neuron)- stronger synapse, and when it lasts long time it is called long-term potentiation. This is how learning occurs!

What is long-term potentiation?

refers to the coping responses of minority groups in an attempt to fit into the dominant culture. For example, minority students at school may learn to put in only minimal effort as they believe they are being discriminated against by the dominant culture.

What is low-effort coping?

i. population size falls between micro and macro levels. They are medium sized groups such as communities, organizations, cities, states, clans, and tribes. ii. It is a subcommunity = smaller community in larger one.

What is meso-level community?

the action or art of imitating someone or something, typically in order to entertain or ridicule.

What is mimicry?

a. Various fits of sleepiness, going into REM sleep. Have fits (usually 5 minutes) that can occur any time. 1 in 2000. b. Indications that it is genetic, and linked to absence of alertness neurotransmitter (hypocritin/orexin). c. Neurochemical interventions can cause someone to overcome narcolepsy potentially.

What is narcolepsy and how can it be treated?

occurs when damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention.

What is neglect syndrome?

learning where no punishment/rewarding is occurring with increase/decrease of response. a relatively permanent change in the strength of response to a single stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus.

What is non-associative learning?

i. when airways are obstructed. Soft tissues around our neck can relax at night and potentially cause obstruction of airflow for a short period of time. Gets worse as people get older. 1. At nighttime, this causes snoring or gasping or pauses in breathing. 2. At daytime, people are tired/sleepy and unrefreshed 3. Diagnosed by: Sleep study (a polysomnography) and looking for 15+ "apneas"/hour (Apnea - lack of airflow).

What is obstructive sleep apnea?

the process of strictly defining variables into measurable factors. The process defines fuzzy concepts and allows them to be measured, empirically and quantitatively. Allows for the establishment of a causal relationship between variables.

What is operationalization?

a. Order within cycle goes from N1 -> N2 -> N3 -> N2 -> REM N1 b. Each cycle lasts 90 minutes and we cycle through them 4-5 times per long period of sleep c. How long each stage lasts depends on how long you've been asleep and your age (babies spend more time in REM sleep)

What is order of sleep cycles and how long is one cycle?

Priming is an implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus (i.e., perceptual pattern) subconsciously influences the response to another stimulus.

What is priming?

Contributes to linguistic functions such as intonation, tone, stress, and rhythm. Located on right hemisphere

What is prosody and where in the brain is it located?

RD states that the interaction between a person's behaviours, personal factors (motivation/cognition), and environment are all determined by one another. view behaviours as being influenced by people's traits/cognitions and their social context. Talking about interactions between individual and situation they're in.

What is reciprocal determinism with regards to the Social-Cognitive Theory developed by Albert Bandura, of Bobo doll fame?

Classical conditioning

What is respondent conditioning?

The common human tendency to attribute one's successes to personal characteristics, and one's failures to factors beyond one's control. The reason people tend to personalize success is because it helps their self-esteem levels.

What is self-serving bias?

The ability to perceive as separate points of contact the two blunt points of a compass when applied to the skin.

What is spatial discrimination?

Under the STDP process, if an input spike to a neuron tends, on average, to occur immediately before that neuron's output spike, then that particular input is made somewhat stronger. If an input spike tends, on average, to occur immediately after an output spike, then that particular input is made somewhat weaker hence: "spike-timing-dependent plasticity". Thus, inputs that might be the cause of the post-synaptic neuron's excitation are made even more likely to contribute in the future, whereas inputs that are not the cause of the post-synaptic spike are made less likely to contribute in the future.

What is spike time dependent plasticity (STDP)?

Language determines thought completely. People understand their world through language, and language in turn shapes how we experience the world.

What is strong linguistic determinism (Sapir-Whorfian hypothesis)?

Strong social constructionism states that whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits; all knowledge is social construct and there are no brute facts.

What is strong social constructionism?

process that involves teaching the client to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation. Slowly introduce phobia to patient. The goal is to get patient a to associate phobia with relaxation techniques.

What is systemic desensitization?

i. It's their characteristic emotional reactivity, intensity, - their shyness and their sociability. Temperament seems to be established before babies are exposed to environment. Persistent as person ages. 1. Personality is also believed to be constant

What is temperament, when is it established, and how long does it persist?

Event > Physiological Response + Emotion at same time.

What is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?

i. More cognitive approach - focuses on the why/how of persuasion. ii. 2 ways in which information is processed: 1. 1. Central Route of Persuasion: The degree of attitude change depends on quality of the arguments by the persuader. How much we are persuaded depends on quality of persuasion. ARGUMENT/Words are central! 2. Peripheral Route of Persuasion: looks at superficial/expertise/non-verbal persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/status of persuader. The doctor himself is peripheral (he is the one delivering the words!)

What is the Elaboration Likelihood Model for Persuasion?

i. Experience of emotion is due to perception of physiological responses. ii. Event > Physiological Response (PR) > Interpretation of PR > Emotion

What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?

The McGurk effect is a perceptual phenomenon that demonstrates an interaction between hearing and vision in speech perception. The illusion occurs when the auditory component of one sound is paired with the visual component of another sound, leading to the perception of a third sound.

What is the McGurk effect?

i. Behavior is a function of 6 things, the combination of which influence our behavior. Our behavior is a function of.... 1. 1. Past behavior 2. 2. Attitudes - explained in Attitude to behavior processing model above. Attitude behavior 3. 3. Subjective norms - what others think about our behavior 4. 4. Our intentions - our behavior intentions 5. 5. Our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior 6. 6. models/prototyping - a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping/modelling.

What is the Prototype Willingness Model?

i. Basic emotions aren't biological but emerge from two more fundamental entities: core affect and categorization ii. Core affect (such as pleasure, tension, or energy) can exist in isolation or as a component of moods and emotions. Event > Label as Core effect > Emotion + Physiological response

What is the Russell/Barrett conceptual act model of emotion?

i. physiological and cognitive responses simultaneously form experience of emotion. If we become physiologically aroused, we don't feel a specific emotion until we're able to label/ identify reason for situation. ii. Event PR + Identify reason for the situation (PR) (consciously) Emotion

What is the Schachter-Singer theory of emotion?

i. Most often, Klinefelter's syndrome results from the presence of one extra copy of the X chromosome in each cell (47,XXY). Extra copies of genes on the X chromosome interfere with male sexual development, often preventing the testes from functioning normally and reducing the levels of testosterone. ii. Turner's syndrome results when one normal X chromosome is present in a female's cells and the other sex chromosome is missing (monosomy) or structurally altered. The missing genetic material affects development before and after birth. iii. Jacob's or XYY syndrome is a rare chromosomal disorder that affects males. It is caused by the presence of an extra Y chromosome. Affected individuals are usually very tall. Many experience severe acne during adolescence. Additional symptoms may include learning disabilities and behavioral problems (super-male) such as impulsivity. iv. Triple X syndrome, also called trisomy X or 47, XXX, is characterized by the presence of an additional X chromosome in each of a female's cells. Although females with this condition may be taller than average, this chromosomal change typically causes no unusual physical features. Most females with triple X syndrome have normal sexual development and are able to conceive children.

What is the difference between Klinefelter's, XO/Turner's, Triple-X syndrome, and Jacob's syndrome?

less motor abnormalities from basal ganglia dysfunction and more cognitive dysfunction from loss of function from cerebral cortex.

What is the difference between Lewy body disease and Parkinson's?

i. Mendelian monogenic inheritance patterns refer to traits that are associated with a single gene and are associated with simple traits while polygenic inheritance patterns are associated with complex traits (behavior characteristics) and multiple genes that can be active/inactive. ii. Simple traits interact minimally with the environment, whereas complex traits are more impacted by environmental influences (environment plays a role in activation/deactivation)

What is the difference between Mendelian monogenic and polygenic inheritance with regards to traits and environmental interaction?

phenomes (smallest unit of sound) vs morphemes (smallest significant unit of meaning of a word)

What is the difference between a phenome and a morpheme?

A protective factor can be defined as "a characteristic at the biological, psychological, family, or community (including peers and culture) level that is associated with a lower likelihood of problem outcomes or that reduces the negative impact of a risk factor on problem outcomes." Conversely, a risk factor can be defined as "a characteristic at the biological, psychological, family, community, or cultural level that precedes and is associated with a higher likelihood of problem outcomes.

What is the difference between a protective factor and a risk-factor?

Exurbs are farther out, typically served by no public transit, often have few or no municipal services (like water and sewer or trash pickup) so the residents must dig wells for water and contract privately for other services. Sometimes exurban house lots are larger (think "McMansions") but in recent years there has been a lot of exurban "townhouse" development (townhouses where there is no town).

What is the difference between a suburb and an exurb?

i. Closed questions - provide quantitative data, no insights ii. Open questions - qualitative data - ask participant to answer in own words

What is the difference between closed questions and open questions in a self-report study?

i. First, collective behavior is time-limited, and involves short social interactions, while groups stay together and socialize for long period of time. ii. Collectives can be open, while groups can be exclusive. iii. Collectives have loose norms (which are murkily defined), while groups have strongly held/well-defined norms.

What is the difference between collective and group behavior?

i. Unlike regression makes no assumptions about which variable is influencing the other. 1. If correlation coefficient is 1, perfect. If -1, opposite. 0, random.

What is the difference between correlation and regression?

a. Covert orienting is the act of bringing the spotlight of attention on an object or event without body or eye movement. b. Overt orienting, a person turns all or part of the body to alter or maximize the sensory impact of an event.

What is the difference between covert and overt orienting?

Mood is not emotion, mood is more long term and not necessarily related to events; it is a subjective experience. Mood becomes affect (how mood is displayed to others - person crying).

What is the difference between mood and affect?

i. temperament refers to a set of innate or inborn traits that organize a child's approach to the world, while personality is what arises within the individual. ii. Personality, which stays constant all through a person's life, consists of certain characteristic patterns like thoughts, feelings and behavior. iii. Since it is naturally occurring, temperament cannot be taught or learned but, despite this fact, it can be nurtured as one grows.

What is the difference between temperament and personality?

i. when it remains hypomania + one major depressive episode ii. when hypomania becomes manic w/ or w/o major depressive disorder iii. An individual diagnosed with bipolar II has never had a manic episode.

What is the difference between the two types of bipolar disorder?

emotions are measured in terms of dimensions such as arousal (high/low) and valence (positive/negative)

What is the dimensional approach to contemporary study of emotion?

acts as a connecter for processed information to be stored in long-term memory.

What is the episodic buffer?

A dermatome is an area of skin that is supplied by a single spinal nerve, which relays sensation from a particular region of the skin to the brain.

What is the function of dermatomes in determining the location of a somatosensation?

associated with motor planning and purposeful movement

What is the function of the nigrostriatial pathway?

The pathway for olfaction goes from the olfactory bulb to the amygdala and the piriform cortex. From there the signal is transmitted to the orbitofrontal cortex.

What is the general overview of olfactory pathway?

designation point for various sensory olfactory cells that are sensitive to the same molecule

What is the glomerulus of an olfactory bulb?

In the ascending method of limits, some property of the stimulus starts out at a level so low that the stimulus could not be detected, then this level is gradually increased until the participant reports that they are aware of it. For example, if the experiment is testing the minimum amplitude of sound that can be detected, the sound begins too quietly to be perceived, and is made gradually louder. In the descending method of limits, this is reversed. In each case, the threshold is considered to be the level of the stimulus property at which the stimuli are just detected

What is the method of limits?

Alzheimer's Disease, which is a progressive brain disorder that affects different aspects of memory over time. Neurons die off over time and as neurons die off, cerebral cortex shrinks in size. They initially have trouble with short term memory, which eventually progresses into problems with long-term memory (like episodic, procedural, and semantic memory loss).

What is the most common form of dementia?

i. describes the internal mental debate (sometimes called a conflict) that weighs the pros and cons of differing situations that have both good and bad elements. ii. Approach-approach conflicts: two options are both appealing. iii. Avoidant-avoidant conflicts: both options are unappealing iv. An approach-avoidance conflict: when one option has both positive and negative aspects. v. Double approach-avoidant conflicts consist of two options with both appealing and negative characteristics, which seemed to represent a jury's dilemma.

What is the multiple approach-avoidance theory?

i. causes a muscle to contract after it's stretched, as a protective response ii. e.g. knee-jerk response at a doctor's appointment iii. Somatosensory neurons (afferent) in muscle spindles form excitatory synapse in spinal cord with another neuron in the spinal cord, which sends axon out back to same muscle that was stretched, and excite skeletal muscle cells to contract - lower motor neurons (efferent). iv. Muscle on underside of leg are inhibited when the topside of leg is excited. Necessary for reflex to occur.

What is the muscle stretch reflex?

Thought humans had a language acquisition device (LAD) that allowed them to learn language. ii. Goes along with idea there's a "critical period" (also called sensitive period), thought to be from birth to age 8-9, the period of time a child is most able to learn a language. After that, becomes harder because LAD only operates in that critical period. Once you start using it, LAD starts specializing for your language and unable to detect others. iii. Associated with Noam Chomsky iv. Investigates Transformationalist Grammar: refers to the different ways that words can be arranged to convey the same information.

What is the nativist (innate/biological) perspective of language development?

often lost early in course of Alzheimer's. Important for cognitive functions - send long axons to cerebral cortex and through cerebrum, and release acetylcholine. Contribute to cognitive functions of disease.

What is the nucleus basalis' function and how is it affected by Alzheimer's?

Smell (goes to areas closer to amygdala)

What is the one sense that bypasses the thalamus?

A task in which subjects are asked to perform a simple mathematical verification (e.g., 4/2 +1 = 3) and then read a word, with a recall test following some number of those verify/read pairs. The maximum number of words that can be recalled is the "operation span".

What is the operation span test?

Report one part of a whole field in cued recall. The partial report condition required participants to identify a subset of the characters from the visual display using cued recall. The cue was a tone which sounded at various time intervals (~50 ms) following the offset of the stimulus. The frequency of the tone (high, medium, or low) indicated which set of characters within the display were to be reported. Due to the fact that participants did not know which row would be cued for recall, performance in the partial report condition can be regarded as a random sample of an observer's memory for the entire display. This type of sampling revealed that immediately after stimulus offset, participants could recall most letters (9 out of 12 letters) in a given row suggesting that 75% of the entire visual display was accessible to memory

What is the partial report technique?

Wernicke's encephalopathy- damage to certain areas causes poor balance, abnormal eye movements, mild confusion, and/or memory loss.

What is the precursor to Korsakoff's and what are its symptoms?

The primary role of hypocritin (also called orexin) in the CNS is to control sleep and arousal.

What is the primary role of hypocritin/orexin?

Average behavior over time reflects effects of attitudes more than a single behavior does.

What is the principle of aggregation?

i. The central executive tells the visuo-spacial sketchpad + phonological loop to coordinate. The Central Executive supervises the cognitive process of memory. ii. E.g. processing a map with street names and landmarks (visual + verbal info)

What is the purpose of the central executive?

Attention control Increased by meditation.

What is the right anterior insula associated with?

i. Believe biological and social factors have to interact in order for children to learn language. Children's desire to communicate with others - such as adults in their life, makes them motivated to learn language. ii. Associated with Vygotsky.

What is the social interactionist approach to language development?

i. The valence is the positive/negative emotion surrounding a memory. ii. Extreme valence can lead to a flashbulb memory

What is the valence with regards to a memory?

The whole report condition required participants to recall as many elements from the original display in their proper spatial locations as possible. Participants were typically able to recall three to five characters from the twelve character display (~35%).[1] This suggests that whole report is limited by a memory system with a capacity of four-to-five items.

What is the whole report technique?

the special mapping of sound frequencies that are processed by the brain, also called the tonotopic map.

What is tonotopy?

Urban sprawl or suburban sprawl describes the expansion of human populations away from central urban areas into low-density, monofunctional and usually car-dependent communities that results from poorly planned suburbanization.

What is urban sprawl?

i. This network is predominantly modulated by acetylcholine produced in the basal forebrain. ii. The basal forebrain is a collection of structures located to the front of and below the striatum. It includes the nucleus accumbens, nucleus basalis, and medial septal nuclei. These structures are important in the production of acetylcholine, which is then distributed widely throughout the brain. The basal forebrain is considered to be the major cholinergic output of the central nervous system (CNS).

What neurotransmitter and what part of the brain are most involved in orienting attention?

i. It's the cerebrum that often dramatically decreases in size. 1. Starts in temporal lobes, important for memory. ii. Later, atrophy spreads to parietal and frontal lobes

What part of the brain often shrivels up in Alzheimer's?

olfactory epithelium

What part of the nostril are the olfactory sensory cells located?

Operates on secondary processes. (Reality testing) Mediates the demands of reality vs. the desires of the Id.

What process does the ego use with regards to the id?

Among the reinforcement schedules, variable-ratio is the most resistant to extinction, while fixed-interval is the easiest to extinguish.

What reinforcement are most resistant and most susceptible to extinction, respectively?

Variable ratio (e.g. gambling)

What schedule yields the greatest response?

i. in brainstem, the substantia nigra (means black substance, usually darker than surrounding black tissue in normal patients) is less dark or not dark at all in Parkinson's disease patients. ii. Suggests only one type of neuron is involved. These cells/neurons lost are ONLY dopaminergic neurons iii. Substantia nigra is one part of the basal ganglia. 1. Receives info from many places in nervous system, particularly the outermost layer of the cerebrum (cerebral cortex). 2. Basal ganglia processes that info and sends it back to areas of cerebral cortex to influence areas of activity such as motor cortex. iv. Substantia Niagra also projects to area of basal ganglia called the striatum, and loss of Dopamine neurons projecting from substantia niagra to the striatum causes most of motor abnormalities of Parkinsons.

What section of the brain is associated with motor abnormalities related to loss of dopaminergic neurons?

a. 1 in 20 people. People with it are often unaware. Stop breathing while sleeping - body realizes you're not getting enough oxygen, wake up just long enough to gasp for air and fall back asleep without realizing. Can happen 100x/night! i. Don't get enough N3 (Stage 3; slow-wave) sleep. ii. Snoring is an indication, or fatigue in morning after full night of sleep.

What stage of sleep is affected the most with sleep apnea?

i. One structure starts in the raphe nuclei of the brainstem responsible for serotonin release. ii. Another pathway starts in the locus coeruleus, which sends long axons to cerebrum and releases norepinephrine. iii. Also the VTA sends long axons to different areas of cerebrum, supplies dopamine.

What structure is associated with serotonin release, which one is associated with norepinephrine, and which one is associated with dopamine (raphe nuclei, locus coeruleus, VTA)?

i. fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)- same image from MRI but can look at which structures are active! Neurons that are active require oxygen. Measuring relative amounts of oxygenated vs deoxygenated blood in the brain - we can figure out what brain areas are being used for a certain task. fMRI is more popular. ii. PET (Positron Emission Tomography) scans - can't give us detail of structure, but can combine them with CAT scans and MRIs. Inject glucose into cells and see what areas of brain are more active at given point in time. (Active cells = use most glucose). More invasive. (acronym: PETs like glucose). Three-dimensional images of tracer concentration within the body are then constructed by computer analysis. PET require swallowing a radioactive tracer and shows activity, with low resolution.

What tests can be used to study brain structure and function simultaneously?

i. Drive-reduction - negative reinforcement ii. Incentive - positive reinforcement

What types of reinforcement are drive-reduction and incentive?

Sweet, umami, and bitter

What types of taste rely on GCPRs?

a. Sour and salty b. They bind to receptors directly. Ex: NaCl binds to receptor and causes ion channel to open, and + ions outside flow in. Cell depolarizes and fires an AP. c. Sour tastants bind to sourness receptors that react with hydrogen cations (H+). Once H+ binds to the receptor, it closes potassium channels.

What types of taste rely on ion channels and how do each of them work?

human ability is hereditary

What was Galton's idea of hereditary genius

i. Skepticism about groups that were involved in social movement, said social movements would only form for people seeking refuge from main society. People only join to satisfy a psychological need for involvement. ii. Ex. Nazism, Fascism, Stalinism (social movements in 20th century that destroyed millions of lives). [People who joined social movements were dysfunctional, irrational, and dangerous]. Theory did not persist. iii. After 1960s and Civil Rights movement different theories came to light.

What was the Mass Society Theory of social movements?

a. More theta waves b. Sleep spindles are a burst of rapid brain activity. Some researchers think that sleep spindles help inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep. Sleep spindles in some parts of brain associated with ability to sleep through loud noises. c. K-complexes - suppress cortical arousal and keep you asleep. Also help sleep-based memory consolidation (some memories are transferred to long term memory during sleep, particularly declarative/explicit memories). Even though they occur naturally, you can also make them occur by gently touching someone sleeping. "that touch was not threatening, stay asleep brain"

What waves dominate N2 stage of sleep and what phenomena are associated with this stage?

a. important for memory consolidation of procedural memory and formation of episodic memories b. Combination of alpha, beta, and de-synchronous waves, similar to beta waves seen when awake c. paradoxical sleep, because brain is active and awake but body prevents it from doing anything. d. REM sleep more before you wake up i. More N3 sleep right as you go to bed.

What waves dominate REM and what phenomena are associated with this stage? Memory consolidation?

a. Dominated by theta waves. b. Hypnagonic hallucinations: hearing or seeing things that aren't there c. Tetris effect - if you play Tetris right before bed, you might see visual images of blocks during sleep. OR Ex. Been on a boat all day, you might still feel like you are on water even when on dry land d. Also a feeling of falling - hypnic jerks- muscle twitches you sometimes experience as you fall asleep

What waves dominate the first stage of non-REM (N1) sleep and what phenomena are associated with this stage?

Around 8 months of age

When does stranger anxiety set in?

UMNs control the LMNs. Found in the cerebral cortex, and synapse on LMNs in the brainstem or spinal cord.

Where are UMNs found and what is their function?

Basal ganglia Procedural memory primarily involves learning new motor skills and depends on the cerebellum and basal ganglia.

Where is implicit memory stored?

Located in accessory olfactory epithelium, basal and apical cells that have receptors at tips.

Where is the vomeronasal system located and what cells are it made of?

humans have vomeronasal organ, but no accessory olfactory bulb. As a result, we rely very little on pheromones.

Why don't humans rely much on pheromones?

hypomania + dysthymia (A mild but long-term form of depression.

Why is cyclothymic disorder?

i. Our closeness to authority giving orders- more likely to accept orders from someone we respect ii. Physical proximity - more likely to comply with someone we are close to. In Milgram when authority standing close by/behind the experimenter (the teacher) they are more likely to obey. iii. Legitimacy of authority - if wearing labcoat/carry a clipboard we are more likely to obey. Shown in Milgram study. iv. Also institutional authority - well-respected university. Expectation that these places won't give you a harmful command. Can also be physical or symbolic (ex. police/government). v. Victim distance - in original Milgram study, teacher couldn't see learner (victim). If could see participant, reduced likelihood participant (teacher) would obey experimenter. But still didn't stop everyone (30% of participants gave all shocks) vi. Depersonalization - when leaner/victim is made to seem less human through stereotypes/prejudices, people are less likely to object against them vii. Role models for defiance - more likely to disobey orders when we see others doing the same.

what are factors of obedience?