RELS 222 (Quiz One)

What is sati?

- the self immolation of widows on the funeral pyre of their husbands

What does Upanisad mean?

Sitting at the feet of the gurus

What does the term "Dravidian" mean?

Southern. Coined to refer to non-Sanskritic based languages spoken in South India - a mingling of Aryan and Dravidian cultures took places; Aryan language (sanskrit) prominent in North, Dravidian culture in south. Vedas culture = farming, rural, etc., Dravidian = temples, bathing tanks, etc.

What are the three sources of dharma?

(1) Veda (shruti, authorless, revealed, sacred teachings), though referred to as rta (2) Smriti ('remembered' literature, human authors, e.g., epics) (3) tradition or custom

Describe the householder stage in one's lifetime?

(grihasta) stage of life is fundamentally the norm in (any) society, and it the most celebrated of the worldly stages or ashramas. In this stage the person assumes full social responsibility. Ideally, he is a model of dharma. He has children. Does rituals. Offers charity to religious persons. Works and contributes to the betterment of society. Repays debts to his ancestors, etc. Makes funeral offerings on behalf of his parents.

Out of the angas, what are the Upanisads?

- 18 principal Upanisads (108 in total -- a sacred number in Hinduism. 1 = oneness of all things, 0 = experience of emptiness, 8 = infinite) - They are open, evolving, dynamic, and added to as ideas and understanding develops (also the Gangetic plains areas, particularly Kashi was central to trade) - Foundational texts of all subsequent philosophy Placed at the end of each veda, and referred to as vedanta, meaning, "end of the Vedas"' - Patrick Olivelle argues that upanisad = secret knowledge or secret doctrine -- learned through esoteric, inner, or secret path of mediation/yoga - Concerned w/ atman, brahman, and advaita - Some Upanisads actually transmitted to women (not as much as men, but at least they are there) - Represent a shift from the exoteric path of ritual (the yajna) to an esoteric path of meditation (from public to private religion). They also reflect various shifts and changes om society at the time - such as urbanization, rise of small states, food surplus , etc. - Questions of "who am I?", "what is the nature of self?", "what is the nature of ultimate reality?", "what happens after death?" does karma engender rebirth? What is the purpose and meaning of ritual? - Philosophical and speculative in nature. Not systematic. Anonymous authors. Primary concern is the relationship and identity between Absolute Reality or Brahman and the individual self or atman. Or what is referred to as Tat tvam asI which means "you are that". Or Brahman is the true nature of the innermost self (atman) - Innermost nature of all things, it is the unseen power and reality and the underlying principle of the material world, it is the cause and effect - What is the central message? ADVAITA (meaning non-duality) - you are not separate from that, that is within you, and that is the point of human life - Brahman - whose body is space, whose self is truth, whose pleasure ground is life breath, who is tranquil and immortal, Brahman is Om, the world is Om. Privately and publically recite om. - Cultivation of insight and self-knowledge one of the highest religious paths in Hindu and Vedic religion - Crowning achievement of human thought, and a significant contribution to metaphysical, philosophical, and practical path of liberation(e.g. release from rebirth, suffering, ignornace, etc.) - The creator (brahman) is not separate or distinct from its creation (the universe is not a cration of divine reality, it is divine reality) - Brahman is the force that animates the universe and therefore is in all things. It also is in each being as the atman or individual self. The goal is to realize this. - For most, Brahman is unseen, hidden to the senses. - New practices and techniques emerge that replace public rituals. What are some ascetic practices at this time in Indian religion and Upanisads? - Renunciation, austerity, solitude, silence, etc. - These rigorous practice produce an inner heat called tapas that purifies the body-mind, and it is said to release power and knowledge of brahman Taps or inner heart is considered synonymous with Agni. Hence, the body/mind becomes 'the altar' where the sacrifice/rital is performed and where the power (or brahman) is unleashed or realized. By internalizing and re-locating the ritual 'act' to the mind-body, the human body becomes a ritual lab - that is to say, a place where one can probe deeper into pure consciousness.

What was the Yajur Veda (Knowledge of Sacrifice)?

- Action texts, discussing procedural details such as how to build the altar, how to perform the ritual, how to make offerings, etc. - The Sama Veda and Yajur Veda emerge from the Rig Veda and give further shape to the sacrifice. Over time, rituals become more and more complex, elaborate, specialized, and costly. And they are reliant solely on Brahmins, whose power, prestige, and authority increase as well. Symbolic relationships develop between the priest and king. The king (Warrior caste) rely on priests and the sacrifice to sanctify and widen their circle of power. In return the king supports brahmin community.

Norms for marriage in India?

- After the brahmacarya stage a twice born Hindu male marries. For girls, once she reaches puberty she is ready for marriage. - Used to be a lot of child marriage - Typically arranged marriage - Marriage is a transitional time for women, as they leave their parental (natal) homes to live with their husband's family (joint family, patrilineal). - one of the most important 'rites of passage' in Hinduism for a woman is marriage. Elaborate weddings, dowry, and regional variations are seen across India.

Who were the central figures in Rig Veda?

- Agni (God of fire, ritual fire, invoked at beginning of RV) -- as intermediary between earth and sky -- seen as a vedic priest on its own - Indra (god of Rain and Lightning, king of Gods, drinks Soma) - Vitra (seperent who swallows the waters and brings drought: Indra's enemy) - Surya (Sun god) - Vayu (Wind god) - Varuna (god of moral and cosmic order: also rita/rta) - Soma (divine juice, enables expression of the mind and power to 'see', induce ecstatic states of mind. Loved by Indra and Agni - possibly a mushroom used by shamans to induce visions) - Purusha (cosmic man) Goddesses: - Gayatri (goddess of speech, later Sarasvati) - recited by observant Hindus daily at sunrise. Introduced by the mystic syllable (pranava) OM - Usas (Dawn) and Ratri (Night) - Prithivi (Earth) - Rta (cosmic order) - Speech (vac) The basic idea is that theses forces of nature can be propitiated or manipulated (and perhaps even controlled by the Brahmins through ritual). No iconic forms at this time. Image of deity was conjured by the hymns and chants. The gods are like us

More on the migration thesis

- Aryans brought vedas - Vedas tells Aryans to conquer darker skinned Dasas and Dasyus - archaelogists thought that was the reasons for the conquest of the people of the Indus valley

What is the difference between the "purest" class, and the "polluted" caste?

- Brahmins as the purest - Untouchables as the most polluted - the division in Indian society is not only occupational and hereditary, it also has a ritual and therefore religious element. Because caste/class is occupational, low ranking classes engage in professions deemed by the brahmins to be polluting, including occupations dealing with organic life such as barbering, laundering, death/funerals, working with dead animals, e.g., disposing of dead animals, working with leather (tanning hides, making shoes), fishing, slaughter houses, and so on.

What do the vedas entail?

- Central books - Structure and organization - Gods and goddesses - Ritual sacrifice - Role of Brahmin (priests)

What was architecture like in the IVC?

- City architecture was organized and planned - Sanitation advanced - Roads uniform on grid system - Buildings and dwelling made from brick

What is the typical description of the vaisya caste?

- Commoners - Merchant class - Responsible for creating wealth.

Out of the angas, what is the Brahmanas?

- Composed at a time of transitions - Explain and interpret rituals E.g. how to use offerings (such as milk, wood, etc.) and the purpose of the ritual (e.g. for king or householder) - Explains the power of the brahman through the proper recitation of ritual formulas - Describes the process of setting out the ritual of sacrifice (yajna) Yajna is typically performed around a fire altar. Offerings are made, including ghee, milk, etc. Bricks are made (for the altar or vedi). Soma is prepared, Gods are propitiated. Mantras and hymns are chanted. The yajna, it is believed, maintains the cosmic order (rta). All vedas used in the ritual ceremony. Perfomred for royal celebration, life-cycle rituals, healing rituals, spells and magic rituals. Householders also perform domestic rituals. In this context,a man needs a woman to practice the yajna.

What was the sama veda (knowledge of songs)?

- Contains the musical notation for proper recitation of the hymns and the mantras (formulas) - Chanted by priests during ritual sacrifice - One of the oldest records of musical notation

What is the problem with the dharma system?

- Elitist - How upper caste should act towards friends/wife/servants, etc. - Does not reflect all of society

Out of the angas, what is the Aranyakas?

- Forest treatises (bridge between Brahamanas and Upanisads - Used in ascetic life, explain value of meditation Discuss the symbolism of ritual

What was the Gupta period?

- Golden era for Hinduism because of social stability and great cultural achievements. - Development of sanskrit literature and temple architecture - Brick and stone temples began to emerge Supporters of visnu and krsna

What is varna-ashrama-dharma?

- Hindu society composed of 4 varnas - The famous verses in the Purusha-sukta (or 'Hymn to the Cosmic Man') show us that the Vedic civilization believed society has its origin in ritual sacrifice (yajna). Society emerged, or shall we say was 'created,' by dismembering or severing the cosmic Purusha (or Cosmic Man) during a ritual sacrifice at the beginning of the world. This, one could argue, gives the idea of division and social hierarchy divine sanction, naturalness, and authority. The 4 classes, when 're-membered', constitute a collective or unity — a society — with each group having different, yet necessary, functions or roles to play. Each 'member' is needed to sustain and uphold (dharma) the social order.

What is the language of the Vedas?

- Language of the Vedas is Vedic Sanskrit - Sanskrit means 'perfected' it is is the language of ancient Indian literature, not a spoken language as such

What does sva-dharma mean?

- One's own dharma - Everyone has a different dharma - Dharma also means order, therefore, not keeping within your dharma will result in chaos Your sva-dharma depends on: • one's age and stage of life (ashrama) • one's occupation (class or varna) • one's gender (male or female) • one's marital status

What is the typical description of the Brahmins?

- Priests - Married. - Protectors of the Vedas. - Perform religious rituals and rites.

What was the Atharva Veda (Knowledge of Fire Priest)?

- Reflects pop culture at the time - Includes spells (e.g. for love, healing, curses), incantations, magic, sorcery, medicine including the use of herbs, etc. - Quite different from other three vedas, some say it is the second oldest but added later

What is the typical description of the shudra caste?

- Serfs or service class. - Laborers.

What were on the seals found around the IVC?

- Show symbols of Indus symbol system thought to be an early system of writing. - Remains undeciphered until today - Valiant attempts to decipher it have failed - It was taken for granted that the IVC was india's oldest literate society. It has been argued that it is linked to the language of south India (Dravidian) - Professor m. Witzel at Harvard argued that the script is non-linguistic symbol system incapable of encoding speech - No evidence of any texts - Furthermore, writing was not necessary for early societies to flourish. - Contains images of breasts and the famous three horned seated man referred to as the Pasupati Seal - a reference to the idea that this was a prototype of the God Shiva

What are the two categories the religious texts are classified in?

- Shruti is the veda texts: Sanhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka, Upanisad - Smriti = all other texts

What was the Rig Veda (knowledge of the verses)?

- The oldest of the four - 1028 hymns or poems (mantra) to various deities, grouped in 10 circles or mandalas - Basically, a liturgical text recited by priests during a ritual sacrifice called yajna - The first and last hymns in the Rig Veda are prayers to Agni. Agni is at center of the ritual functions as the intermediary who carries the prayers and offerings from one realm (or loka) to another (e.g. from the earth to the gods in the sky) - Prayers from Rig veda are chanted to the gods (and, to a lesser extent, goddesses) for the purposes pf granting prayers for wealth, health, prosperity, fertility, good crops, etc. - Rig Veda is primarily concerned with day-to-day immediate things (cyclical, seasonal, domestic, new year, new moon, etc.) Passed down from father to son through family lineage or patriarchal lineages given they were male.

What is the agnicayana ritual?

- Typically commissioned by a patron in order to attain vitality, offspring, or even immortality. - Only a Brahmin who has maintained the tradition of keeping three domestic fires burning in his household is entitled to commission the agnicayana, the "piling up of fire" rite. - Make animal sacrifices, invite the Gods, build altars (most important being the bird-shaped centerpiece), take vows of silence other than prayers, have hallucination drink made from soma (the priests and patrons) and put the rest of it in the fire -- at the end, patron and wife take a bath and put on new clothes, and then one last animal is sacrificed. - Expected to practice Agnihotra ritual for the rest of their lives (performed at sunrise and sunset where they offer rice and ghee into a fire fueled by dry cow dung -- pray to Sunrya [sun], Prajapti and Agni [fire] and uttered during the rite.

What is the newest caste?

- Untouchables aka. dalits - These 'low' caste communities are classified as avarna (a-varna), meaning (without varna) — suggesting they are outside the 4-fold class system. In terms of status, they are below the shudras or service class. Untouchability, however, is illegal and prohibited in modern India. Today, there are in fact 'reservations' for jobs. This applies to about 15% of the population.

How the IVC might be linked with Hinduism?

- Used coffins and gave people jar of food in coffin (possibility of belief in after life) - Priest-King: statue of man with forehead ornament and cloak draped over left shoulder, eyes half shut in mediation - Large number of terracotta female figurines suggest a cult of the feminine - speculation that goddesses were widely worshiped - Seals showed consistency with some modern beliefs in Hinduism. Such as deities which are associated with the slaying of a buffalo demon, deities accompanied by tigers and elephants, and female figures entwined with trees and plants which resonates with women, goddesses, fertility, and vegetation - Seal with man with horns doing yoga guessed to be Siva as he is lord of animals & his animal mount is the bull - Bathing tanks at Mohenjodaro suggests connection w/banking tanks found at many Hindu temples Smooth oval and donut shaped stones at Indus valley sites have led to speculation about early worship of male and female principles, the linga and yoni

What do the Vedas tell us about Indo-Aryan society and religion (then and now, since the Vedas continue to play a significant role in living Hindu communities to this day)?

- Veda means wisdom or knowledge - Shruti = to hear - The Vedas are believed to be authorless and revealed (where shruti comes from - what is heard) by the ancient sages (or rishis and then are passed down orally from father to son by the priestly caste (brahmins). - They are chanted and sung (performed during ritual sacrifice yagna) - though ancient sages also are said to 'see' verses of Vedas Occupation of Brahmins to preserve and transmit the Vedas - by virtue of their role as caretakers of sacred wisdom, Brahmins are usually put in a place of privilege and purity in the social hierarchy

What is the typical description of the ksatriya/rajanya caste?

- Warriors or rulers - Aristocracy. - Politics. - Responsible for sustaining society, protecting the people, supporting rituals and brahmins, ensures adherence to dharma, etc. - Governance.

Describe karma?

- We also see an introduction to the idea of Karma and reincarnation - Life after death, consequences for actions, liberation in karma, reincarnation - Samsara: the cycle of rebirth - Roots of reincarnation as desire. Karma and desire inform one's next rebirth - Brahman can be attained through meditation - once you reach atman you won't have to be reborn

What is a woman's dharma in Indian culture?

- as prescribed in the Dharma-sastras, women are primarily and ideally expected to be subservient to men. - A woman's life is typically described as having three phases: daughter, wife, and if she outlives her husband, widow - In each of these stages she is generally under the control of a male (father, husband, or son). The ideal we most often hear about is that a woman is not only taught to be subservient, she is also taught to be passive, submissive, obedient, and she must to worship her husband as a god. - expected to always be dependent, despite her capabilities as a person - Sacrifice is internalized as the norm for women. Often their own desires remain subservient to the desires of their families. We also see many cases of domestic violence. ** rebellion: Pink Gulabis ** slowly but surely starting to change thanks to feminism, education, and secularization

Role of the The Dharma-sastras?

- attempt to create a pan-Indian system of religious and legal duties. It remained open and evolving until the encounter with colonialism and the British parliamentary system was enacted as the basis of law in modern India (radically changing Hindu Law (as well as Muslim law) and their status in modern society). - Big question: 'how to inspire people to act in accordance with the law (dharma)?' Is punishment the best way? Especially in a culture where the ideal of 'non-violence' (a-himsa) is enshrined among many (*though not all) of its members.

Where is the term "Hindu" derived from?

- derive from Sanskrit word Sindhu, a reference to Indus River that flows from Himalayan mountains to Arabian Sea - Term 'Hindu' was initially a geographical designation (people who lived along Indus river). It was a foreign destination used for example by Greeks and Muslims to identify people of India. It was a colonial designation used by British to differentiate Muslim from Hindu. From 18th century because a self-designation and a religious designation for Hindus.

What does "dharma" mean?

- duty, righteousness, legal prescriptions, legal/social responsibility and obligation

What happens to widows in India?

- no longer considered a 'person'—she has no identity. Her identity comes from her relation to her husband. The widow is often stigmatized as 'inauspicious' and could be sent to live in economic poverty. There are 14 million widows estimated. - It involves economic deprivation, social exclusivism, restricted rights of citizenship, and it prohibits India's social development (given that many widows are young). Related issues include prostitution, exploitation, poverty, neglect, poor health, and psychological stigmatization. Behind this lies entrenched social custom that prohibits female remarriage

What does the term samnyasa mean?

- renunciation - getting rid of caste, all titles, history of self, etc. - introduced in upanisads - This includes the renunciation of external Vedic rituals in favour of the internalization of the ritual sacrifice through the practice of yoga.

What does the term Puruṣārtha mean?

- the Hindu Way of Life - the 4 aims of 'man'

What are the types of literature in the Smriti about dharma?

- the epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata - the puranas (ancient stories that remember the exploits of various gods and goddesses) - the Dharma-sastras or law books - the Artha-sastras or treatises on the pursuit of wealth and power - the Kama-sastras (or Kama-sutras), which are treatises on the pursuit of pleasure, - the Natya-sastras on aesthetics such as dance, drama, music, and art

What are some of the artifacts found relating to the IVC?

- we see a system of weights, scales, and measurements confirming the presence of trade with Sumerian or Mesopotamian culture (and perhaps Egypt and Central Asia) - The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro: Rectangular shaped. Steps to enter. Drainage at opposite ends to carry away waste. Wells were on site to fill bath. - We also see a number of seals about the size of a matchbook. Show great artistic skill. - Jewellery - Terracotta figures from IVC - often women who are very fertile (guess that there was a worship of women)

What were the four earliest Vedas?

1) Rg Veda Samhita (oldest) around 1000 BCE 2) Sama 3) Yajur 4) Atharva

What are the PURUSHA-ARTHAS (4 aims of life)?

1. Dharma 2. Artha: the pursuit of power and wealth, prosperity and material success. ** regulated by dharma 3. Kama: the pursuit of pleasure in the field of aesthetics as well as sexuality ** regulated by dharma 4. Moksha: the goal of the renunciant (sannyasin), and is considered the highest aim of all. It refers to the ascetic life of withdrawal from ordinary householder life with the aim of attaining enlightenment **ULTIMATE happiness, the other three just bring material success.

Each veda has three or four parts/chapters (angas) - what are they?

1. The Samhitas 2. The Brahmanas 3. The Aranyakas 4. The Upanisads (among the most important of all vedic teachings)

What are the ASRAMAS (or 4 stages of life)?

1. celibate student (brahmacarya) = pre-marriage 2. householder (= grihastya) = married stage 3. forest dweller (= vanaprastha) = semi-retired 4. monk or renunciant (= sannyasin)

What does ashramas mean?

4 stages of life

What does the Indus Valley Civilization refer to?

A number of remarkable cities developed along the Indus River (in present day Pakistan), including Mohejaro-daro and Harappa -- IVC also referred to as Harappan Civilization

What does stri-dharma mean?

A woman's dharma

What makes up the three components of Hinduism?

A) Brahmanism/Vedic religion/Sanskritic: characterized by varna system (class) which grants privileged status to Priests (Brahmins), Warriors (ksatriya), and Merchants (vaisya) over the servent (sudra) B) Dravidian religion: non-Aryan high cultures on Indian subcontient (Indus valley civilization traditions - loosely linked to tamil and telugu) C) Assortment of disparate religious beliefs and practices of aboriginal tribal groups throughout the subcontinent

What does varna mean?

Caste

How do you know what caste you're in?

Distinctions among the 4 classes are based primarily on hereditary occupation and these distinctions are played out in various ways, e.g., jobs, who talks with whom and where, how people dress, what people eat, and so on. And, although class/varna carries less weight that it used to (particularly in large urban areas such as Delhi or Mumbai), it has definitely not vanished. Generally speaking, in classical Indian society, every Hindu is born into a particular class. One's religious affiliation can change, but class/caste (typically) can not.

Example of a matriarch due to her being a widow?

Indra Gandhi

What is a theory of why the IVC did not correlate to vedic cultures?

No evidence of the use of horse in ancient India (a reference in early Hindu texts). Suggest IVC and Aryan civilization are not one and the same

More on the cultural diffusion hypothesis

Not much on non-Aryan religion, as only Aryans really wrote and recorded literature. Therefore, it is hard to tell what is different. However, it is noticed that as Aryan literature progressed, influence from other parts of India began to integrate into the literature (e.g. Siva became a part of the Vedic later, but was not in the earliest one). Same with Ganesa and Hanuman. - Universalization: elite dominant classes adopt practices of lower classes and legitimize them by incorporating them into cultural forms of the upper class. - Sanskritization: lower classes enhance social status by adopting values and practices of upper dominant class e.g. vegetarianism. This is what caused the spread of Hinduism, because rulers accepted this form of status enhancement.

Who gets to hear the vedas?

Only the upper classes (called the 'twice born') are allowed to hear the Vedas. Though, at one time, all 'twice born' communities could learn and hear the Vedas, only the Brahmans (priestly class) are its guardians and protectors, and only they are solely responsible for performing the Vedic rituals.

What are the more influential and newer verdic texts?

Other verdic texts such as the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanisads followed and say more about religious traditions of the period. Transmitted orally through memorization at first, until it was written down much later.

What are the 4 varnas created from the Purusha-sukta?

Purusha's mouth became the Brahmin (priest); his arms were made into the Warrior (ksatriya), his thighs the People (vaisyas), and from his feet the Servants were born (shudras).

What was the Sramana movement?

Sramanas as philosophers who wanted to discover the meaning of life. Challenge to Brahminism. ---> Sramana based religions = Buddhism and Jainism - Buddism taught by Siddhartha Gautama, Jainism by Jina - Rejected by Hinduism as it challenged the class system - Elements of Hindu religion spread to China and Japan, mainly through Buddhism

What does Aryan mean?

The noble one

What is a renunciant?

The renunciant renounces caste and 'leaves the world' in order to join a monastic community or live the life of an individual forest hermit. Many have been 'householders' though not all.

Define the term "Ayurveda"

The science of life. - Spirituality -Taking care of the body/mind

How does caste define division of labour?

This practice gives specific castes monopoly over particular occupations — and it was 'rare' for a member of one caste to take the job of another. ** note: in modern day India, there are jobs that currently have no caste associated with them, as they are new types of careers. E.g. IT work ---> more upward social mobility.

Where did Aryans come from?

Two possible answers: 1. Cultural Diffusion Theory (merging with IVC and Aryan civilization) 2. Migration Theory (come from out of India to new land - if this argument is correct then Aryans can be seen as more of a foreign invader which subverts the whole political argument of a Hindu India)

Describe the student stage in one's lifetime?

during brahmacarya a student (celibate adolescent) lives with this teacher and studies the appropriate religious texts. It begins with initiation, called the twice-born ceremony and the student receives a sacred thread (upanayana) typically between ages 8-16. The student is also given a 'mantra' to recite. In classical times, the student would live by alms, learn Vedas, and practice austerity and vows (vratas) that are considered 'holy'. He must also practice restraint (e.g., control sexual desire, anger, greed, etc.). When the education is complete, he undergoes a home-coming ritual and is typically married.

Describe the forest dweller stage of one's life?

refers to the age of semi-retirement when the person leaves his wealth to his sons. Indian families were customarily joint families, so wealth stays within the family (as does occupation). Mid way through life, ideally one takes on the life of a forest dweller and prepares for renunciation. In this stage, a man goes with his wife to the forest and retires from rituals, work, and all household duties and responsibilities. In this way, he can devote himself to study, contemplation, tapas (austerity), and so on.

what does moksha mean?

renunciation and liberation

Describe the renunciation stage of one's life?

samnyasa (renunciation), a man renounces all Vedic ritual, attachments, cultural ties, and worldly life (including even his name and family) in an attempt to realize the wisdom teachings of the Upanisads, for example, through a life of meditation and contemplation. In other words, samnyasa is the path to attain spiritual realization (enlightenment or knowledge of atman, the innermost self) and liberation or moksha

Hinduism's relationship to continuity and change?

the idea upon which several of the central concepts of Hinduism stand, e.g., reincarnation—the idea that matter changes at death, but the 'self' (atman) continues through the cycle of birth-death-rebirth (called samsara).