Research Methods in Psychology Final Exam Study
in a concurrent-measures design, participants are exposed to at least two levels of an independent variable at the same time and then indicate a preference for
one level (the dependent variable)
in a regression design, researchers start with a bivariate correlation and then measure
other potential third variables that might affect it.
After an oil spill, samples are collected to determine pollution levels but the equipment gets less sensitive over time.
this could be a problem of instrument decay.
Abby counts the # of times her son makes his bed over 2 weeks, then gives a reward for 2 weeks, then doesn't reward.
this is a reversal design.
Dr. Fitzgerald did a study & concluded: "anxiety decreased scores irrespective of the participants' motivation levels."
this shows a main effect of anxiety.
Nonexperimental studies prove causation.
False
Which one of the following journal article titles most likely represents an applied research study?
"Effectiveness of an advance plan for coping with natural disasters."
Dr. Strange studied the effect of transcendental meditation on symptoms of depression. He administered the New York Hospital Depression Scale (NYDS) before randomly assigning participants to one of two groups: one that engaged in meditation and the other, which did not. After the meditation group completed the program over a course of 2 months, Dr. Strange, once again, administered the NYDS to both groups and compared initial scores with final scores within each group. It was determined the group that participated in meditation scored lower on the NYDS than those who did not engage in meditation. Select the answer choice that is correct:
-The only difference between the groups is the independent variable. -The independent variable was manipulated and controlled for in this study. -Causation can be determined
Dr. Mellie did a 2 X 2 X 5 X 10 factorial design. How many independent variables did she include in her study?
4
Replication studies determine whether the findings of an original study are reproducible.
A direct replication repeats the original study exactly. A conceptual replication has the same conceptual variables as the original study but operationalizes the variables differently. A replication-plus-extension study repeats the original study and introduces new participant variables, situations, or independent variable levels.
A nuanced approach can be used to evaluate a study's credibility and importance.
A study must be replicated to be deemed credible, but it might not need to be generalizable or have immediate real-world applicability to be important.
Which portion of a research paper is typically 150-250 words long and includes brief information on the methodology, results, and hypothesis of the study?
Abstract
An experiment showed that taking notes on a laptop rather than in longhand caused students to do worse on a conceptual test of lecture material.
An experiment showed that babies who watch adults being persistent try harder on a subsequent task.
Many people regard Dr. Phil's advice as sound because he has his own television show. This is an example of how ______ influences our way of understanding the world:
Authority
Researchers who make frequency claims are always in generalization mode. Researchers are also in generalization mode when asking whether an association or causal claim can be generalized to a different group of people.
Cultural psychologists have documented how psychological discoveries, including basic cognitive or visual processes, are not always applicable cross- culturally.
Dr. Fury finds that his measure of Being Able to Keep a Secret has a low correlation with the American Spy Association's measure of an individual's Talkativeness. This is good for him, because he believes that being able to keep a secret is a different construct than talkativeness. This finding would be an example of _____ validity
Discriminant
When testing more than one variable, researchers are testing for interactions, asking whether the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of the other one. an interaction is a "difference in differences."
Factorial designs cross 2 or more independent variables, creating conditions (cells) that represent every possible combination of levels of each independent variable.
In a study examining attitudes toward the environment, a huge oil spill occurred between pre- and post-test.
History is a threat here.
By interrogating a study's design and results, you can decide whether the study has ruled out all twelve threats.
If it passes all your internal validity queries, you can conclude with confidence that the study was a strong one: You can trust the results and make a causal claim.
Simple experiments involve one independent variable and one dependent variable. Many hypotheses in psychological science are more complex; they involve studying two or more independent variables.
In a study with one independent variable, researchers look for a simple difference, such as the difference between being drunk or sober or the difference between being on a cell phone or not.
The importance of external validity depends on whether researchers are operating in generalization mode or theory-testing mode.
In theory-testing mode, researchers design studies that test a theory, leaving the generalization step for later studies, which will test whether the theory holds in a sample that is representative of another population.
What kind of study can demonstrate a theory has become a fact
One single study doesn't demonstrate a fact - each study just adds observations that contribute to the scientific conversation
Dr. Danvers receives a request from the Journal of Intergalactic Communication to anonymously review an article they wish to publish for accuracy and scientific merit. Dr. Danvers has been asked to participate in _____.
Peer review
Experiments do not always take place in ideal conditions with clean manipulations, large samples of participants, and random assignment.
Quasi-experiments and small-N designs use strategies that optimize naturally occurring groups or single individuals.
Stark industries introduced a new energy bar called Super-Yums and they want to find out whether or not people like it. Since they are targeting people who want to lose weight, they hypothesized that participants who were obese would enjoy the bar more than non-obese participants. Participants who scored low versus high on a measure of obesity were asked to rate how much they enjoyed the energy bar on a scale of 1-10. The dependent variable would be
Rating of Super-Yums
When researchers collect data only from WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic) samples, they cannot assume the theories they develop in theory-testing mode will apply to all people.
Research does not necessarily have to be conducted in a field setting to have ecological validity.
Consider a study for which the population and sample of the study includes only residents of Asgard. Which one of the following is most likely NOT a variable in that study?
Resident of Asgard
In a study, the population and sample includes only residents of Asgard. Which is NOT a variable in the study?
Resident of Asgard.
In a study, the population and sample includes only residents of Pawnee, Indiana. Which is NOT a variable in the study?
Resident of Pawnee
Dr. Matt Murdoch is studying the effect of subliminal messages on behavior. On half the nights during one month, he embeds subliminal messages in the music at Josie's Bar - messages that encourage consumption of expensive Asgardian Ale. These 15 nights are randomly selected and no such messages are played on the other nights. He measures how many bottles of Asgardian Ale are sold on nights these messages are present versus absent. What is Dr. Murdoch's independent variable?
Subliminal Messages: present versus absent
Two researchers tested the hypothesis that college students' grades and happiness are related. One researcher operationally defined happiness as the number of hours spent at leisure activities. The other researcher defined happiness as the amount of achievement one feels as measured on a 10‑point scale. Which of the following statements is accurate?
The difference in operational definitions of happiness could lead to quite different results
Quasi-experiments can use independent-groups designs such as a nonequivalent control group design and a nonequivalent control group pretest/posttest design.
They can also follow within-groups designs, as in an interrupted time-series design or a nonequivalent control group interrupted time-series design.
When an experiment finds that an independent variable affected a dependent variable, you can interrogate the study for twelve possible internal validity threats.
The first three threats to internal validity to consider are design confounds, selection effects, and order effects
A study examined the relationship between years spent smoking and attitudes toward quitting by asking participants to rate their optimism for the success of a treatment program. If there were a negative relationship between these variables, what should the results of the study be like?
The more years spent smoking, the less optimistic for success
Causal claims are special because they can lead to advice, treatments, and interventions.
The only way to support a causal claim is to conduct a well-designed experiment.
Experiments support causal claims because they potentially allow researchers to establish covariance, temporal precedence, and internal validity.
The three potential internal validity threats covered in this chapter that researchers work to avoid are design confounds, selection effects, and order effects.
In a study, after being presented with the stimulus materials, participants found out the purpose of the study.
This could be a problem because of demand characteristics.
Maturation is considered a.
Threat to internal validity
The first three threats to internal validity to consider are design confounds, selection effects, and order effects).
Three more internal validity threats could potentially apply to any experiment: observer bias, demand characteristics, and placebo effects.
Experimental control helps facilitate Internal Validity and is accomplished by:
Treating participants in all groups alike except for the independent variable
The independent variable in an experiment is the variable that is manipulated or known at the beginning of the experiment and the dependent variable is measured for any change/effect.
True
in mediation hypothesis, researchers specify a variable that comes between the two variables of interest as a possible reason the two variables are associated.
after collecting data on all three variables (the original two, plus the mediator), they use statistical techniques to evaluate how well the data support the mediation hypothesis.
Does UCF have an IRB?
Yes
Scott Lang paraphrased his ideas for his paper from various sources, but did not cite them in the text. However, he did include the sources in his references section. Is this plagiarism?
Yes
Laboratory studies conducted in theory-testing mode might have strong experimental realism even if they do not resemble real-world situations outside the lab.
Yet the data from such artificial settings help researchers test theories in the most internally valid way possible, and the results may still be important and apply to real- world circumstances.
Dr. Shepard wants to prove that running 13.1 miles a day leads to a more positive attitude. To prove that running causes positivity, which of the following would he have to establish:
all of these
Replication projects coordinate labs around the world to conduct direct replication studies of between one and several psychological studies at a time.
a meta-analysis collects and mathematically averages the effect size from all studies that have tested the same variables. It helps quantify whether an effect exist in the literature and, if so, its size what moderates it.
A difference between an interval scale and a ratio scale is
a ratio scale has an absolute zero point, an interval scale does not
Dr. Huck states that in his experiment, he has counterbalanced his conditions. What does this mean?
all possible orders of presentation of conditions are presented.
in a multivariate design, researchers measure more than two variables and look for the realataionships among them.
a simple, bivariate correlation indicates that there is covariance bit cannot always indicate temporal precedence or internal validity
Responsible experimenters may conduct double-blind studies, measure variables precisely, or put people in controlled environments to eliminate internal validity threats and increase
a study's power to avoid false null effects.
Factorial designs can describe multiple influences on behavior; they enable researchers to test their theories and determine whether some manipulation affects one type of person more than another.
analyzing data from a factorial design involves looking for main effects for each independent variable by estimating marginal means, then looking for interaction effects by checking for a difference in differences (in a line graph, interactions appear as a non parallel lines).
When a quasi-experiment includes a comparison group and the right pattern of results, researchers may support a causal claim, even when participants cannot be randomly assigned to conditions
and the researchers do not have complete experimental control of the independent variable
association claims state that two variables are linked, but they do not state that one causes the other.
association claims are supported by correlational research, in which both variables are measured in a set of participants. (if either of the variables is manipulated, the study is an experiment, which could potentially support a causal claim.)
if one variable is categorical the data are usually depicted in a
bar graph
T'Chaka is conducting research on the possible connection between intelligence and bilingualism. What type of research is this?
basic research
internal validity addresses the degree to which a study supports a causal claim. although it is not necessary to interrogate internal validity for an association claim because it does not make a causal statement, it can be tempting to assume
casualty form a correlational study
Dr. Quill is conducting an experiment to determine if children in the first grade display more hand-eye coordination during archery practice when working in groups or by themselves. He uses a local first grade class, consisting of twenty children, from Xandar. The population is _______and the sample is __________ in Dr. Q's experiment.
children in the first grade all over the galaxy; 20 children from Xandar
Dr. Rogers created a support group for citizens of New York who were affected by the recent war. After group meetings, he also conducts naturalistic observation for the Avengers by recording the conversations of group members in the hallway as they are leaving. Dr. Rogers is a ________ observer
concealed
Dr. X is aware there was another variable that caused the outcome of the dependent variable in his study. The "other variable" is also known as the:
confounding variable
Professor X operationally defined attention span by how well a person can whistle. Whistling, clearly, does not represent attention span. This is an example of poor:
construct validity
regardless of whether an association is analyzed with scatter plots or bar graphs if both variables are measured the study is
correlational.
If a participant has been deceived, ethical considerations require that a researcher conduct a ...
debriefing
Loki is conducting research on the relationship between IQ and extroversion, however, those participating in the study have been told the research was exploring IQ and GPA. This is an example of:
deception
in a pretest/posttest design, participants are randomly assigned to one of at least two levels of an independent variable and are then measured on a
dependent variable twice--once before and once after they experience the independent variable.
Pepper Potts has a difficult time answering the question "On a scale of 1 to 7: how happy are you with Stark Industries marketing team and Tony Stark's effectiveness as a leader" because it is a _____ question
double-barreled
interrogating the statistical validity of an association claim involves size areas of inquiry:
effective size (strength of r), Precision (Confidence interval of r), replication of the study, the presence of outliers, possible restriction of range, and whether the association is curvilinear.
Random assignment is a critical element of the experimental method because it
eliminates consistent effects of extraneous variables
Random assignment is a critical element of the experimental method because it.
eliminates consistent effects of extraneous variables.
if the beta approaches zero when the researchers control for the third variable, then the key relationship can be attributed to the third variable.
even through regression analysis can rule out third variables, they cannot defiantly establish causation because they can only control fo possible third variables that the researchers hap[en to measure. only an experiment can defiantly establish causation.
Dr. Strange studied the effect of transcendental meditation on symptoms of depression. He administered the New York Hospital Depression Scale (NYDS) before randomly assigning participants to one of two groups: one that engaged in meditation and the other, which did not. After the meditation group completed the program over a course of 2 months, Dr. Strange, once again, administered the NYDS to both groups and compared initial scores with final scores within each group. It was determined the group that participated in meditation scored lower on the NYDS than those who did not engage in meditation. Is Dr. Strange's study experimental or nonexperimental?
experimental
when there is an interaction effect, it is more important than any main effects found.
factors can be independent-groups or within-groups variables; factors can be manipulated (independent) variables or measured, participant variables.
The more Shuri studies for an exam, the higher she scores. This is an example of a negative correlation.
false
for a scatter plot the correlation coefficient r can be used to describe the relationship
for a bar graph the difference between the two group means is used to describe the relationship.
Probability sampling techniques are most important for
generalization of results to a population
Peter and Gamora have the same opinions on the song called "Mister Blue Sky." Gamora gives the song two thumbs up and Peter also gives it two thumbs up. Based on their ratings, we might conclude that there is ...
high interrater reliability
Dr. Stark runs his data analysis and finds that there was a statistically significant difference between narcissists and a control group on the Vormir test of Inventiveness. Which of the following can he conclude:
his hypothesis was supported
using multiple-regression analysis, researchers can see whether the basic relationship is still present, even when they statistically control for one or more third variables.
if the beta is still significant for the key variable when the researchers control for the third variables, it means the key relationship is not explained by those third variables.
a lack of external validity should not disqualify an entire study.
if the study fulfills the other three validities and its results are sound, the question of generalizability can be left for future investigation.
the second problem is too much within-group variability, caused by measurement error, irrelevant individual differences, or situation noise. These problems can be counteracted by using multiple measurements, more precise measurements, within-group designs, large samples, and very controlled experimental environments.
if you can be reasonably sure a study avoided all the obscuring factors, then the study provides valuable evidence. you should consider it, along with other studies on the same topic, to evaluate how strong some effect is in the real world.
when a factorial design has 3 or more independent variables, the number of interactions increases to include all possible combinations of the independent variables.
in a design with 3 independent variables, the 3-way interaction test whether 2-way interactions are the same at the levels of the third independent variable.
in an independent-group design, different participants are exposed to each level of the independent variable.
in a posttest-only design, participants are randomly assigned to one of at least two levels of an independent variable and then measured once on the dependent variable.
in a within-groups design, the same participants are exposed to all levels of the independent variable.
in a repeated-measures design, participants are tested on the dependent variable after each exposure to an independent variable condition.
small-N designs can establish excellent construct and internal validity. They can achieve external validity by replicating the results in other settings.
in applied settings, researchers might prioritize the ability to establish a treatments effectiveness for a single individual over broad generalizability.
In generalization mode, researchers focus on whether their samples are representative, whether the data from their sample apply to the population of interest, and even whether the data might apply to a new population of interest.
in contrast to what many casual observers assume, high-quality research might not always have good external validity. Diverse, representative samples are primarily important when researchers are in generalization mode. In theory-testing mode, researchers do not (yet) consider whether their samples are representative of some population, so external validity is less important than internal validity.
in empirical journal articles, the type of design is given in the methods section.
in popular media stories, factorial designs may be indicated by language such as "it depends" and "only when," or descriptions of both participant variables and independent variables.
When a confounding variable is present in an experiment, one cannot tell whether the results were due to the.
independent variable or thee confounding variable. p
Dr. Coulson completed his study and is very sure the independent variable was responsible for the outcome of the dependent variable. His experiment maintained:
internal validity
When determining the causes of behavior, certain elements must be present. These include:
internal validity and covariation of the cause and effect and temporal precedence
random assignment or matched groups can help establish
internal validity in independent-groups designs by minimizing selection effects.
interrogating construct validity involves evaluating whether the variables were manipulated and measured in ways consistent with the theory behind the experiment.
interrogating external validity involves asking whether the experiments results can be generalized to tother people or to other situations and settings.
interrogating statistical validity starts by asking about the effect size, precision of the estimate as assessed by the 95% CI, and whether the study has been replicated
interrogating internal validity involves looking for design confounds and seeing whether the researchers used techniques such as random assignment and counterbalancing.
What is the purpose of a pilot study?
it serves to discover problems in the procedure. A manipulation check in pilot study assures the IV has thee intended effect. And The experimenters can practie their roles.
longitudinal designs produce cross-sectional correlations (correlations between the two key variables at any one time period) and autocorrelations (correlations between one variable and itself, overtime)
longitudinal designs also produce cross-lag correlations, by comparing the relative strengths of the two cross-lag correlations, researchers can infer which of he variables probably came first in time (or if they are mutually reinforcing each other).
Peter and Gamora have different opinions on the song called "Come and Get your Love." Gamora gives the song two thumbs down and Peter gives it two thumbs up. Based on their ratings, we might conclude that there is ...
low interrater reliability
Psychologists have identified questionable research practices that include underreporting null results, p-hacking, and hypothesizing after the results are known (HARKing). These ma produce findings that cannot be replicated.
many psychological scientist now promote open data, open materials, and preregistration to strengthen the verifiability and replicability of studies.
A measure has construct validity if it
measures what it is intended to measure
Dr. Strange studied the effect of transcendental meditation on symptoms of depression. He administered the New York Hospital Depression Scale (NYDS) before randomly assigning participants to one of two groups: one that engaged in meditation and the other, which did not. After the meditation group completed the program over a course of 2 months, Dr. Strange, once again, administered the NYDS to both groups and compared initial scores with final scores within each group. It was determined the group that participated in meditation scored lower on the NYDS than those who did not engage in meditation. What are the independent and dependent variables of this study, respectively?
meditation, depression
interrogating the external validity of an association claim involves asking whether the sample is representative of some population. if the correlational study does not use a random sample of people or contexts, the results cannot
necessarily generalize to the population from which the sample was taken.
Dr. Hela is very interested in the relationship between exercise and OCD symptoms. For her study, she decides to measure exercise, which she operationally defines as the number of minutes participants report exercising during a typical week, and OCD symptoms, which she operationally defines as intensity of symptoms, using an appropriate scale. After collecting data, she discovers exercise has a negative relationship to OCD symptoms - that is, the more time participants reported exercising, the lower the intensity of their OCD symptoms. Did Dr. Hela's study show exercise caused a decrease in symptoms of OCD?
no
Classification of items into categories is an example of what type of scale?
nominal
if you encounter a study in which the independent variable had no effect on the dependent variable ( a null effect), you can review the possible obscuring factors.
obscuring factors van be sorted into two categories of problems. one is the problem of not enough between-groups difference, which results from weak manipulations, insensitive measures, ceiling or floor effects, or design confound acting in reverse.
examining the results and design of a quasi-experiment reveals its vulnerability to alternative explanations such as selection, maturation, history, regression, attrition, testing, and instrumentation effects;
observer biases; demand characteristics; and placebo effects- the same kings of internal validity threats that can occur in true experiments.
Dr. Rogers created a support group for citizens of New York who were affected by the recent war. During group meetings, he also conducts naturalistic observation research for the Avengers as part of the group. Dr. Rogers is a ________ observer
participant
Dr. Mantis found that the average number of books owned increases as the degree of empathy increases. This relationship can best be described as a _______ relationship
positive linear
Which of the following is least true of an operational definition?
prevents others from replicating one's results
Selection difference in the nonequivalent control group designs are.
problematic because they challenge the internal validity of the study.
The variables in a bivariate correlational study van be either
quantitative or categorical.
A study that compares non manipulated groups is called a.
quasi-experiment.
Dr. Bucky Barnes knew his heart rate was being monitored for an experiment; this knowledge actually made his pulse increase. This is an example of:
reactivity
Steve Rodgers steps on his scale at home to find that though he keeps getting a consistent weight, he is pretty sure he is not 1,500 pounds. His scale is ______ but not ________.
reliable; valid
longitudinal designs start with two key variables, on which the same group of people are measured at multiple points in time.
researchers can tell which variable came first in time, thus helping establish temporal precedence.
research often begins with a simple bivariate correlation, which cannot establish causation.
researchers can use multivariate techniques to get closer to making a causal claim.
if both variables are quantitative the data are usually depicted in a
scatterplot.
in quasi-experiments, researchers balance confidence in internal validity with other priorities,
such as opportunities to study ethically in the real-world situation or to take advantage of a political event.
What two problems arise when interpreting results obtained using the nonexperimental method?
third variable problem and direction of cause and effect
because a correlational study involves two measured variables
the construct validity of each measure much be interrogated in a bivariate correlational study.
a bivariate correlation is sometimes moderated, which means the relationship changes depending on
the levels of another variable such as gender, age, or location
Three small-N designs used in applied settings are
the stable-baseline design, the multiple-baseline design, and the reversal design.
Small-N studies balance an intense, systematic investigation of one or a few people against the usual approach of studying groups of people.
the. internal validity of small-N studies can be just as high as that of repeated-measures experiments conducted on larger samples.
Dr. Hela is very interested in the relationship between exercise and OCD symptoms. For her study, she decides to measure exercise, which she operationally defines as the number of minutes participants report exercising during a typical week, and OCD symptoms, which she operationally defines as intensity of symptoms, using an appropriate scale. After collecting data, she discovers exercise has a negative relationship to OCD symptoms - that is, the more time participants reported exercising, the lower the intensity of their OCD symptoms. What was the control group for this study?
there was no control group in this study.
correlational studies do not satisfy all three criteria for a causal claim
they may show covariance but do not usually satisfy temporal precedence, and they cannot establish internal validity.
researchers can approach causal certainty through pattern and parsimony by specifying a mechanism for the causal relationship and combining the results from a variety of research questions.
when a single causal theory explains all of the disparate results, researchers are closer to supporting a causal claim.
researchers must be aware of the trade-offs of each research decision, making conscious choices about
which validates are most important-and most possible- to prioritize as they study a particular issue in psychological science.
interrogating multivariate correlational designs involves investigating not only internal validity and temporal precedence but also construct validity, external validity, and statistical validity
while no single study is perfect, exploring each validity in turn is a good way to systematically assess a study's strengths and weaknesses.
within-groups designs allow researchers to treat each participant as his or her own control and require fewer participants than independent-groups designs.
within-groups designs also present the potential for order effects and demand characteristics.
Loki can't think of what to put in his report, so he hacks into another student's account and steals their paper and turns it in with his name on it. Would this represent plagiarism?
yes
Rocket has no idea how to cite his references, so he just puts a footnote at the end without any in-text citations. Would this represent plagiarism?
yes
