Social Psychology exam #3
Stereotype threat
people's perceived risk that they might do something that supports an unfavorable stereotype about their group. -men and women with similar math backgrounds were given a difficult math test and told that there were no gender differences in performance when told that the women's performance consistently equaled the man's performance. When told that there were gender differences and in favor, in men, the women significantly underperformed than the men. -What it was, is that they were bothered by it and didn't want to screw up and do something that would support the stereotype, so the threat of the stereotype caused them to underperform. -The fear of supporting a negative stereotype becomes arousing (why it occurs).
The characteristics of a cult
A group typically characterized by 1) distinctive rituals and beliefs related to its devotion to a god or a person 2) isolation from the surrounding "evil" culture -That mentality that the outside culture is evil and an unwillingness to interact with them and have to stay away from the evil culture. 3) A charismatic leader.
The four stages of indoctrination into most cults
1) Softening-up Stage: the victim is showered with affection and praise during the moments of weakness. -After the death of a loved one 2) Compliance: the victim starts testing the waters of the cult's practices. -Maybe change their diet or appearance like heavens gate. Aliens. Jim Jones convinced his followers that they needed to kill themselves to avoid the fascists. 3) Internalization: The victim starts to really believe the ideas of the cult. - Everyone else who is not in the cult is evil, going to die. 4) Consolidation: the victim demonstrates unconditional allegiance to the cult. -These people might end up quitting their jobs, leaving their loved ones.
The emotion/ prejudice and discrimination bar chart: just know for which group each emotion is strongest
-Anger is highest for fundamental christians and feminists -if Disgust is the emotion driving the prejudice, highest for gay men -Fear: African Americans -Pity: Native Americans -envy: low across bored but highest for asian Americans.
The erotic video study
-Soft pornography by itself does appear to encourage sexual violence among men in terms of the treatment of women. However, watching sexual violent porn, or just watching depictions of men overpowering resistant women who then give in and enjoy their sexual experiences has been correlated to both sexually violent desires and acts towards women. -Correlation is not causation -One study exposed men to a neutral video, erotic video, or an aggressive erotic video. Then they were asked to participate in a supposedly unrelated study in which they had to administer shocks to other participants in a room. Only the men exposed to the rape films were significantly more likely to larger shocks to women than to other men. The men who saw other films did not experience this spike of behavior. -The problem with this is it lacks mundane realism: They do not appear to accurately portray reality. First for obvious ethical reasons women are not being overpowered in this study. Second, most men have seen depictions of men overpowering women, and most men are not rapists. -The reality of this is seeing this behavior increases aggressive behavior in some men. Those being mentally unhealthy, Ted Bundy believed that pornography really got him worked up with his acts on what he did to these women. -It is the certain psychologically unhealthy people we need to worry about.
Theories explaining why group polarization occurs
1) Social Comparison Theory: Group polarization occurs because we want our position to be consistent with the group we compare ourselves to. -To ensure that your opinion is definitely in line with the group's opinion, you consciously or unconsciously strengthen it. This is arguing for an aspect of conformity that would be consistent with normative influence. We don't want to lose our kindship or sense of belonging to other members of the group. To eliminate the possibility of this happening, you're motivated to constrain the ideas said by your group members. 2) Persuasive arguments theory: The position that has the largest number of arguments supporting it will pull group members further along in the direction of those arguments. -Even if a position is slightly favoring, hearing other people's persuasive thoughts will increase it. -You have quite a few people that x is the way to go or y is the way to go, a lot of people believe in this, that is going to have a pretty big impact on you strengthening your argument even if your position only slightly favored that position over the other. Hearing the persuasiveness of the argument in that group you start to go into that direction. 3) Repeated Expressions Theory: Having people in a group individually ruminate or state their positions over an over again will also move the group towards greater polarization. -Keep thinking about/ hear yourself state out loud that hey this is my portion; your position is strengthening, kinda like the self cell, hearing yourself, others over again.
The prisoner's dilemma
A situation in which a person must choose between a cooperative act and an act very beneficial only yo himself or herself and most likely hurtful to others. - In this dilemma, you and your partner have committed a crime but you both get interrogated by the police separately and it only works if you are separate. The idea is if you both keep your mouth shut you only will spend about a year in prison and they know this. Maybe the police officer says we know you did it why don't you just confess, I didn't. Then the officer says, do you have a wife and kids? how would you like to go home with them tonight we are gonna give you a chance just tell us what you did. What about my friend? for not talking he is going to prison for not talking for 20 years. What if I don't say anything and they offer him the same deal? I better just take a chance and confess. They do the same thing to the other prisoner. With getting them both to confess they both get five years.
The problems that arise when brainstorming in groups
Brainstorming in groups, especially large groups, can lead to a number of problems... 1) Social Loafing -Not all that interested in this project. 2) Conformity due to normative influence -Everyone saying this is how we should approach this project. Working with these people for months you don't want to seem like an outsider. 3) Production Blocking: Losing one's ideas while waiting for one's turn to speak. - That is something I should share but while people are talking you lose your though. Or when having a conversation with friends.
AS in-group size decreases, in-group bias, and out-group rejection do what?
AS in-group size decreases, in-group bias, and out-group rejection increases. -AS your in-group gets smaller in numbers, that bias(favorable) you have towards your group is just going to go up even more as is the rejection of the out-group, perhaps because you feel that the in-group is more threatened because it is so small in size.
Aggression and the three forms we discussed in class
Aggression: physical or verbal behavior that is most often intended to cause harm. -We tend to use words as assertive for people trying to push ahead in their lives without harming people. Instrumental aggression: aggressive behavior used as a means of achieving a goal. -The intention may be to harms someone to achieve a goal that extends being hurting someone. It can be overt or subtle. Like killing a soldier in a war but intends to overthrow the government. Don't really care about killing that soldier care more about ending the war. That one individual soldier doesn't really matter. The larger goal you have to kill a lot of soldiers along the way. The intent to harm may not be there, just whatever is instrumental. -A football player, instead of trying to tackle the player they may try to steal the ball away without trying to hurt the football player. One player maybe is aggressive toward the other but not intentionally trying to hurt thee, player. Hostile aggression: aggressive behavior fueled by anger and directly intended to hurt another person as an end in itself. I -Boys and men are more likely to engage in this. A man punching another man at the bar or club, overt. Relational aggression: aggressive behavior aimed at damaging or interfering with another person's relationships, reputation, or psychological well-being. -Girls and women are more likely, spreading rumors, often more subtle and behind the scenes. It May not be that women are not as aggressive as men rather women are just more subtle and manipulative with their methods. May bot beat you with the stick but beat you with the gossip stick. This could be worse than hostile aggression because if somebody is beating in cyberbullying it has led people to commit suicide, can be incredibly long-lasting, and cause humiliation for another person.
Social facilitation and social hindrance in connection to work environments
Assuming you move socializing from the equation if you want people to perform better the job when dealing with a simpler task. Cubicle? office? -Perform better in cubicles because it is something simple that you are doing and having others around you is arousing and it just facilitates and speeds up your performance when doing that relatively simple task that your employer has assigned you to do. If you are an office by yourself it will take you longer. -When working on a difficult and creative task and the office would be better because isolation can be very helpful since you are so focused on a challenging thing, their presence would be a distraction and the arousal is a detriment to your performance.
Catharsis versus sublimation
Catharsis: emotional release. The notion that aggressive drives are reduced when one "releases" aggressive energy, either by acting aggressively or by fantasizing about the aggressive activity. -Turns out its the worse thing you can do, it's like putting out a fire with gasoline. You're essentially training yourself to deal with your aggressive energy by engaging in your aggressive behavior It can actually increase violent outbursts in the real world. The best thing to do is wait and calm down then go engage in a neutral physical activity like tennis. Sublimation: this refers to the transformation of sexual or aggressive energies into acceptable and prosocial behaviors. -One of the few positive defense mechanisms and it does seem to work. Anything like painting drawing or sculpting, or volunteering time at a hospital.
Aggression and odor
Cigarette smoke and Flatulence! -Non-smokers direct exposure to cigarette smell, become aggressive. -One study participants had to individually complete tasks in a room. Some students were exposed to the strong smell of flatulance and others were not and those exposed were significantly more willing to shock another person in that study.
What was learned from the robbers cave study: contact hypothesis and mutual interdependence
Contact hypothesis: The idea that prejudice and discrimination will decline as we have more contact with people who we would have discriminated against -two groups of boys at a summer camp and was set up that the counselors were researchers, the boys were divided into eagles and rattlers, as soon as this happened there was a lot of hazing/ bullying. Physical fights started to break out and so things were getting crazy. So, what happened was the researchers said to change things around and make it that the boys are going to have to work together in terms for a common goal. They are going to have to cooperate to get there.This situation in which the boys were on a bus on where they would be competing for prizes and in front of the bus was a truck carrying supplies they would need, before they made this trio the researchers tells the person driving the truck that they would come across a little stitch and act as if it was stuck. The researchers says there is something going on with the truck and stay in the bus and they go to the truck driver and have them try to push the truck out the ditch. They were saying come you rattler you eagle i'm pushing harder than you, but they kept getting coached to push harder. The researcher gives the look at moves out the ditch and says okay you guys did it and they are all happy and giving high fives of each other because they did something together, had to work through this common goal. What happened is the animosity disiapted and friendships were formed. Contact with cooperation can lead to friendship and decrease prejudice and discrimination. Mutual interdependence: the need to depend on each other to accomplish a goal that is important to each group. -If you are cooperating with someone because you have to it will be bad but if you need them it will be good, altercations and disli
More or less the opposite of group polarization
Schism: The splintering of a group into distinct factions following an ideological rift among members. -Historically schisms have been the empidous for civil wars in countries. Looking at people that all have an opinion and get together and that reinforcement just enhances the direction they were going with their beliefs, it polarized it. You are on your way to the south pole while now after your discussion you are there or closer to the south pole. You don't have people going from South to North.
Key characteristics of groupthink
Groupthink: Mode of thinking that people engage in when agreement-seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive in-group that it tends to override a realistic appraisal of alternative course of action. -They get together and really polarize. 1) An illusion of invulnerability -The sense that you cannot be broken and vulnerable to any sort of destruction. Some argued that our government had this to a degree before the terrorist attacks on 9/11. How could this happen? 2) Unquestioned belief in the group's morality -When you're in tight with that group you're not gonna believe that they are doing anything wrong. Thes Nazis really believe in the Nazi way of thinking, treating Hitler as god and if you were to talk to them, they are not gonna say they are a member of an evil group. They are gonna believe that they are doing the right thing and everyone else is stupid and brainwashed. 3) Closed-mindedness -Despite all the evidence that weapons of mass destruction didn't exist in Iraq, the Bush administration insisted that they were there and they were going to find it. Not being open to the possibility that maybe we are incorrect. 4) Self-censorship and conformity pressure. -Group members may suppress doubts about an issue or decision for fear of being troubled or criticized. Sometimes dominant members will silence rebels and sometimes rebels will silence themselves. Might silence themselves before they get into being open-minded.
The three territories
Human Territoriality: When a specific space is marked out and defended against intrusion from others. 1) Primary territories are places over which the occupant has exclusive control. -Home or apartment, bedroom, private office. 2) Secondary territories are areas shared with others but over which regular users have considerable control. -Church or hang out at the neighborhood bar, take a class in a classroom "this is my chair", 3) Public territories are uncontrolled areas that are used by whoever is the first to arrive. -Seats in a movie theatre, a place at a park, public transportation. Do not really have any control at all just sit wherever you can. In each type of territory, people might mark out space as their own and defend against any kind of intrusion; no trespassing signs, fences, hedges (common markers used by own owners), leaving articles of clothing, books, magazines that are yours on a table or chair it kinda serves to protect your place in service or public territory. Like when you go to Starbucks you throw your jacket down and claim that territory, or in a movie theatre. -You and your friends think you were the only one's ina theatre and a third person comes and it is an empty theatre and they sit right next to you or right in front of you and the whole theatre is open. Why do people want a territory? -May give people a sense of security, it also might help people to promote or foster their uniqueness "this is who I am" "this is where I can go and shelter my self" -People are more dominant in their territory. -Patients who tend to be more submissive when they were having an at-home visit. More likely to open up in their home environment. -Noisy teams increased the fouls of the other term. The home team had more scoring and turnovers.
The opposite of social loafing
Social Compensation: When cohesion and evaluation are absent, a person who cares about the quality of the group product will expend greater effort to compensate for others in the group who are performing inadequately. -You might just really care about what is really going on about that particular project and maybe it is not something being evaluated or something you feel a lot of cohesiveness with the other members of the group but has an intrinsic love for that activity which is why you do a lot of work.
The adrelnaline study
In one study men were injected with adrenaline and consequently they experienced heightened physiological arousal, some men were told they were gonna be injected and what it can do others were told they were injected with saline solution and had no effect. Didn't anything of it. The men who knew did not react differently when they were confronted with a hostile person or with a euphoric person, someone acting in a way rather aggressive or just someone in cloud nine and didn't really alter their behavior in any way towards those other people. However the ones that didn't know they had adrenaline, those people were observably angered by the hostile person and were actually amused by the euphoric person. -The idea here is that arousal magnifies whatever emotion you may be experiencing. If you know that you might be experiencing some sort of arousal because of a drug you are not going to attribute that arousal to someone who is being hostile towards you or in a euphoric state but if instead, you cant make that attribution to something that was injected into your body and you're experiencing heightened arousal that is just going to experience that train of motion and what the cause of that emotion. If you think it wasn't a drug and someone acting really hostile to you get really angry at that person because you are getting aroused by the adrenaline of what you think is that person and even the euphoric person. The arousing is from the person that you think is in such a euphoric state is really funny. -In terms of sex, people have constantly noted to have amazing sex after an argument.
Individual racism versus institional racism versus cultural racism
Individualistic racism: The racist acts of one person based on conscious or unconscious prejudice. -Not racism directed at one person, the racist acts of a person, the individual is a racist, not racism towards and individual. -A white police officer that intentionally gives harsher fines to a Latino than a fellow white driver. -That particular individual is a racist Institutional racism: when economic, educational, political, social, and corporate institutions favor one race or ethnicity over the another. -This sometimes has happened consciously where the system was designed in such a way for giving other groups a disadvantage, happens consciously but often times secretly. -Happens where the intention may not have been conscious -Aptitude tests are designed that many of these tests that information is presented that question are asked, through the design it favors the way how white people would be educated. Consequently, if someone who is coming from an environment taking that test they do not do as well on the test, doesn't necessarily mean the white people are smarter. Many of the tests have been designed by old white men to be taken by young white men.
Trick or Treat!
It demonstrated both the effects of being in a group or alone and being anonymous or identified. In this study, there were these experimenters in Seattle that greeted these children as they came to their house for trick or treating. The researchers would say that they had something on the stover so they had to leave but take one piece of candy. Children in groups were more than twice as likely to take extra candy. The children who were identified when they asked for their name and address were less than half as likely to take extra candy. -Bar chart: If you're in a group and anonymous almost 60% of kids took an extra piece of candy. -In a group of four but identified, the likelihood you are gonna take that candy drops to 20% from almost 60% -When the kid would show up by themselves and but anonymous there is still about little 20% of a chance. -Now you are alone, not in a group, and identified, now you have only 8% transgressing.
When those who hold an unpopular opinion eventually change the attitudes of those who hold the majority opinion
Minority Influence
The theory that explains why prejudice and discrimination can more often arise between two minority groups than between a minority and a majority.
Realistic Group Conflict Theory
The underlying mechanism behind social facilitation and social hindrance according to Zajonc.
Social Facilitation: An individual's tendency to perform better on an easy task or well-learned task when in the presence of other people than when performing the task alone. -cyclists were faster when racing against people. Social hindrance: an individual's tendency to perform worse on a difficult task or a task that is not well learned when in the presence of other people than when performing the task alone. -He proposed that arousal was the mechanism underlying both facilitation and hindrance. The presence of other people is arousing because of the evaluation, apprehension, audience effects, distraction. -What do we do with that heightened arousal? Is a function of that task at hand. If the task is well learned and easy then that is going to facilitate our performance. If the tasks difficult then you are trying to focus so hard to get that thing done then the arousal becomes an interference so it creates social hindrance.
Social Learning Theory and Bandura's "bobo" doll studies
Social Learning Theory: we learn social behavior by observing and imitating others and by being rewarded and punished. -Bobo: Done years ago, one version is that children saw a video of an adult playing in an aggressive and non-aggressive way with these dolls. If the children watching that video playing in a gentle way, the kid would play in a gentle way. If they saw it in an aggressive way, they would play with it aggressively. So, this raised a big red flag to see what kids are like, trying to model the behavior of the adults around them. Another with a cartoon version, the same thing happened.
Social loafing: cheering, tug-of-war, cultural differences, sex differences
Social Loafing: The tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal when they are individually accountable -Group project and 1 or 2 members were slackers and you complained and said in our group of 5 one person dropped the class and another person just isn't doing anything and the professor says you need to work it out and you are the compensator. Everyone has been a loafer and a compensator at times -Cheering: People don't cheer as loudly when in the presence of others and people are often not aware of the fact that they are not cheering as loudly as if they would be alone. You might think, I am in a group of people and its so loud in here beat them we are gonna win. It turns out in this illustration, as group sounds increases, the sound that's being emitted by an individual goes down. You can see group size 1 person all the way to 6 the level of noise dropping. May not be aware of it and so many people around but because when you have so many people around you, you may not be aware of the fact that you're actually screaming less and you think you are making so much noise because of how loud it is but you cannot hear yourself exerting less effort or emitting less sound. Therefore if you want it to be really loud it is up to you but because in a large environment there is so much noise. In a sense, it can be an unconscious aspect of social loafing. -Tug of war: Blindfolded people pulled on a rope 18% harder when they thought they were alone than in the presence of others. In reality, they were always alone. Researchers set it up that when they were told when they were blindfolded okay pull harder but it was just people standing around making noise. So in that situation, the person pulling the rope did not pull as hard. -Cultural Differences and sex differences: Social lo
Sterotypes versus prejudice versus discrimination
Stereotypes: a generalized belief about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members. -Come from that some stereotypes are based on exaggerations of some initially correct observations, might be a grain of truth in something. The exaggerations get so blown out of proportion that it's no longer accurate. -stereotypes are not thought of as being bad in it of themselves. It's essentially a way our brain learns and understands the world so we don't have to go around the world so we don't have to go around reassessing the same experiences or beliefs about people. Essentially they provide shortcuts. A schema that you have about groups of people. -The problem is that schemas are largely inaccurate, a schema can lead to a belief about something that is accurate. -Lawyers are money-hungry, there are some lawyers that like practicing the law, this is a negative stereotype. Prejudice: an attitude or feeling, favorable or unfavorable, toward a person or group of people, prior to, or not based on, actual experience. -thinking Prejudice: an attitude or feeling, favorable or unfavorable, toward a person or group of people, prior to, or not based on, actual experience. -Not so much about the thought, but the feeling. -After 9/11 40% of Americans had a negative attitude and fear towards Muslims in general. Discrimination: an unjustified negative or harmful behavior toward a member or members of a group simply because of their membership in that group. -behavior -Not hiring a qualified candidate for a job because they are over 50 or 250 pounds.
Key remedies of conflict
Superordinate Goal: a shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort; a goal that overrides people's differences -Must cooperate in order to achieve the task Friendships -If friendships develop as a consequence of cooperative efforts those friendships serve to increase the likelihood of future conflicts. Equal-Status -Superordinate goals and consequential friendships are more likely to develop if the people working together perceive themselves as having equal status. That also decreases the chance of conflict. Reconciliation -After there has been an outburst of anger or aggression or conflict, engaging in reconciliation is vital for species living in social groups like humans, wolves, chimpanzees, the idea is that you got into a fight about something but you're going to have to reconcile your differences because back in the day you got 10 members and if you are not all working together you may not all make it, you need each other, so you need to reconcile your differences and after reconciliation the individuals whoa are in conflict are likely to not get into the conflict again and may like them even more after.
The mediating variables of the Frustration- Aggression Theory
The idea that frustration caused by a failure to obtain a desired or expected goal leads to aggressive behavior. -The potential for aggression depends on the ability to being able to attribute the cause onto someone or something. -Frustrated by the fact that your friend borrows a movie of yours for a couple of weeks and they borrow it and two weeks go by and your friend returns them. You go to put them away and it sounds like it's moving around, they forget to secure it and now there are scratches, handprints on the other one. In other words, you are upset because your friend did not take care of their property. Due to this, you want revenge and you ask them to borrow movies you do the same to their movies, the idea is that you are able to understand that you have been angered in someway which causes you to want to be aggressive. You end up wanting to be careless in return because they were careless with your stuff. The expected goal in this example is that you will get your movies back and they won't be damaged and that goal was not obtained so consequently to engage in the same behavior. -You go to something else to project that aggression.
The Black Sheep Effect
The tendency of an in-group to treat or evaluate a nonconforming member of its own more harshly than a similarly nonconforming out-group member. -Let's say you have a group of democrats they would likely be much more critical than a fellow democrat displaying conservative ideas than if those ideas were coming from a republican. If you are a democrat and this other person is a republican and they are saying aloof these things you do not agree with you say, "what do you expect he or she is one of them that's the way they think, this isn't shocking to me" but not as much if someone is a fellow democrat and is starting to talk in a way that is consistent with a democrat then that is going to really bother you. Almost a threat to the solidarity of that group and cohesiveness. Is the group falling apart? What's going on? Is this a potential destruction or death to my group.
Displaced aggression
The transference of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration. Generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target. -This can happen consciously or unconsciously. The idea that it may be unconscious comes from Freud, he talked about displacement as an unconsciously driven defense mechanism that allows you to eliminate hostile and aggressive energy that allows you to get it out of your system. Something not as harmful.
The name for the observation that people tend to feel somewhat more positively about women on the whole compared to men
The women are wonderful effect!
Tokenism and the associated gender bar chart
Tokenism I: hiring based on group membership. -Often occurs so that a company does not seem to be discriminating against a certain group. 1) Token hires are liked less by their coworkers and viewed as less competent. Tokenism II: when individuals perform trivial positive actions for members of out-groups that are later used as an excuse for refusing more meaningful beneficial actions for members of these groups. 1) For perpetrators of tokenism, prior positive actions serve as a credential that indicates their "non-prejudiced" identity, which in turn frees them to later discriminate. -When its know that you have been hired because they need to have a woman here or yes we are hiring you because you're a female but also really hiring you because you have demonstrated an ability to accomplish things. When that has been presented as well even tho gender was a factor, you bring in merit and leadership factor goes up.
The study where people were left together in a brightly lit room or in a dark room.
Ushered participants in a room fully lit or really dark, participants were left in a room with 7 other participants and there were no rules and at the end of the hour they all left the room alone and never met each other again. Those who were around the lit room sat around making conversation. The participants in the dark did not talk as much but when they talked they talked about more intimate or personal things. 90% in the dark room half hugged, touched each other. Most of them volunteered to come back not being paid, released animity to intimacy
Forms of Discipline
What doesn't work well... 1) Power Assertion: disciplinary strategy designed to discourage undesirable behavior through physical or verbal enforcement of parental control. -This form of punishment can lead the anger to be towards the parent and not think about why they are getting punished. Can become more resistant, and more aggressive because they are the victim. What does work well... 2) Inductive Techniques: disciplinary techniques designed to induce desirable behavior by appealing to a child's sense of reason and fairness. -If you can get a child to understand what they did is wrong to empathize with the person they hurt and to feel guilty about it. Look at what you did to little Johnny I am so ashamed to call you my son right now.
The implicit attitude test
You can this for, gender, etc and you can see if you demonstrate for any sort of automatic racism or discrimination across many different kinds of demographics or categories. -You are given information that is stereotype consistent or stereotype inconsistent. Turns out that all people would usually get thing correct. Although people are going to hit the right words, it's that how quickly they will respond, and before they hit the word lazy and see a black face you are quicker. If you see a scientist with a black face you are not as quick. Whiteface and lazy is the slower response.
stigma consciousness
a person's expectation of being victimized by prejudice or discrimination. -Sometimes a person may not actually be the victim of prejudice and discrimination in a particular situation. They think they are being judges and consequently, they end up having unfavorable attitudes towards that person whom they think is judging them or a group of people that they think that person is a member of and how they would judge them which causes them in turn to feel or behave a certain way that is less than ideal or present.
Auhtoritarin personality
a personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerant of out-groups and those lower in status. -If you take the typical older white man, these people might hate anybody that isn't considered to be in what their group is. Typically these people have a great deal of fear which is the fuel behind their prejudice and discrimination.
subtyping
a subset of a group that is not consistent with the stereotype of the group as a whole due to multiple distinctive features. -You are a black obese homosexual Mormon woman, you're more likely to be the target of prejudice and discrimination than the common white man, more likely to have more distinctive features. May not have something against black people, but Mormons, etc. -Can also work in your favor, if you think that blue people are lazy but encounter many instances of motivated blue people living in the north, then the distinctive subtype of the northern blue people will be positive. You will blame it on the Southern blue people.
The one form of prejudice and discrimination of which ALL people are potential targets
ageism
The glass ceiling versus the glass elevator
glass ceiling: a barrier based on attitudinal or organizational bias that prevents qualified females from advancing to top-level positions. -In part due to the fact that there are these stereotypical attributes that the typical manager overlap considerably with the typical man and share a few attributes with the typical that leads to a sort of lack of fit of a woman. glass elevator: when men enter predominantly female occupations, they may get an easy ride to top-level positions or at least get promoted much faster in these occupations. -Its transparent, clear there is a position up there and the men keep advancing but not clear why.
Group-Serving Bias
making internal attributions for positive in-group and negative out-group behaviors, while making external attributions for negative in-group and positive out-group behaviors. -Internal attributions, if it is something positive that happens to the in-group and negative to the out-group, external attributions for something that is negative that happens to your own group and positive that happens to the outgroup. -ex: he is blue like me and has a great job, must have worked hard for it (something positive happened to an in-group member make an internal attribution) vs. he is blue like me, didn't get the job, so the economy must have been bad ( something negative happened to the in-group members, protect them, must not be them so you make an external attribution because something negative happened) -I am a blue person and the purple person got the job, lucky must have been at the right place at the right time ( making something positive happened to an out-group member, must be some external reason because these purple people do not deserve good things) -I am a blue he is a purple person and he didn't get that job, probably didn't deserve the job (something negative happened to an out-group member, make an internal attribution)
The out-Group homogeneity effect
the perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members. -Authoritarian and dogmatic people are more likely prone to exhibit this effect. Magnified among these individuals. -Out there and not someone who is in my "group" that is kinda the mentality. Thre is a tendency to see those people as all being the same vs withing your own group you are able to pull out and play closer attention and pick up on on the clear individual differences that are present among all people but because they are in their group you can more easily pick up on those differences. If it is an outgroup there is a tendency to miss all those details and say they are all the same. -ex: court setting; If the defendant was a blue person and the juror was purple and prejudice against blue people and think the blu person is guilty because thinks blue people are a bunch of bad apples with no morals making this assumption because they are blue. Thinking this blue person is like all these blue people they read about and thinks they are all the same. Just because you are a member of that group makes you automatically "bad" or automatically "good" it depends on what that person's belief is about that group. -With this effect, the brain is just trying to understand a situation to the best of its ability and this is something that just happens cognitively speaking but it could get out of hand and lead to some very unfavorable consequences such as developing prejudiced feelings and engaging in discriminatory behavior.
The just-world phenomenon
the tendency for people to believe that the world is just and that people, therefore, get what they deserve and deserve what they get. -ties back into the fundamental attribution error, when you see someone in a particular state experiencing a particular something, all you see is that person in that state and say it probably has to do with what that person is and make an internal attribution about them -Someone is homeless, probably lazy, women are being raped probably is asking for it. -Someone who found $20 they are probably a good person and deserves it. If you lose $20 you are a bad person. -The majority of the times people are just a random victim of circumstance.
The ultimate attribution Error
the tendency to make dispositional attributions from one individual's characteristics or behavior to an entire group of people. -Personally being very distinctive can increase the likelihood you will be judges based on those distinctive features. I f you are a black man in a white crowd, the attention is on you. The more minority or distinctive features you have, the more you will stand out.