Sociology Unit One

Harriet Martineau

"First woman sociologist" Argued that when one studies a society, one must focus of all its aspects; insisted that an analysis of society must include all its members (drew attention to the absence of women's lives from the sociology of that time) First to study marriage, children, domestic and religious life, and race relations Like Comte, argued that sociologists should do more than just observe; they should also act in ways to benefit society

Marxism

A body of thought deriving its main elements from the ideas of Karl Marx View sociology as a combination of sociological analysis and political reform Meant to generate a program of radical political change Emphasize conflict, class divisions, power, and ideology that is influenced by funcitonalism

Rationalization

A concept used by Max Weber to refer to the process by which modes of precise calculation and organization increasingly come to dominate the social world Organizing social, economic, and cultural life according to principles of efficiency, on the basis of technical knowledge Developments of science, modern technology, and bureaucracy are all examples of rationalization

Multiculturalism

A condition in which ethnic groups exist separately and share equally in economic and political life Better metaphor to describe the US than the assimilationist melting pot is the culturally diverse salad bowl

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

A hypothesis based on the theories of Sapir and Whorf, that perceptions are relative to language (language shapes our perceptions of things) Language influences our perceptions of the world; we are more likely to be aware of things that we have words for

Bureaucracy

A large organization that is divided into jobs based on specific functions and staffed by officials ranked according to a hierarchy Enables large organizations to run efficiently but poses problems for democratic participation Involves the rule of experts, who make decisions without consulting those whose lives are affected by them

Global South

A majority of the countries in the global south are in areas that underwent colonial rule in South Asia, Africa, and South America Most have only become independent states since WWII, often following bloody anti-cononial struggles (ex: India) Although these countries include people who still live in traditional fashion, these countries differ from earlier forms of traditional society in that their political systems follow western models and make them nation-states Although most still live in crural areas, a rapid process of city development is occurring; even though agricultural remains the main economic activity, many crops are produced for sale in world markets These countries have been created by contact with Western industrialism, which has undermined the more traditional systems There are more poor people in India than in Sub-Saharan Africa; the global economic crisis has had an acutely destructive impact on people living in poverty- particularly women In most societies, poverty is worse in rural areas (malnutrition, lack of education, low life expectancy, and substandard housing are more severe in the countryside, especially when arable land is scarce and agricultural activity is low); women are substantially more disadvantaged than men in such societies Almost half of the impoverished people in the US have emigrated from poor countries

Reproductive Strategy

A pattern of behavior developed through evolutionary selection that factors the canoes of survival of offspring Since females must make a larger investment towards offspring, they tend to be more selective in males as their overriding aim is for the protection and survival of their children Males desire to have sec with many partners to preserve the species Helps to explain differences in sexual behavior and attitudes between mean and women

Nationalism

A set of beliefs and symbols expressing identification with a national community Can be highly political by attempting to assert power over others

Marriage

A socially approved sexual relationship between two individuals Almost always involves 2 persons of opposite sexes, but in some cultures, types of homosexual marriages are tolerated. Normally forms the basis of a family of procreation (expected that the married couple will produce and bring up children) Some societies prohibit polygamy, in which an individual may have several spouses at one time. Cultural universal, although what constitutes a marriage can vary culture to culture (ex: behavior between the couple or the number of spouses one may have or to whom one can be married)

Feminist Theory

A sociological perspective that emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyzing the social world and particularly the uniqueness of the experience of women Strands of this theory share the desire to explain gender inequalities in society and to work to overcome them Links social theory and reform (like marxism) Emphasizes that gendered patterns and gendered inequalities are socially constructed Focuses on the intersection between gender, race, and class.

Society

A system of interrelationships that connects individuals; the ties that bind people together and make sustained human interaction possible A group of people who live in a particular territoy, are subject to a common system of political authority, and are aware of having a distinct identity from other groups Ranges from small (hunter and gathering societies) to large (China) Relatively enduring over time, which requires some degree of common culture (a set of shared values and norms to guide behavior) No society could exist without culture, and no culture could exist without society

Text

A written document While the effect of speech is limited to the contacts in which the words were uttered, texts can endure for thousands of years

Pastoral and Agrarian Societies

About 15,000 years ago, some hunting and gathering groups started raising domesticated animals and cultivating fixed plots of land as their means of livelihood Some became both pastoral and agrarian

Values

Abstract ideals Ideals held by individuals or groups about what is desirable, proper, good, and bad What individuals value strongly influenced by the specific culture in which they happen to live Conflicting cultural values can generate a sense of frustration and isolation ex) americans value striving ahead, Chinese value collective effort

Cultural Conformity

All cultures serve as an important source of conformity (many of the younger people see themselves as "nonconformist") One of the challenges for all cultures is to instill in people a willingness to conform This is accomplished in 2 ways: 1) Members learn the norms of their culture starting from childhood, with parents playing a key role; when learning is successful, the ingrained norms become unquestioned ways of thinking and acting and they appear "normal" 2) Social control comes into play when a person fails to conform adequately to a culture's norms (often involved informal punishment) Durkheim argues that punishment not only helps guarantee conformity but also vividly reminds others what the norms and values of that society are Cultures differ in how much they value conformity; China is on one end of the spectrum, the US is on the other (Americans pride themselves for having independent spirit)

Capitalism

An economic system based on the private ownership of wealth, which is invested and reinvested in order to produce a profit

Social Construction

An idea or practice that a group of people agrees exists; maintained over time by people taking its existence for granted The things that many see as natural (or having a biological cause) are actually created by human beings ex) sex vs gender; the differences between men and women are not purely biological

Anomie and Suicide

Anomie: the concept first brought into wide usage in sociology by durkheim in which social norms lose their hold over individual behavior; the feeling of aimless and despair provoked by modern social life and a feeling of unbelonging Durkheim analyzed this in the context of suicide According to Durkheim, processes of social change happen so quickly and intensely that they give rise to major social difficulties that are linked to anomie (religion as organic solidarity -> division of labor = anomie for some)

Signifier

Any vehicle of meaning and communication ex: material objects, aspects of behavior that generate meaning, sounds made in speech, marks made on paper, clothing, pictures, architecture

Globalization and its Effect on Cultures

As a result of growing ties of interdependence (both socially and economically), the world has become a single social system Globalization has simply reordered time and ditsance in social life as our lives are increasingly influenced by worldwide events While it has introduced some societies to some aspects of different cultures, others have harshly strengthened local traditions as a rejection of the spread of Western culture (Westoxification) The resurgence of local cultures is evident in the rise of nationalism The very technology that helps foster globalization also supports local cultures; the internet enables you to communicate with others who share your cultural identity, even when they are dispersed throughout the world Despite powerful forces of globalization, local cultures still remain strong but it is too soon to tell what will ultimately happen

Sociologists

Ask themselves questions that help to focus the sociological imagination and provide them with the concepts that motivate research Determine how social phenomena is related to biological phenomena Disentangle what is natural, or biologically determined, from what is socially constructed

How Sociology Can Help Us

Awareness of other cultures (allows us to see the world from many perspectives) Assessing the effects of policies Self-enlightenment (increased self-understanding; allows us to better influence our own futures) The sociologist's role (developing a social conscience)

Division of Labor

Basis for Durkheim's analysis of social change; gradually replaced religion as the basis of social cohesion and providing organic solidarity to modern societies The specialization of work tasks, and the combination of these different occupations within a product system With the rise of industrialism, the division of labor became vastly more complex than in any prior type of production system As division of labor expands, people become more dependent on one another

Karl Marx

Believed that the main dynamic of modern development is the expansion of capitalism, which divides society by class differences; ideas based on the materialist conception of history Views sharply contrast those of Comte and Durkheim Believed that capitalism contributes to a class system in which conflict is inevitable (class division), because it is in the interest of the ruling class to exploit the working class and in the interests of the workers to seek to overcome this exploitation Believed that in the future, capitalism would be replaced by a society in which no division between rich and poor was made via communal ownership

Speech and Writing

Both vehicles of language Writing: first began as the drawing up of lists, began as a means of storing information and as such was associated with early administrative needs A society that possesses writing can locate itself in time and space

Theoretical Approach

Broad orientation to the subject matter of sociology

How Easily do Cultures Change?

China Example In the past 30 years has gone a major transformation: while some key industries remain state owned, most of the economy is now in private hands leading to a growing economy and consumerism of products and information; still censors to an extent but still allows for dissent and exposure to different cultural norms and values Still having a hard time with innovative thinking despite attempts to produce new products, due to the long withheld emphasis on the importance of memorization and rote learning in education and test taking as a key measure of ones ability (gaokao: test that determines fate) Cultural beliefs and practices that have been upheld for nearly 1500 years do not change easily

Cameron Wright Mills

Coined the term sociological imagination Tried to understand how the average person in the US understood his everyday life; each of us lives in a very small orbit, and our worldview is limited by the social situations we encounter on a daily basis (gives us a limited perspective and point of view) Believes that the average person does not understand their personal problems as part of any kind of larger framework Argues that we all need to overcome our limited perspective by utilizing social imagination

WEB Du Bois

Created the concept of "double consciousness," which refers to identity through the lens of the experiences of African Americans Claimed that one's sense of self and identity are greatly influenced by historical experiences and social circumstances (ex: slavery, segregation and prejudice for african americans) Focused on race relations First to trace the problems faced by blacks to their social and economic underpinnings

Functionalism

Deals with larger scale structures and processes Originally pioneered by Comte A theoretical perspective based on the notion that social events can best be explained in terms of the functions they perform, or the contributions they make to the continuity of society; analyzing the function of some aspect of society means showing its part in the continued existence and health of a society Emphasizes the importance of moral consensus (sharing of the same beliefs and values) in maintaining order and stability in society Regards order and balance as the normal state of society Lost momentum as many placed too much emphasis on factors leading to social cohesion at the expense of producing conflict and division

Cultural Turn

Describes sociology's recent emphasis on the importance of understanding the role of culture in daily life Culture is a "tool kit" from which people select different understandings and behaviors; our cultural tool kit inludes a variety of "scripts" that we can draw on, and even improvise on, to shape our beliefs, values, and actions; because we participate in many different (and often conflicting) cultures, our toolkits may be large with varied contents The more appropriate the script is to a particular set of circumstances, the more likely we will be to follow it and recall events that conform to it long after they have occurred; there is no single reality to social encounters and multiple cultural scripts can play out in any situation ex) man approaches you in the city

Free Will vs Determinism

Deterministic frameworks predict that where an individual ends up in life is significantly if not entirely influence by he position into which he is born Sociological imagination can be quite deterministic since it pushes us to see that, in many ways, the lives of individuals are quite determined by their social roles, gender, and class Although sociologists tend to think in probabilities, which de-emphasizes the power of the individual, there is still room for a person to have an impact even if we acknowledge that they are constrained

Symbolic Interactionism

Developed by George Herbert Mead; emphasizes the role of symbols and language as core elements of all human interaction Key element is the symbol; symbolic thought frees us from being limited in our experience to what we actually see, hear, or feel All interaction among individuals involves an exchange of symbols Directs our attention to the detail of interpersonal interaction and how that detail makes sense of what others say or do

Sociology

Disentangles what is biological from what is socially constructed

Sociobiology

Evolutionary biologist Edward Wilson An approach that attempts to explain the behavior of both animals and human beings in terms of biological principles ex) reproductive strategy Does not argue that genes determine 100% of human behavior

Dysfunction

Features of social life that challenge the existing order

Instincts

Fixed patterns of behavior that have genetic origins and that appear in all normal animals within a given species; biologically fixed patterns of action in all cultures

The Earliest Societies: Hunters and Gatherers

For most of our existence on the planet, humans have lived in small hunting and gathering societies, often numbering no more than 30-40 people Faced little inequality (everyone lived in what would be considered as extreme poverty today); little difference among members of the society in the number or kinds of material possessions, so there was no division between rich and poor Differences in position and rank were based on age and gender; the oldest and most experienced men usually had an important say in major decisions affecting the group, but differences in power were much less distinct than in larger types of societies

Emerging Economies

Formerly impoverished countries that over the past 2 or 3 decades have begun to develop a strong industrial base, such as India, Singapore, Chile, India, China, Mexico, South Korea, Tiawan, Argentina, Brazil Rates of growth of the most successful of these countries is several times those of the western industrial economies (ex: East Asian) A countries economic growth does not nesecarily mean that the citizens are happier or feel more secure; instead, as countries industrialize, their general sense of well-being does not increase and may even decline

Development of the First Civilizations

From about 6,000 BCE onward, there is evidence of societies larger than and different than those existing before; because they produced writing, science, and art, they are known as civilizations Based largely on agriculture and the development of cities, led to the first pronounced inequalities in wealth and power, and were ruled by kinds and emperors Earliest civilizations developed in the ME, mostly in fertile river areas; most traditional civilizations were also empires that conquered and incorporated other people

Latent Functions

Functional consequences that are not intended or recognized by the members of a social system in which they occur

Merton

Functionalist who distinguished between manifest and latent functions as well as functions and dysfunctions

Global Culture but Individual Cultures

Globalization has also resulted in outright resistance to the homogenization of local cultures along European and North American lines The emerging presence of a unified global culture, while connecting different cultures and societies, is also strengthening local cultural values and practices in many places

Counter-Culture

Groups that reject prevailing values or norms

Early Human Culture: Greater Adaptation to Physical Environment

Human culture and biology are intertwined; culture is related to the physical evolution of th human species Humans evolved from ape-;ole species about 4 mill years ago First evidence of human culture showed up 2 million years ago; early humans fashioned stone tools hunted animals, and gathered, used fire; because they planned their hunts, they must have had some ability for abstract thought Culture enabled early humans to compensate for physical limitations; humans could survive the unpredictable challenges of their surroundings and shape the world with their ideas and heir tools Early humans were closely tied to their physical environment because they lacked the technological ability to modify their surroundings significantly; ability to make good and make clothing/shelter depended on physical resources close at hand Cultures varied widely in different regions of the world

Nature vs. Nurture Over the Century

In the 1940s, many social scientists focused more on biological factors (ex: person's physique determined personality) In the 1960s-1970s, scholars emphasized culture (ex: mental diseases caused by society labeling certain behavior unusual instead of imbalanced mental activity) Now, pendulum is kind of seining more towards biology with new understandings in genetics and brain neurophysiology, but nature and nurture interact to produce human behavior

George Mead

Influenced the development of sociological thought through a perspective called symbolic interactionism, which emphasized the study of language in analyzing the social world Believed that language allows us to become self-conscious beings (aware of our own individuality); humans live in a richly symbolic universe, which applies to our sense of self Each person is a self-conscious being because we learn to look at ourselves as if from the outside ("Taking the role of the other")

Augustus Comte

Invented the word sociology as the scientific study of human behavior and society (using the scientific method) Wanted the subject to produce knowledge of society based on scientific evidence, and to use this science to predict and control human behavior (social planning) Ideas for social planning were based on the belief that society and the social order are not natural or preordained by a divine power, but are constructed by individuals Initially called social physics

Symbols

Items used to stand for or represent another ex: a flag symbolizes a nation Symbols expressed in speech and writing are the chief was in which cultural meanings are formed and expressed

The Internet and a Global Culture

Many believe that worldwide growth of the internet is hastening the spread of a global culture resembling those of Europe and North America; Internet allows for global communication, instant gratification, and seemingly unlimited (and uncensored) information (this idea may be premature) The Internet in many ways is compatible with traditional cultural values and can even serve to strengthen them (especially true in countries that control the internet); can sometimes be thought of as an echo chamber of like minded individuals that reinforce their own beliefs Can be used to create different subcultures, and also to build a community around ides that directly threaten the dominant culture (ex: extremist groups of religion)

Social Order

Many theories for the existence of social order: 1) Driven by self-interest and incentives 2) The existence of norms (internalization of norms through socialization) 3) Beliefs and values

Materialist Conception of History

Marx's belief that social change is prompted primarily by material/economic influences, and that class conflict provides the motivation for historical development

Global North

Most of what was once called the industrialized world is found in the northern hemisphere Use of global south and global north instead of industrialized vs developing is less likely to imply judgment as to which is culturally preferable

Theory

Narrowly focused and attempts to explain particular social conditions or types of events Formed during the research process and suggest other problems for subsequent research The more wide-ranging, the more difficult to test

Symbol

One item used to stand for or represent another ex) American flag symbolizes the nation

Max Weber

Part of the Rational Choice Approach Thought that all behavior can be divided into 4 categories: 1) behavior oriented toward higher values, such as politics 2) behavior oriented toward habit 3) behaviot oriented toward affect 4) behavior oriented toward self-interest (instrumental or rational action)

Relative Deprivation

People evaluate their own circumstances based on whom they compare themselves to

Nation-States

Political communities with clearly defined borders and shared culture; governments have sovereign power within defined territorial areas and populations are citizens who know themselves to be part of single nations; characteristic of the modern world ex: the US Closely associated with the rise of nationalism

Norms

Principles or rules of social life that everyone is expected to observe; varies from culture to culture and change over time like the values that they reflect Rules of conduct that specify appropriate behavior in a given range of social situations; either prescribe a certain type of behavior or forbids it ex) what to wear All human groups follow definite norms, which are backed by sanctions Cultural conflict occurs when norms perceived as culturally incompatible collide

Social Structure

Properties of large groups, organizations, and entire societies that channel behavior in a manner similar to physical structures The underlying regularities or patterns in how people behave and in their relationships with one another ex) laws/policies/norms, sex ratio, population density, age structure, stratification

Global South

Refers to most of those countries belonging to the developing world in the southern hemisphere

Ideologies

Shared ideas or beliefs that serve to justify or legitimize the interests of dominant groups; connects closely with power Found in all societies in which there are systematic and ingrained inequalities between groups

Agrarian Society

Societies whose means of subsistence are based on agricultural production (crop growing), often supplemented by hunting and gathering at first

Hunting and Gathering Societies

Societies whose mode of subsistence is gained from hunting animals, fishing, and gathering edible plants Today, most such cultures have been destroyed or absorbd by the spread of Western culture; currently, only 0.001 percent of the world's population exists in a hunting gathering society (fewer than a quarter million) but still exist in Africa, jungles of Brazil and New Guinea Moved about a good deal within fixed territories, around which they migrated from year to year; could not travel with much and did not have a stable membership Had little interest in developing material wealth; main concerns were religious values and ritual activities

Pastoral Society

Societies whose subsistence derives from the rearing of domesticated animals (livestock) Depending on the environment, reared cattle, sheep, goats, camels, or horses Some still exist in central asia, middle east, and africa

Middle-Range Theory

Specific enough to be tested by empirical research, yet sufficiently general to cover a range of phenomena

Industrial Societies

Strongly developed nation-states in which the majority of the population worlds in factories, shops, or offices rather than in agriculture, and most people live in urban areas Today, almost 90% of people live and work in towns and cities The largest cities are vastly larger than the urban settlements of traditional civilizations; in these cities, social life becomes impersonal and anonymous, and large-scale organizations influence the lives of virtually everyone Sociology first emerged in industrial societies developed in Europe and North America and was strongly influenced by the changes taking place; all sociologists, although differing in specific views, acknowledged a belief that industrial society was here to stay, and as a result, the future would in many ways resemble the past (Marx, Weber, Durkheim)

Modern Theoretical Approaches

Symbolic Interactionism (George Mead) Functionalism (Comte, Durkheim, Merton) Marxism and Class Conflict (Carl Marx) Feminism and Feminist Theory Rational Choice Theory (Max Weber) Postmodern Theory (Jean Baudrillard)

Forces that Contribute to a Global Culture

TV Emergence of a unified global economy (businesses whose factories, management structures, and markets span continents and countries) Global citizens (ex: managers of large corporations) A host of international organizations (ex: UN, other international groups that create a global political, legal, and military framework) Electonic communications (provide instantaneous communication) Exploding use of smart devices and social media

Sociological Imagination

Term coined by C. Wright Mills Understanding the relationship between personal problems (something that affects an individual or a handful or individual) and public issues (a prevalent problem among many individuals that affects thousands or millions that requires a certain policy to address the problem) and identifying structural as opposed to individual causes of behavior The application of imaginative thought to the asking and answering of sociological questions Someone using the sociological imagination "thinks himself away" from the familiar routines of daily life A quality of mind that allows us to understand the larger meaning of our experiences Requires more than just making connections b/w individual lives and ideas about social structure (we now know)

Power

The ability of individuals or the members of a group to achieve aims or further the interests they hold Source of many conflicts in society Measure of power is how far a group is able to put their wishes into practice Sometimes involves the direct use of force but is almost always accompanied by the development of ideas (ideologies) that justify the actions of the power Always connected with ideology and conflict (many conflicts are about power)

Assimilation

The acceptance of a minority group by a majority population in which the new group takes on the values and norms of the dominant culture; process by which different cultures are absorbed into a mainstream culture Although virtually all people in the US take on some common cultural characteristics, many groups strive to retain a unique identity Segmented assimilation where certain groups have better opportunities by which to enter US society

Social Facts

The aspects of social life that shape our actions as individuals Durkheim believed that social facts could be studied scientifically

Postmodernism

The belief that society is no longer governed by history or progress Highly pluralistic and diverse, with no "grand narrative" guiding its development States the world is not destined to be a socialist one

Social Constraint

The conditioning influence on our behavior or the groups and societies of which we are members One of the distinctive properties of social facts Limits what we can do as individuals according to Durkheim

Neglected Founders

The foundational figures in sociology frequently ignored women and racial minorities Harriet Martineau and WEB Dubois

Manifest Functions

The functions of a type of social activity that are known to and intended by the individuals involved in the activity

Culture Shock

The initial feeling of disorientation when immersed in a new culture because one has lost familiar cultural reference points and has not yet learned how to navigate in the new culture Every culture has unique patterns of behavior

Increasing Interdependence of Society

The lives of everyone on the planet are becoming increasingly interdependent as businesses and people move about the globe in increasing numbers in search of new markets and economic opportunities, and technology also aids this Causes the cultural map of the world to change: networks of people span national borders and continents, providing cultural connection between places Increasingly impossible for cultures to exist as island (few places on earth can escape the internet, TV, radio, air travel Within a generation or two, all of the world's once isolated cultures will be touched by global culture despite efforts to preserve old age ways of life

Emile Durkheim

The main dynamic of modern development is the division of labor as a basis for social cohesion and organic solidarity Believed that sociology must study social facts as things, just as science would analyze the natural world, to further establish sociology as a science and develop methodological principles to guide research (built off of Comte) Saw society as a set of independent parts, each of which could be studied separately; for a society to have a continuing existence over time, its specialized institutions (political system, religion, family, educational system, etc) must function as an integrated whole (like the human body) (organic solidarity) and cooperate (presumes a general consensus among its members over basic values and customs) Argued that society exerts social constraint over our actions His study of suicide led him to stress the important influence os social factors (anomie), qualities of a society external to the individual, on a person's actions

Max Weber

The main dynamic of modern development is the rationalization of social and economic life Influenced by Marx, but rejected the materialist conception of history and did not see class conflict as important; ideas and values have just as much of an effect on social change Focused on why Western societies developed so differently from other societies; emphasized the importance of cultural ideas and values on social change Believes that some aspects of Christian belief had strongly influenced the rise of capitalism; cultural ideas and values shape society and affect individual actions Looked at the bureaucracy; saw the advance of bureaucracy as an inevitable feature or our era (rational-legal society)

Material Culture

The physical objects that a society creates and that influence the ways people live; central aspect if a society's material culture is technology ex) cars, clothes, houses, tools, technology Material culture is rapidly becoming globalized through modern information technology (computer and internet) ex) the way classrooms and department stores resemble each other, McDonalds

Horticulture

The practice of cultivating small gardens by the use of simple hoes or digging instruments; the first step towards an agrarian society Provided a more reliable food supply than hunting and gathering and could therefore support much larger communities People who practiced horticulture could develop larger stocks of material possessions than people in either hunting and gathering or pastoral communities

Cultural Relativism

The practice of judging a society by its own standards Can be difficult; globalization can often lead to a clash of cultural norms and values that has forced members of both to confront some of their deeply held beliefs

Language

The primary vehicle of meaning and communication in a society; a system of symbols that represent objects and abstract thoughts Demonstrates both the unity and diversity of human culture, since there are no cultures without language and there are thousands of different languages Involved in virtually all of our activities; the means by which we organize most of what we do Allows us to extend the scope of our thought and experience; allows us to convey information about events remote in time or space and to discuss things we have never seen and develop abstract concepts All symbols are representations of reality; can signify things that we imagine, or represent things initially experienced through our senses Human behavior is oriented towards the symbols we use to represent reality rather than toward the reality itself, and these symbols are determined within a particular culture Gives permanence to a culture and an identity to the people

Industrialization

The process of the machine production of goods; the emergence of machine production based on the use of inanimate power resources (such as steam and electricity) Replaced earlier civilizations as the dominant way of life Originated in 18th century Britain as a result of the Industrial revolution, a complex set of technological changes that affected peoples means of gaining a livelihood including the invention of machines, the harnessing of power resources (ex: water and steam) ofr production, and the use of science to improve production methods Allowed transportation and communication to become much more rapid, promoting a more integrated national community Has served economic development, political cohesion, and military superiority (to spread Western Culture)

Colonialism

The process whereby Western nations established their rule in parts of the world away from their home territories that were previously occupied by traditional societies from the seventeenth to the early 20th century Shaped the social map of the globe as we know it today (europeans settled thinly populated areas in North North America, Australia, and New Zealand) Settler colonialism: takes the form of large- scale settlement (the US); countries created through settler colonialism have become industrialized In many areas (south america, asia, and South america), the local populations remained in the majority and were administered by the colonial powers, largely for the benefit of the home country; these countries experienced a much lower level of industrial development (since much of the wealth was realized but the colonial powers)

Organic Solidarity

The social cohesion that results from the various parts (institutions) of society functioning as an integrated whole; coined by Durkheim

Socialization

The social processes through which children develop an awareness of social norms and values and achieve a distinct sense of self (by internalizing these norms) Particularly significant in childhood and infancy, but continue to a degree throughout life No individuals are immune from the reactions of others around them, which influence and modify their behavior at all phases of the life course Important aspect of maintaining social order; once one has internalized a norm, they tend to follow through with the expectations of the norm in most of their interactions

Microsociology

The study of human behavior in contexts of face-to-face interaction Illuminate broad institutional patterns Face-to-face interaction is the basis of all forms of social organization, n matter how large scale.

Macrosociology

The study of large-scale groups, organizations, or social systems Includes long-term analysis of change such as the development of industrialism Essential for understanding the institutional background of daily life, since people's lives are all affected by a broader institutional frameworks

Semiotics

The study of the ways in which nonlinguistic phenomena can generate meaning; analysis of nonverbal cultural meanings ex: traffic light, positioning of the church in the city Allows us to contrast the ways in which different cultures are structured

Ethnocentrism

The tendency to look at other cultures through the eyes of one's own culture, and thereby misrepresent them; judgment of another culture by the standards of one's own Sociologists avoid practicing ethnocentrism by practicing cultural relativism instead

Rational Choice Approach

The theory that an individuals behavior is purposive States that if you could only have a single variable to explain society, self-interest would be best Useful, but some aspects of life that it cannot explain (like love) ex) deviant behavior is a rational response to a specific social situation

Culture

The values, norms, symbols and languages used to construct meaning and understanding of the world (speech and writing) and material culture (material goods a society makes) of a given group Refers to the ways of life of individual members or groups within a society Can be thought of as a "design for living" or a "toolkit: of practices, knowledge, and symbols acquired through learning that enable people to live in society One of the most distinctive properties of human social association Without culture, we could have no language in which to express ourselves and no sense of self-consciousness; our ability to think or reason would be severely limited

Jean Baudrillard

Theorist of postmodernism Believes that the electronic media has created a chaotic, empty world The spread of electronic communication and mass media reversed the marxist theorem that economic forces could shape society Social life is influenced above all by signs and images

Subcultures

Values and norms distinct from those of the majority held by a group within the wider society, while still accepting most of the norms and values of the dominant culture Small societies tend to be culturally uniform, but industrialized societies involving numerous subcultures are themselves culturally diverse, or multicultural; subculture not only implies different cultural backgrounds or different languages within a larger society, but also include segments of the population that have different cultural patterns Culture helps perpetuate the values and norms of a society, yet it also offers opportunities for creativity and change; subcultures an countercultures can promote view that are alternative to that of the dominant culture Social movements or groups with common lifestyles are powerful forces of change within societies, allowing people to express and act on their opinions, hopes, and beliefs Youth subcultures typically revolve around music preference and distinctive styles of dress, language, and behavior Subcultures also develop around types of work associated with unique cultural features, however like all subcultures, seldom stray far from the dominant culture

Cultural Universals

Values or modes of behavior shared by all human cultures ex) grammar, family systems in which there are values and norms associated with the care of children, marriage, some form of incest prohibition, religious rituals, property rights, art, dancing, bodily adornment, games, gift giving, joking, and rules of hygiene Variations within each category Two most important cultural universals are language (primary vehicle of meaning and communication) and material culture (another way to convey meaning)

Nature vs. Nurture

Whereas biologists and some psychologists emphasize biological and evolutionary factors on human thinking and behavior, sociologists stress the role of learning and culture, or because human beings can make conscious choices, neither biology nor culture wholly determines human behavior Different biological factors interact with and respond to environmental inputs; nature does play a role in determining the attitudes and behavior (ex: certain innate instincts, but these instincts do not drive all of behavior) All human cultures have some common characteristics (language, emotional expression, rules for child raising and sexual behavior, standards of beauty), but there is enormous variety in how these commonalities play out (due to culture); biology is not destiny, if this was the case than all cultures would be similar or identical Sociologists are mainly concerned with how behavior is learned through interactions (socialization), but they acknowledge that both nature and nurture interact in complex ways to shape who we are and how we behave